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Abstract

Appearance alterations are an important part of human history, culture, and evolution that can serve many functions. Cross-culturally, women more than men use makeup as a specific, temporary, personalized, and relatively accessible technique for appearance alteration. Women wear makeup to attract attention and/or to mask their imperfections, and indeed, made-up women are on average perceived as more attractive, healthy, promiscuous , and as having higher prestige. Makeup use can thus be related not only to potential partner attraction but also to a rival competition. We aimed to test whether makeup usage in women is predicted by evolutionary relevant factors such as self-reported mate value or intrasexual competition. In total, 1344 Brazilian women responded online about frequency of makeup usage, money spent on makeup per month, and time spent applying makeup per day. They further reported their mate value, intrasexual competition, age, relationship status, reproductive status, sociosexuality, and income. Exploratory correlations and the final regression models indicate that age, intrasexual competition, and mate value positively predict makeup usage. Thus, makeup usage may have a dual evolutionary utility, serving as a behavioral tactic of both intersexual attraction-including alteration of age perception-and intrasexual competition.

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... This can bring positive outputs in terms of gaining social status, sexual partners, or other significant factors increasing individual social and reproductive success. As shown elsewhere, makeup usage is linked to female intrasexual competition (Mafra et al., 2020), which is a behavior cross-culturally positively associated with the Dark Triad traits . Furthermore, individuals with higher Dark Triad, specially psychopathy, use more effective body adornments, possibly to increase their positive first impression in other people (Holtzman & Strube, 2013). ...
... Differences between the original English and the translated version were discussed during academic meetings, and mutual agreements were reached after a pretest as to the most appropriate translation. The study was part of a larger project aimed at appearance in women (Anchieta et al., 2021;Mafra et al., 2020Mafra et al., , 2021Mafra et al., , 2022, and only questionnaires relevant for this study are presented here. ...
... from BRL81 to BRL 100,around USD 15.59 to USD 19.25; and more than BRL 100, around USD 19.44) and time spent applying makeup per day (1. less than 5 min; 2. from 5 to 10 min; 3. from 10 to 20 min; 4. from 20 to 30 min; and 5. more than 30 min) (Mafra et al., 2020). ...
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Appearance modification practices are ubiquitous, serving to enhance physical attractiveness and accrue social advantages, including increased desirability as a potential mate. Facial cosmetics are frequently used for appearance modification, yet individual differences in makeup usage remain understudied. While makeup usage in women has been linked to traits like narcissism and extraversion, the broader association with Dark Triad traits and how personality influences makeup application across diverse social contexts were less explored. Here we examined these relationships in 1,410 Brazilian women (Mage = 29.9, SD = 10.35), who completed online Big Five and Dark Triad personality measures, reported their usual makeup usage habits, and detailed their makeup usage across different social scenarios. Results revealed makeup usage was positively associated with narcissism and extraversion, and negatively with psychopathy. Additionally, women used less makeup when alone (at home, exercises) and more in social settings, particularly for the first date. However, women with higher narcissism and neuroticism showed larger differences among low and high makeup usage situations, while individuals with higher psychopathy used makeup in similar frequencies among different situations. Further, (1) overall greater users of makeup scored higher on narcissism, conscientiousness, and agreeableness; (2) average users displayed lower psychopathy; and (3) lesser users reported lower narcissism and higher psychopathy. These findings underscore the nuanced relationship between makeup usage and personality, particularly highlighting the influence of narcissism. These findings contribute to the interplay between personality traits and makeup usage, considering interindividual differences and intraindividual variation in understanding cosmetic behaviors among women.
... Makeup allows individuals to hide or enhance particular facial features, and as such allows women to strategically shape impressions in a given context (Kellie et al., 2021). It affects perceptions of competence and warmth (Etcoff et al., 2011), allows for favorable impressions in the workplace (Klatt et al., 2016), and plays an important role in attracting romantic partners (Hill et al., 2012;Mafra et al., 2020). However, to date, the vast majority of makeup research has been limited to examining everyday makeup use Mafra et al., 2020), with very few exceptions (Regan, 2011;Kellie et al., 2021), while the amount of makeup and the form it takes can vary depending on the situation. ...
