Article

Using Positive Reinforcement With Young Children

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Abstract

Positive reinforcement is a research-based practice essential for supporting young children’s use of appropriate behaviors and skills. The application of positive reinforcement also is consistent with recommendations by national organizations for early childhood and early childhood special education. In this article, we describe eight guidelines for planning, implementing, and evaluating positive reinforcement in early childhood contexts that are based on current research and recommendations of these professional organizations. Examples of the use of guidelines and tools for supporting implementation are provided.

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... It is important to use language that encourages pro-social behavior and draws attention away from disruptive behavior. Using positive feedback to reinforce children who are displaying pro-social behavior verses sending a negative message to a disruptive child is an important tool for guiding young children toward greater pro-social actions (Hardy & McLeod, 2020;Porter, 2020;Strain et al., 2017). ...
... How you phrase a verbal reinforcer is key to how effective a message will be at motivating selfdirectedness in terms of increased prosocial behavior in the classroom (Hardy & McLeod, 2020). When a behavior is observed that the teacher wants to reinforce, the teacher should state, in first-person singular, the behavior of focus, how the teacher feels, and the behavior the teacher is motivated to perform in response to your feelings about the child's behavior. ...
... Scan the room and identify child(ren) engaged in on-task or pro-social behavior that can be commended and provide verbal encouragement for the behavior in a three-part "I" message. Providing verbal reinforcement for the behavior is critical (Gartrell, 2012;Hardy & McLeod, 2020;Kennedy & Jolivette, 2008;McLeod et al., 2017). Instead of giving any direct verbal attention to the child or children displaying disruptive behavior, verbalize three-part "I" messages to reinforce children who are modeling constructive behavior for their classmates. ...
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This chapter addresses the association between nurturing prosocial classroom behavior in young children, literacy, and income inequality. Literacy will be explored as it relates to social competence in the classroom as influenced by income inequity. One highlighted area of importance is a play-based, child-focused environment that is culturally sensitive and responsive to the needs of the whole child. Socioeconomic disparities in literacy skills have been increasing over the past 40 years. This subject must be addressed in order to effectively meet the cognitive, social, and emotional needs of each individual child. Literacy skills are developed during early childhood. It is also the case that limited literacy during early childhood increases the risk of children displaying aggressive behavior at school as they progress to higher grades. For these reasons, tackling the problem during the early years with developmentally appropriate adult-child interventions are what is needed to reverse the trends placing an increasing number of young children at-risk of academic underachievement.
... It is important to use language that encourages pro-social behavior and draws attention away from disruptive behavior. Using positive feedback to reinforce children who are displaying pro-social behavior verses sending a negative message to a disruptive child is an important tool for guiding young children toward greater pro-social actions (Hardy & McLeod, 2020;Porter, 2020;Strain et al., 2017). ...
... How you phrase a verbal reinforcer is key to how effective a message will be at motivating selfdirectedness in terms of increased prosocial behavior in the classroom (Hardy & McLeod, 2020). When a behavior is observed that the teacher wants to reinforce, the teacher should state, in first-person singular, the behavior of focus, how the teacher feels, and the behavior the teacher is motivated to perform in response to your feelings about the child's behavior. ...
... Scan the room and identify child(ren) engaged in on-task or pro-social behavior that can be commended and provide verbal encouragement for the behavior in a three-part "I" message. Providing verbal reinforcement for the behavior is critical (Gartrell, 2012;Hardy & McLeod, 2020;Kennedy & Jolivette, 2008;McLeod et al., 2017). Instead of giving any direct verbal attention to the child or children displaying disruptive behavior, verbalize three-part "I" messages to reinforce children who are modeling constructive behavior for their classmates. ...
Chapter
Full-text available
This chapter addresses the association between nurturing prosocial classroom behavior in young children, literacy, and income inequality. Literacy will be explored as it relates to social competence in the classroom as influenced by income inequity. One highlighted area of importance is a play-based, child-focused environment that is culturally sensitive and responsive to the needs of the whole child. Socioeconomic disparities in literacy skills have been increasing over the past 40 years. This subject must be addressed in order to effectively meet the cognitive, social, and emotional needs of each individual child. Literacy skills are developed during early childhood. It is also the case that limited literacy during early childhood increases the risk of children displaying aggressive behavior at school as they progress to higher grades. For these reasons, tackling the problem during the early years with developmentally appropriate adult-child interventions are what is needed to reverse the trends placing an increasing number of young children at-risk of academic underachievement.
... The four main themes are discussed utilizing the demand-control-support model (Asif et al., 2018;Kim et al., 2021). In addition, we use the growth mindset theory , behavioural contracts (Bowman-Perrott et al., 2015), and positive reinforcement (Embry & Biglan, 2008;Hardy & McLeod, 2020) in our discussion. ...
... A basic tenet of behavioural psychology is that frequency of behaviour increases when reinforced, as with the PAX Tootle notes, praise, or by just focusing on certain behaviours (Embry & Biglan, 2008;Hardy & McLeod, 2020). In this study, the teachers experienced that teacher-student, student-student, teacher-student with special needs and student-student with special needs relationships improved. ...
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p style="text-align: justify;">The PAX Good Behavior Game (PAX-GBG) is an evidence-based universal preventive intervention program for classroom use. Our aim was to explore teachers’ perceptions of PAX-GBG and their work with it, and whether this changed during the implementation of the intervention. In addition, we explored teachers’ perceptions, and changes in perceptions, regarding how they perceived their workload when learning and using PAX, how it influenced relationships in the classroom and students with special needs. Semi-structured telephone interviews were conducted with six female teachers at three time-points during a school year. Based on thematic analysis, four themes illustrating teachers’ experiences and the perceived effects of PAX-GBG on classroom relationships were identified: (1) Working with PAX-GBG, (2) The Game, (3) Focus on Behaviour, and (4) Relationships. A notable finding was that most teachers, at the outset, had concerns regarding the PAX Game and that these concerns mostly disappeared after they had experienced working with it. Based on improved student behaviours and overall enhanced relationships in the classroom, our results show that PAX-GBG is a suitable intervention for all students. Students with special needs may especially benefit due to a focus on clear expectations, positive reinforcement, and a more inclusive classroom climate. Some remaining concerns regarding the universal suitability of the game need to be explored further in future studies. Based on the results in this study, PAX-GBG seems to have high social validity in a Swedish context.</p
... Incorporating personalised approaches within this implementation support helps facilitate an even more engaging learning environment by fostering more robust connections between children's needs and interests while promoting higher motivation levels, leading to long-term gains seen through better retention rates post-intervention. One evidence-based implementation support that effectively supports children with ASD is reinforcement [40], [41]. This method provides immediate feedback on performance while allowing for repeated practice of targeted skills within a structured setting. ...
Article
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The study aimed to delve into the successful implementation of Video-Based Intervention (VBI) in improving activity of daily living skills (ADL) among children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Three primary electronic databases were utilised to perform this review: WOS, Scopus and Google Scholar. The process primarily used the research methodologies by Arksey and O'Malley as a framework. In the course of performing the scoping review, three themes emerged: firstly, a wide range of VBI techniques can be employed to enhance the skills of children with ASD; secondly, when VBI is coupled with adequate implementation support specifically tailored for children with ASD, it can effectively improve their daily living abilities. Essentially, the findings of this study support that VBI implementations can promote desired skills in ADL among children with ASD. Furthermore, additional implementation support complements video modeling, improving skill acquisition in ASD. This research enhances the existing knowledge base dedicated to enhancing the quality of life for children with ASD, providing valuable insights for educators, clinicians, and families involved in their care.
... 62 Reinforcement and punishment strategies may be effective for some children, while providing insights about parental illness may be enough for others. Similar pattern of findings was observed in studies of Hardy and McLeod, 63 and van der Oord and Tripp, 64 where reinforcement and punishment were utilized to improve behavioral patterns of children with learning disability. Moreover, parents can also be taught strategies to continue the intervention at home. ...