... It affects perceptions of competence and warmth (Etcoff et al., 2011), allows for favorable impressions in the workplace (Klatt et al., 2016), and plays an important role in attracting romantic partners (Hill et al., 2012;Mafra et al., 2020). However, to date, the vast majority of makeup research has been limited to examining everyday makeup use Mafra et al., 2020), with very few exceptions (Regan, 2011;Kellie et al., 2021), while the amount of makeup and the form it takes can vary depending on the situation. If makeup is used as a strategic tool, then we should observe variance in its application according to specific contexts. ...
... In the case of humans, self-presentation modifications can be directed both at enhancing as well as at worsening (or at least not at improving) one's appearance (Valentova et al., 2021). In the former case, self-presentation enhancement is usually directed at making a positive impression of oneself with others: women aim to elevate their attractiveness in order to create favorable impressions in the contexts of the workplace (Klatt et al., 2016), social interactions (e.g., Mileva et al., 2016), and romantic relationships (Mafra et al., 2020). In the latter case, appearance worsening or otherwise choosing not to improve it would be rather directed at hiding and not attracting unwanted attention in order to protect oneself. ...
Article
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Makeup is a tool that women use to shape their image and gain benefits in both inter-and intrasexual selection. As makeup enables the hiding or enhancing of facial features, it allows women to strategically shape impressions in a given context. It affects interpersonal perceptions, workplace impressions, and can attract romantic partners. However, research has primarily focused on examining everyday makeup use, although the amount and type of makeup can vary depending on the situation and the motivation to make an impression. In two studies, we investigated how the intended amount and application of makeup differ depending on various situational contexts. Specifically, in Study 1 (N = 533), we explored the everyday and party contexts, while in Study 2 (N = 400), we additionally introduced the contexts of mating and threat. The results show that: 1) women intend to put on more makeup in a more diligent way in party contexts compared to everyday contexts, 2) the intended diligence of makeup application is the highest in contexts were women expect an attractive man to be present, and the lowest when a threatening context is introduced, 3) these effects are partially or fully mediated by women's motivation to make an impression, and 4) neither socio-sexual orientation nor appearance orientation significantly moderated the obtained effects. Our studies extend previous research on makeup application as an appearance-enhancing or worsening strategy by further investigating the signaling function of women's makeup and its strategic use in various situational contexts. We discuss the results from a functional evolutionary perspective.
... One way to attract potential mates is by improving one's physical appearance (Mafra et al., 2020). For similar reasons, single individuals are more motivated to attract a potential partner than are those in romantic relationships (Fisher, Cox, and Gordon, 2009). ...
... However, after a closer inspection, we observed that dating individuals spent more time improving their appearance than did single people (on average 24 min more a day), married people (26 min more), and individuals in committed relationships (29 min more). This result is especially interesting, as it may explain the inconsistent findings of past research (see, e.g., Fisher et al., 2009;Mafra et al., 2020;Miguel and Buss, 2011;Perilloux and Buss, 2008). The mating market perspective surmises that individuals who are not pair-bonded are highly interested in finding a potential mate (Buss, 2015). ...
... The present results do question previous hypotheses on improving one's appearance as a tactic to retain current partners (Davis and Arnocky, 2020). It seems that such a motive, among many others previously identified in the literature, such as intrasexual competition (Mafra et al., 2020;Varella, Valentova, and Fernández, 2017), social prestige (Mileva, 2016), and status-seeking (Blake, 2021), might be less pronounced compared to the motive of attracting a potential partner. Thus, to disentangle the influence of relationship status on beauty enhancing behaviors, researchers should control the type of relationship more specifically-not only controlling whether individuals are in a relationship, but also whether they are currently courting. ...