Article
Background: Parental schizophrenia is a major public health concern that affects both the individual and the family, particularly children. Children with parents diagnosed with schizophrenia tend to experience negative impacts that can hinder their development. This complex condition demands effective therapeutic interventions aimed at improving the mental health and well-being of both the individual and the family. Material and Methods: This study aimed to understand possible therapeutic interventions used to address the clinical issues of children with parental schizophrenia. An interpretative phenomenological approach (IPA) was employed to explore the therapeutic approaches taken by mental health professionals (MHPs) in addressing children whose parents are diagnosed with schizophrenia. A sample of 43 participants, including psychiatrists, psychologists, and social workers, was interviewed. The interviews were transcribed and analyzed for common themes. Results: The findings revealed common themes in interventions aimed at enhancing neurocognitive function and improving behavior through therapy, skills training, and counseling. MHPs also targeted the family through education and positive parenting strategies. The findings emphasized the importance of a comprehensive approach addressing both individual and family aspects. Conclusion: MHPs recognized the need for a holistic approach to improve the mental health and well-being of both the individual and the family. This study highlighted the importance of addressing the impact of parental schizophrenia on children and the need for effective therapeutic interventions aimed at improving the mental health and well-being of both the individual and the family.
... keyboard and mouse) (Kucirkova, 2014) and includes a wide array of multisensory representations of information (such as pictures, sound, video, and animation), interactive tasks of varying degrees of difficulty, clear goals and rules, learner control, response feedback, and repetition. These findings accord with other studies showing that such features promote personalised learning, with little or no adult support (Condie & Munro, 2007;Hardy & McLeod, 2020;Rose et al., 2005). Further, our findings broadly support the work of other studies in this area associating the built-in functions of onetab with the increase of access to learning among students and children with SEND (Banes et al., 2019). ...
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In accordance with the 2030 Sustainable Development Goal for Education, to promote equitable access and inclusive education for all, it is critical to explore if educational technologies can be used effectively by children with Special Educational Needs and Disabilities (SEND). It has been argued that educational technologies need to be tailored to the individual needs of children with SEND, otherwise they can create new layers of exclusion at school. The aim of this study was to examine the suitability of an interactive, personalised, educational technology, designed to support the learning of foundational skills, that is being introduced in several countries worldwide, for use by children with SEND. A participatory formative evaluation was conducted with ten academic experts in SEND. Each expert interacted with the technology individually, then gave written feedback through a semi-structured review form, before engaging with the other experts in an online group discussion. Qualitative data were analysed by reflexive thematic analysis. Six themes emerged pertaining to the strengths of the educational technology and areas of weakness where improvements are needed to support children with vision impairment, hearing, and functional difficulties through recommended hardware, and software updates, and by considering how the technology could be used to boost children’s motivation, and the role of the teacher in supporting children with SEND to use the technology effectively. Implications for instructional design decisions, based on research evidence, are considered for promoting equitable access and inclusive education for children with SEND through technology-supported personalised learning platforms.
... Teori ini meyakini bahwa perilaku seseorang yang dikuatkan, cenderung akan dilakukan kembali (menjadi lebih kuat). Dan kebalikannya, perilaku yang tidak dikuatkan cenderung akan melemah atau hilang (Hardy & McLeod, 2020). Teori ini berkonsentrasi pada perubahan yang diharapkan terjadi pada seseorang, setelah mereka menerima konsekuensi (Gordan, 2014). ...
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Perhatian murid adalah sikap yang menunjukkan konsentrasi dan fokus saat pembelajaran berlangsung. Salah satu kegiatan yang berkaitan dengan sikap tersebut yakni melalui pemberian penguatan positif. Tujuan penelitian ini untuk menguji pengaruh penguatan positif terhadap sikap perhatian murid kelas satu sekolah dasar. Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah Eksperimen Kuasi dengan Desain Posttest-Only. Jumlah subjek penelitian ada 40 murid, terdiri dari 20 murid untuk kelompok eksperimen dan 20 murid untuk kelompok kontrol. Instrumen penelitiannya berupa kuesioner sikap perhatian murid. Independent Sample t-Test digunakan sebagai teknik pengujian hipotesis. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa penguatan positif berpengaruh terhadap sikap perhatian murid kelas satu sekolah dasar dengan nilai signifikansi sebesar 0.027 < alpha = 0.05.
... That is, instead of opting for motivating children to comply with app use via social contract (e.g., convincing them about the scientific importance of the app) or use of punishment (e.g., deducting points if the child did not comply) we used positive reinforcement. Positive reinforcement consistently elicits the most compliant behavior in general and, in particular, for children [30]. An additional factor is that many of these children were part of an ongoing longitudinal study. ...
Article
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Objective Ecological momentary assessment (EMA) minimizes recall burden and maximizes ecological validity and has emerged as a valuable tool to characterize individual differences, assess contextual associations, and document temporal associations. However, EMA has yet to be reliably utilized in young children, in part due to concerns about responder reliability and limited compliance. The present study addressed these concerns by building a developmentally appropriate EMA smartphone app and testing the app for feasibility and usability with young children ages 4–10 (N = 20; m age = 7.7, SD = 2.0). Methods To pilot test the app, children completed an 11-item survey about their mood and behavior twice a day for 14 days. Parents also completed brief surveys twice a day to allow for parent-child comparisons of responses. Finally, at the end of the two weeks, parents provided user feedback on the smartphone app. Results Results indicated a high response rate (nearly 90%) across child surveys and high agreement between parents and children ranging from 0.89–0.97. Conclusions Overall, findings suggest that this developmentally appropriate EMA smartphone app is a reliable and valid tool for collecting in-the-moment data from young children outside of a laboratory setting.
... In behavior analytic terms, this concept is described as providing the child with the skills necessary to maximize their reinforcement. Reinforcement, defined in behavior analytic terms, is an event, action, or item that occurs or is present following a behavior that increases the probability of the behavior occurring again and can be a very powerful tool for an educator or for a parent (Flora, 2004, Hardy & McLeod, 2020. In other words, a preferred consequence followed the child's behavior and the child now associ ates engaging in that behavior with the desired consequence. ...
... Royer et al. (2019) and Sigler and Aamidor (2005) highlighted that exploring the learners' needs, selecting the appropriate PR techniques and developing the PR delivery schedule are vital challenges. To meet these challenges, Partin et al. (2009) and Hardy and McLeod (2020) suggested that educators should develop a standard implementation model of PR. It is apparent from the discussion that the tutors need to implement different PR strategies based on adult learners' needs. ...
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Purpose This study was intended to ensure learner-centred pedagogy in an open and distance learning environment by applying scaffolding and positive reinforcement techniques. Design/methodology/approach This study critically analysed the context and current instructional practice of Bangladesh Open University (BOU) via document analysis and literature review. The conceptual framework of this study was adapted from the ADDIE model, i.e. the analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation model. Findings The study explored that the instructional practice of BOU was dominated by teacher-centred pedagogy. Hence, to ensure learner-centred pedagogy, the researchers developed three model lesson plans. These lesson plans infused the theoretical directives of scaffolding and positive reinforcement as well as several assessment tasks which can assess the learners’ lower-order and higher-order thinking skills. The researchers also presented possible challenges for the sound implementation of these model lesson plans and suggested pragmatic solutions accordingly. Originality/value This study recommended that the combined application of scaffolding and positive reinforcement would effectively ensure learner-centred pedagogy.
... A positive reinforcement social network (PRSN) is defined in [3] as a social network which allows users to interact with each other and their environment, receiving a reward based on the type and number of actions performed/tracked through/by the system. Positive reinforcement has been proven helpful in educational settings [10], but the integration in social networks and the effects on teenage students have hardly ever been analyzed. The main objective of this study is to analyze online social interactions on PRSNs in order to find out if it has a positive impact on classroom participation and students' self-perceptions of their own social skills. ...