Article
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People across the world and throughout history have gone to great lengths to enhance their physical appearance. Evolutionary psychologists and ethologists have largely attempted to explain this phenomenon via mating preferences and strategies. Here, we test one of the most popular evolutionary hypotheses for beauty-enhancing behaviors, drawn from mating market and parasite stress perspectives, in a large cross-cultural sample. We also test hypotheses drawn from other influential and non-mutually exclusive theoretical frameworks, from biosocial role theory to a cultural media perspective. Survey data from 93,158 human participants across 93 countries provide evidence that behaviors such as applying makeup or using other cosmetics, hair grooming, clothing style, caring for body hygiene, and exercising or following a specific diet for the specific purpose of improving ones physical attractiveness, are universal. Indeed, 99% of participants reported spending >10 min a day performing beauty-enhancing behaviors. The results largely support evolutionary hypotheses: more time was spent enhancing beauty by women (almost 4 h a day, on average) than by men (3.6 h a day), by the youngest participants (and contrary to predictions, also the oldest), by those with a relatively more severe history of infectious diseases, and by participants currently dating compared to those in established relationships. The strongest predictor of attractiveness-enhancing behaviors was social media usage. Other predictors, in order of effect size, included adhering to traditional gender roles, residing in countries with less gender equality, considering oneself as highly attractive or, conversely, highly unattractive, TV watching time, higher socioeconomic status, right-wing political beliefs, a lower level of education, and personal individualistic attitudes. This study provides novel insight into universal beauty-enhancing behaviors by unifying evolutionary theory with several other complementary perspectives.
... One way to attract potential mates is by improving one's physical appearance (Mafra et al., 2020). For similar reasons, single individuals are more motivated to attract a potential partner than are those in romantic relationships (Fisher, Cox, and Gordon, 2009). ...
... However, after a closer inspection, we observed that dating individuals spent more time improving their appearance than did single people (on average 24 min more a day), married people (26 min more), and individuals in committed relationships (29 min more). This result is especially interesting, as it may explain the inconsistent findings of past research (see, e.g., Fisher et al., 2009;Mafra et al., 2020;Miguel and Buss, 2011;Perilloux and Buss, 2008). The mating market perspective surmises that individuals who are not pair-bonded are highly interested in finding a potential mate (Buss, 2015). ...
... The present results do question previous hypotheses on improving one's appearance as a tactic to retain current partners (Davis and Arnocky, 2020). It seems that such a motive, among many others previously identified in the literature, such as intrasexual competition (Mafra et al., 2020;Varella, Valentova, and Fernández, 2017), social prestige (Mileva, 2016), and status-seeking (Blake, 2021), might be less pronounced compared to the motive of attracting a potential partner. Thus, to disentangle the influence of relationship status on beauty enhancing behaviors, researchers should control the type of relationship more specifically-not only controlling whether individuals are in a relationship, but also whether they are currently courting. ...
Article
Full-text available
People across the world and throughout history have gone to great lengths to enhance their physical appearance. Evolutionary psychologists and ethologists have largely attempted to explain this phenomenon via mating preferences and strategies. Here, we test one of the most popular evolutionary hypotheses for beauty-enhancing behaviors, drawn from mating market and parasite stress perspectives, in a large cross-cultural sample. We also test hypotheses drawn from other influential and non-mutually exclusive theoretical frameworks, from biosocial role theory to a cultural media perspective. Survey data from 93,158 human participants across 93 countries provide evidence that behaviors such as applying makeup or using other cosmetics, hair grooming, clothing style, caring for body hygiene, and exercising or following a specific diet for the specific purpose of improving ones physical attractiveness, are universal. Indeed, 99% of participants reported spending >10 min a day performing beauty-enhancing behaviors. The results largely support evolutionary hypotheses: more time was spent enhancing beauty by women (almost 4 h a day, on average) than by men (3.6 h a day), by the youngest participants (and contrary to predictions, also the oldest), by those with a relatively more severe history of infectious diseases, and by participants currently dating compared to those in established relationships. The strongest predictor of attractiveness-enhancing behaviors was social media usage. Other predictors, in order of effect size, included adhering to traditional gender roles, residing in countries with less gender equality, considering oneself as highly attractive or, conversely, highly unattractive, TV watching time, higher socioeconomic status, rightwing political beliefs, a lower level of education, and personal individualistic attitudes. This study provides novel insight into universal beauty-enhancing behaviors by unifying evolutionary theory with several other complementary perspectives.