Article
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Online social networks are part of our daily life. They are widely used among university students. These platforms have positive and negative aspects. Focusing on the positive aspects, positive reinforcement social networks (PRSNs) have been used to improve the participation of high school students in the classroom. The main objective of this study is to analyze online social interaction on PRSNs, in order to find out if they have a positive impact on classroom participation and students’ self-perceptions of their own social skills, especially in the supposedly difficult STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) subjects, where engagement tends to be lower. An education-oriented PRSN platform has been developed and used by the experimental group of students to promote discussion and facilitate the sharing of different types of materials. These materials had to be related to students’ academic and professional life, but not necessarily related to Mathematics. A total of 72 Geometry students (K–12) and their teacher participated in a semester-long experimental study. Analyses of the interactions through the proposed platform combined with classroom participation revealed that students from the experimental group showed an improvement not found in the control group. Moreover, perceptions of students’ own online skills were analyzed, showing a positive impact after the experiment.
... Positive reinforcement is teachers' responses to students' positive behaviors so that students can increase their frequency to perform them. Some earlier studies showed the effectiveness of the application of positive reinforcement in boosting students' positive behavior in the learning process (Sigler & Aamidor, 2005;Uddin et al., 2017;Hardy & McLeod, 2020;Sumiati et al., 2019). The positive reinforcement can be applied in various forms like giving a present, award, or oral and written compliments. ...
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The design and delivery of effective interventions to address challenging behavior in young children is a critical concern for practitioners, families, and researchers. Challenging behavior in the early years of development, defined as “any repeated pattern of behavior or perception of behavior that interferes with or is at risk of interfering with optimal learning or engagement in pro-social interactions with peers and adults” (Systems of service delivery: A synthesis of evidence relevant to young children at risk of or who have challenging behavior, University of South Florida, Tampa, 2003), can have pervasive deleterious effects on the child’s social emotional functioning, learning, and longitudinal outcomes over time (Behav Disord, 32:29–45, 2006; Preventing mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders among young people: Progress and possibilities. The National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2009). In this chapter, we describe a framework of promotion, prevention, and intervention practices with a focus on effective practices for children who have persistent challenging behavior. We begin the chapter by describing the developmental trajectory of challenging behavior and the importance of a prevention framework for the implementation of evidence-based practices that promote social emotional competence and prevent or reduce challenging behaviors. We then describe the design and implementation of individualized behavior interventions and the importance of partnerships with families. The final section of this chapter describes how professionals can support practitioners and programs in the implementation of effective interventions through coaching and consultation.
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Challenging behavior in preschool is a serious concern for teachers. Positive behavior interventions and supports (PBIS) have been shown to be effective in reducing such behaviors. Class-Wide Function-Related Intervention Teams (CW-FIT) is a specific multi-tiered intervention for implementing effective classroom management strategies using PBIS practices. CW-FIT has been shown to be effective in elementary classrooms but has not yet been evaluated with younger age groups. CW-FIT Tier 1 is a group contingency utilizing social skills training, teacher praise, and positive reinforcement to improve student behavior. The present study examined the effects of CW-FIT Tier 1 implementation on student group on-task behavior and on teacher praise and reprimand rates in four preschool classrooms. A single-subject delayed multiple baseline design with embedded reversals was used to evaluate impact. Results indicated the intervention increased student group on-task behavior and teacher praise to reprimand ratios. Both teachers and children found CW-FIT Tier 1 to be socially valid. Limitations and implications of this study for researchers and practitioners are discussed.
Article
Early emergent patterns of behavioral problems, social skill deficits, and language delays were examined in 259 three-year-old children enrolled in Head Start classrooms. The Child Behavior Checklist for Children Ages 2 to 3 (CBCL/2-3) and the Social Skills Rating System (SSRS, Pre-School Version) were completed by the children's primary caregivers. Language skills were assessed using the Preschool Language Scale (PLS)-3 and the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT)-III. Findings indicated that this population is at elevated risk for behavioral and language problems. Approximately 25% of both boys and girls showed clinical/subclinical levels of internalizing problem behavior on the CBCL. More than 20% of boys scored in the clinical range for externalizing problems. Children with behavioral problems were more likely to have low language scores than were their peers without behavioral problems. Nearly half of the children scored in the category "lower than average" for social skills on the SSRS. Children with low social skills were more likely to have low language scores than were their peers with average social skills. The need to screen for early emergent behavioral problems, the potential contribution of poor language skills to children's problem behavior, and implications for early intervention are discussed.
Article
A multiple probe design was used to examine the relation between teachers' use of the system of least prompts, contingent imitation, and praise, and the acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of pretend play by 4 children with disabilities. The teachers' use of the intervention package was functionally related to increases in the children's frequency and diversity of pretense behaviors, including related vocalizations. Children also maintained the responses in probes without prompts and generalized them to sessions with a nonteacher adult. The findings replicate previous studies on adult prompting of pretend play and extend the literature by using taxonomy of pretense to measure pretend play, measuring teachers' fidelity of implementation, and assessing maintenance and generalization of children's pretend play.
Article
Hang out at a playground, visit a school, or show up at a child's birthday party, and there's one phrase you can count on hearing repeatedly: "Good job!" Even tiny infants are praised for smacking their hands together ("Good clapping!"). Many of us blurt out these judgments of our children to the point that it has become almost a verbal tic. Plenty of books and articles advise us against relying on punishment, from spanking to forcible isolation ("time out"). Occasionally someone will even ask us to rethink the practice of bribing children with stickers or food. But you'll have to look awfully hard to find a discouraging word about what is euphemistically called positive reinforcement. Lest there be any misunderstanding, the point here is not to call into question the importance of supporting and encouraging children, the need to love them and hug them and help them feel good about themselves. Praise, however, is a different story entirely. Here's why.
Article
This 5-month study examined the impact of a behaviorally based naturalistic teaching strategy, milieu teaching, on the communication skills of preschool-aged children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in an early childhood special education (ECSE) classroom. A multiple baseline across participants design was used. Communication targets were selected based on each child’s Individualized Education Plan. Milieu teaching strategies were implemented in two activities per day per target. Generalization and maintenance effects were also determined. Results indicated that milieu strategies are an effective means of providing communication skills instruction for young children with ASD in an ECSE classroom.
Article
A decision model was used to systematically construct function-based interventions for the disruptive behaviors of three young children (ages 3.75—4.75 years) receiving special education services in inclusive preschool settings. The study was conducted in three phases. In Part 1, descriptive functional behavioral assessments (FBAs) were conducted. Each FBA included structured interviews and direct observations that were used to identify the functions of target behaviors. In Part 2, function-based interventions were constructed for each participant . In Part 3, these interventions were implemented within ongoing activities in their preschool classrooms. The study covered nearly 9 weeks. Baseline and intervention were conducted for 17 sessions (nearly 6 weeks). Follow-up data were collected weekly for an additional 3 weeks. The interventions, when implemented correctly, produced dramatic improvements in the students’ behavior. Implications for future research are discussed.
Article
We examined the self-reported practices of Head Start personnel toward children’s problem behavior in order to design an intervention for preschool personnel that was compatible with their needs. This study involved 78 Head Start staff from five programs in the Mid-Atlantic region. Participants were asked to respond to four questions concerning their practices for addressing their students’ problem behaviors. We found that survey respondents (a) listed externalizing behaviors as the predominant challenging behavior, (b) identified prevention and replacement methods for addressing problem behavior, (c) indicated that families of children with challenging behavior were involved in intervention planning and implementation, and (d) reported a need for additional training on classroom management and positive behavior support. Participants also were asked to respond to four conflict scenarios that were designed to measure how teachers would handle problem behavior situations. The majority of participants’ responses received a medium rating on a scale of low, medium, or high. Implications of these findings for preschool programs were discussed in terms of professional development and improved needs assessment measures.