... One way to attract potential mates is by improving one's physical appearance (Mafra et al., 2020). For similar reasons, single individuals are more motivated to attract a potential partner than are those in romantic relationships (Fisher, Cox, and Gordon, 2009). ...
... However, after a closer inspection, we observed that dating individuals spent more time improving their appearance than did single people (on average 24 min more a day), married people (26 min more), and individuals in committed relationships (29 min more). This result is especially interesting, as it may explain the inconsistent findings of past research (see, e.g., Fisher et al., 2009;Mafra et al., 2020;Miguel and Buss, 2011;Perilloux and Buss, 2008). The mating market perspective surmises that individuals who are not pair-bonded are highly interested in finding a potential mate (Buss, 2015). ...
... The present results do question previous hypotheses on improving one's appearance as a tactic to retain current partners (Davis and Arnocky, 2020). It seems that such a motive, among many others previously identified in the literature, such as intrasexual competition (Mafra et al., 2020;Varella, Valentova, and Fernández, 2017), social prestige (Mileva, 2016), and status-seeking (Blake, 2021), might be less pronounced compared to the motive of attracting a potential partner. Thus, to disentangle the influence of relationship status on beauty enhancing behaviors, researchers should control the type of relationship more specifically-not only controlling whether individuals are in a relationship, but also whether they are currently courting. ...
Article
Full-text available
People across the world and throughout history have gone to great lengths to enhance their physical appearance. Evolutionary psychologists and ethologists have largely attempted to explain this phenomenon via mating preferences and strategies. Here, we test one of the most popular evolutionary hypotheses for beauty-enhancing behaviors, drawn from mating market and parasite stress perspectives, in a large cross-cultural sample. We also test hypotheses drawn from other influential and non-mutually exclusive theoretical frameworks, from biosocial role theory to a cultural media perspective. Survey data from 93,158 human participants across 93 countries provide evidence that behaviors such as applying makeup or using other cosmetics, hair grooming, clothing style, caring for body hygiene, and exercising or following a specific diet for the specific purpose of improving ones physical attractiveness, are universal. Indeed, 99% of participants reported spending >10 min a day performing beauty-enhancing behaviors. The results largely support evolutionary hypotheses: more time was spent enhancing beauty by women (almost 4 h a day, on average) than by men (3.6 h a day), by the youngest participants (and contrary to predictions, also the oldest), by those with a relatively more severe history of infectious diseases, and by participants currently dating compared to those in established relationships. The strongest predictor of attractiveness-enhancing behaviors was social media usage. Other predictors, in order of effect size, included adhering to traditional gender roles, residing in countries with less gender equality, considering oneself as highly attractive or, conversely, highly unattractive, TV watching time, higher socioeconomic status, right-wing political beliefs, a lower level of education, and personal individualistic attitudes. This study provides novel insight into universal beauty-enhancing behaviors by unifying evolutionary theory with several other complimentary perspectives.
... This effect appeared not only among younger women (aged 18-27), but also in other age groups (e.g. Mafra et al., 2020;Mulhern et al., 2003). Makeup accentuates three youth-and healthrelated visual features -skin homogeneity, facial contrast, and facial feature size (Batres et al., 2019b;Jones et al., 2018;Stephen & McKeegan, 2010). ...
... As a body enhancement practice, makeup wearing has been described as a tactic to attract mates, compete with rivals, and promote oneself (Mafra et al., 2020;Sulikowski et al., 2022). Although the majority of research on social perception of wearing makeup referred to these three motives (Cash et al., 1989;Mileva et al., 2016), other fundamental human motives (Neel et al., 2016) can be also achieved using makeup. ...
... The present studies examined the tendencies in social influence attributed to wearing makeup. Hypothesis was that wearing makeup could be regarded as an interpersonal tactic, i.e. aimed at attracting mates or competing with rivals (Davis & Arnocky, 2020;Mafra et al., 2020). ...
Article
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Facial makeup has been associated with ambiguous social perception. Although women wearing makeup were perceived as attractive and warm, other studies indicated that they were also be perceived as dominant and less trustworthy. Makeup has been described as a tactic to attract mates and compete with rivals, which indicates that it may be perceived as a sign of an intention to exert influence. The present studies examined 382 participants to investigate whether the presence or absence of makeup would affect the attribution to women of attractiveness and the tendency to exert influence tactics to get what they want. In the first experiment, with two within-subjects factors design: makeup (no makeup vs. light makeup vs. full makeup) x interpersonal influence tactic, women with light or full makeup were perceived as more likely to use dominant, calculating and cold influence tactics compared to women with no makeup. Higher attractiveness attributed to women led participants to attribute a higher likelihood of dominance tactic to women with light makeup, but also a higher likelihood of warm, ingratiating and gregarious tactics to women with light and full makeup. In the second experimental study, with one between-subjects factor: makeup and one within-subjects factor: influence tactics, the makeup effect was non-significant. Attractiveness attributed to women predicted attribution of higher willingness to use warm but submissive influence tactics to women in no makeup condition, both submissive and dominant warm tactics in light makeup condition, and lower willingness to use cold influence tactics in heavy makeup condition. The results showed that the makeup effect on attribution of influence tactics may be due to attractiveness attributed to women wearing makeup.
... These are used to produce supernormal stimuli with the purpose of intimidating, attracting or otherwise manipulating receivers for the purpose of maximising biological fitness (Davis & Arnocky, 2020). For example, females may manipulate lip colour (Barrett, 2010;Davis & Arnocky, 2020;Etcoff, Stock, Haley, Vickery, & House, 2011;Mafra et al., 2020), waist-hip ratio (Singh, 1993;Singh & Randall, 2007), gait (Morris, White, Morrison, & Fisher, 2013) and other features in order to exaggerate secondary sexual characteristics. Hence, whether users of the apotropaic eye believe that it wards off supernatural evil, whether it's considered to intimidate opponents, or whether they use the signs because of tradition, this does not lessen their evolutionary function. ...
... Art, cartoons and other media exaggerate these secondary sexual characteristics to an extent not seen in normal humans (Burch & Johnsen, 2020). Finally, red lipstick and other make-up is a commonly known supernormal stimulus for the purpose of manipulating signals for the attraction of mates (Barrett, 2010;Mafra et al., 2020). ...
Article
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Eyespots are found across many taxa, usually for predator intimidation. In human artefacts, eye designs have been presumed to have an apotropaic function (warding off supernatural evil and envy) rather than an evolutionary function related to protection from agonistic interactions. We hypothesised that, instead, eyespot designs may have been used in human cultures for intimidation of opponents (deimatic display). We examined 1,070 objects from Papua New Guinea, where eyespots are frequently displayed on various objects. We predicted that objects used for guarding or protection would be more likely to have eyespots than domestic objects. Chi-square tests of independence showed that significantly more canoe prows and shields and fewer domestic objects had eyespots than expected. Furthermore, we surveyed 81 respondents, showing objects with and without eyespot patterns. Chi-square tests showed that objects with eyespots elicited significantly more fear and anxiety related emotions, and non-eyespot designs elicited more calm and relaxed emotions than expected. Thus, objects with eyespots were considered more intimidating than those displaying geometric, or plain designs. This research provides empirical evidence for the use of eyespot designs for deimatic display in humans and possible convergent evolution of eyespots due to gene – culture coevolution.
... This involves the application of various cosmetic tools and products to enhance or correct facial features, resulting in an ideal look. Make-up can be considered to be synonymous with dressing up (Mafra et al., 2020). The current study focuses on make-up products, and the subject of inquiry is a makeup product owner and influencer. ...