Article
This study examined the effects yielded from the implementation of assessment-based behavior support plans on the engagement and problem behavior of three young children with behavioral challenges in a community early childhood program. A concurrent multiple-baseline design across children with generalization probes was used with data collected during targeted and nontargeted routines, in phases with different staff members, and in new classroom settings. The results indicated that implementation of the individualized behavior support plan by teaching staff resulted in higher levels of engagement and a reduction in challenging behavior. Teachers generalized the use of intervention strategies to nontrained routines resulting in improvements in the children’s target behaviors within those routines. Follow-up probes for two of the children indicated that changes in behavior were maintained in new classroom settings. These findings support the efficacy of the implementation of behavior support plans that are assessment based by early educators within a community-based preschool program.
Article
The blockbuilding behavior of three preschool girls was analyzed in terms of the forms manifest in any completed block construction, and found to contain few different forms in baseline sessions. Social reinforcement, given contingent on the production of any form not previously constructed within the current session (i.e., every first appearance of any form within a session was reinforced but no subsequent appearances of that form within that session were), increased the number of different forms built per sessions. Social reinforcement, given for all second and later appearances within the session, decreased the number of different forms built per session. Furthermore, it was found that new forms (forms never seen before in the child's total prior sequence of blockbuilding sessions) emerged at higher rates during periods of reinforcement of different forms (first appearances) than during periods of baseline or reinforcement of same forms (second and later appearances).
Article
[The author] shows that while manipulating people with incentives seems to work in the short run, it is a strategy that ultimately fails and even does lasting harm. Our workplaces and classrooms will continue to decline, he argues, until we begin to question our reliance on a theory of motivation derived from laboratory animals. Drawing from hundreds of studies, Kohn demonstrates that people actually do inferior work when they are enticed with money, grades, or other incentives. What is needed, Kohn explains, is an alternative to both ways of controlling people. The final chapters offer a set of practical strategies for parents, teachers, and managers that move beyond the use of carrots or sticks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Expulsion is the most severe disciplinary sanction that an educational program can impose. Results are reported from a national study of 3,898 prekindergarten classrooms (81.0% response rate), representing all of the nation's 52 state-funded prekindergarten systems currently operating across 40 states. Weighted results indicated that 10.4% of prekindergarten teachers reported expelling at least one preschooler in the past 12 months, of which 19.9% expelled more than one. Nationally, 6.67 preschoolers were expelled per 1,000 enrolled. Although this rate for state-subsidized prekindergarten is lower than what has been previously reported for child care programs, the prekindergarten expulsion rate is 3.2 times the rate for K-12 students. Rates are reported for each of the states and state prekindergarten systems represented. Significant cross state variability in expulsion rates was found, possibly due in part to differences in how state prekindergarten systems are structured. Rates were highest for older preschoolers and African-Americans, and boys were over 4½ times more likely to be expelled than were girls. Expulsion rates were lowest in classrooms in public schools and Head Start and highest in faith-affiliated centers and for-profit child care. The likelihood of expulsion decreases significantly with access to classroom-based mental health consultation. Although there has been considerable media attention to the issue of young students – kindergarteners and preschoolers – being suspended or expelled from their educational programs, almost no research exists on the topic. As a result, it has been impossible to estimate the number of preschoolers (children ages 3-years to 4-years old) expelled from school or to determine which preschoolers are most at risk for this disciplinary action. As the complete and permanent removal of a student from an entire educational system, expulsion is the most severe disciplinary response that any educational system can impose on a student. Transferring students with behavior problems to other educational settings (e.g., self-contained special education programs, alternative schools, etc.) is not considered expulsion. Rather, expulsion represents a complete cessation of educational services without the benefit of alternative services provided by or through the educational program that has expelled the child. In the case of kindergarten through 12 th grade students in public schools, expulsion is typically the last of a series of disciplinary actions that ultimately culminates in the student being barred from attending any educational programming in that school system. Very little research exis ts on expulsion at any grade level, but the dearth is even more pronounced for children younger than kindergarten. One of the first efforts to collect data on expulsion prior to kindergarten (Grannan, Carlier, & Cole, 1999) was conducted as part of Michigan's Child Care Expulsion Prevention Program, which dispatches mental health consultants to classrooms where children are at immediate risk of expulsion. Surveys were mailed to 127 directors of "preschools and daycare facilities" in the Detroit area. A rate of 27.5 expulsions per 1,000 children enrolled in child care centers was obtained, but the survey suffered from a low response rate of 28%. The first statewide study of expulsion in child care and early education sites was conducted in Massachusetts during the 2001 school year (Gilliam & Shahar, in press). Paper surveys were mailed to a geographically stratified random sample of 185 preschool teachers, of which 64% responded (n = 119). Results indicated that 39% of teachers reported expelling at least one child from her or his class over the previous 12 months. Most of the teachers who reported expelling a child expelled only one child during that time, whereas 25% expelled two or more. When the number of preschoolers expelled was compared to the number of preschoolers enrolled in those classes, an expulsion rate of 27.4 per 1,000 children enrolled was found – a rate nearly identical to that which was previously reported for child care programs in the Detroit, Michigan area. In order to provide a context for this rate, the rate of preschool expulsion was compared to the rate of expulsion in public schools in Massachusetts and across the nation. The rate of expulsion for Massachusetts preschoolers was more than 34 times the rate of expulsions for children K-12 in Massachusetts (0.80 expulsions per 1,000 students) and more than 13 times the national K-12 rate (2.09 expulsions per 1,000 students).
Article
Extrinsic consequences have been criticized on the grounds that they decrease intrinsic motivation or internally initiated behavior. Two popular rationales for this criticism, Lepper's overjustification hypothesis (1981) and Deci's motivational theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), are reviewed and the criticism is then redefined behaviorally. "Intrinsically controlled" behavior is defined as behavior maintained by response-produced reinforcers, and the question concerning extrinsic consequences is thus restated as follows: When behavior is maintained by response-produced stimuli, does extrinsic reinforcement decrease the reinforcing value of those stimuli? The empirical support for this detrimental effect is summarized briefly, and several possible explanations for the phenomenon are offered. Research results that reflect on the effect's generality and social significance are discussed next, with the conclusion that the effect is transient and not likely to occur at all if extrinsic rewards are reinforcing, noncompetitive, based on reasonable performance standards, and delivered repetitively.
Article
We review recent research on the presentation, nosology and epidemiology of behavioral and emotional psychiatric disorders in preschool children (children ages 2 through 5 years old), focusing on the five most common groups of childhood psychiatric disorders: attention deficit hyperactivity disorders, oppositional defiant and conduct disorders, anxiety disorders, and depressive disorders. We review the various approaches to classifying behavioral and emotional dysregulation in preschoolers and determining the boundaries between normative variation and clinically significant presentations. While highlighting the limitations of the current DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for identifying preschool psychopathology and reviewing alternative diagnostic approaches, we also present evidence supporting the reliability and validity of developmentally appropriate criteria for diagnosing psychiatric disorders in children as young as two years old. Despite the relative lack of research on preschool psychopathology compared with studies of the epidemiology of psychiatric disorders in older children, the current evidence now shows quite convincingly that the rates of the common child psychiatric disorders and the patterns of comorbidity among them in preschoolers are similar to those seen in later childhood. We review the implications of these conclusions for research on the etiology, nosology, and development of early onset of psychiatric disorders, and for targeted treatment, early intervention and prevention with young children.
Preference assessments
  • K T Chazin
  • J R Ledford
The power of guidance: Teaching social-emotional skills in early childhood classrooms
  • D Gartrell