... Makeup is the art of applying makeup using tools and cosmetic materials that aim to beautify or cover facial flaws to make them look more ideal. Makeup can be said to be the same as dressing up (Mafra et al., 2020). This research includes makeup products in this discussion because the subject of the research is an owner and influencer of makeup products. ...
Article
Purchase intention is important to pay attention to because it relates to consumer interest in trying, buying, and owning products such as beauty products. Furthermore, it can be seen from the consumer's behavior of parasocial interaction, social value, and personal value towards the influencer, which will affect their interest in buying the product. This research takes the object of research as an owner as well as an influencer for beauty products Secondate. The research design uses a deductive approach with a quantitative research model to determine the impact of influencers on the quality of parasocial interaction, social values, personal values, and e-wom on purchase intention. The sample of this study were secondary make-up users with a total of 169 respondents. Data analysis used the Structural Equation Model (SEM) method. The results of the study show that parasocial interaction affects social value. Parasocial interaction increases positive perceptions of personal value, and social value can increase consumer purchase intention, but personal value cannot attract consumer purchase intention. Parasocial interaction does not affect consumer purchase intention, so e-wom does not moderate the effect of parasocial interaction on consumer purchase intention. The results of this study concluded that social media can be a means to affect the interest in buying a product. With the respondent's research on social value and personal value, it can be said that it affects a person's buying interest in a product. Social value and personal value can help us to sort out which products we need and which are suitable for us.
... The popularity of makeup is because it enhances the women's femininity and perceived charm [16].Facial makeup can be used to crate positive impact for a women's perceived leadership abilities in job seeking and to make a positive impression in the work environment [17]. It also helps them to get attracted to their partners [18], [13] Cosmetics may play crucial role in enhancing attractiveness as it can partially improve facial symmetry [19] Compared to men, women might suffer from prejudice, social anxiety, and inequality because of their appearance [20]. [21] has founda linear positive relationship between attractiveness& number of cosmetics used by a person. ...
... Many researchers have investigated gender differences & found some significant differences. For example, Klein (1998) 18 found that compared to men (37%), women (67%) enjoy shopping. In another research by Lucas, (1998)22, probability of shopping in big stores is more for female than male Yin (2003) 36 found that women purchase more gifts for others as compared to men. ...
... People desire mates with good resource provision capacity, leading individuals to demonstrate wealth, such as purchasing expensive cars. Physical attractiveness is also favored, leading people to use makeup for enhancement or concealment (Mafra et al., 2020). Desirable character traits, like emotional stability, prompt mate-seekers to engage in charitable work. ...
... Cross-culturally, individuals seek to enhance their appearance through weight loss, exercise, and muscle gain (McCabe et al., 2009;Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2003;Shomaker & Furman, 2010). Women use cosmetics to improve their facial features (Mafra et al., 2020), while men strive for muscularity (Frederick et al., 2007;Gosse & Arnocky, 2012;Vartanian et al., 2012). Both genders opt for cosmetic procedures to enhance their attractiveness (Calogero et al., 2010), but women tend to invest more in this pursuit (Arnocky, 2016). ...
Article
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The current research aimed to study the strategies that people employ in order to become more desirable as mates in different cultural settings. More specifically, using a closed‐ended questionnaire on a sample of 7181 participants from 14 different countries, we identified 10 different strategies that people employ to become more appealing as mates. Participants indicated that they had more frequently used the “Enhance looks,” followed by the “Show off abilities and talents,” and the “Demonstrate similarity” strategies. On the other hand, they had less frequently used the “Keep undesirable things hidden,” the “Show off and exaggerate wealth and abilities,” and the “Drastic appearance changes” strategies. Female participants indicated that they had more extensive used the “Enhance looks” strategy than male participants, while male participants indicated that they had more extensive used the “Increase income and social status” and the “Show off and exaggerate wealth and abilities” strategies than female participants. The sex effects, as well as the extent of use, were generally consistent across the different cultures. The identified strategies were classified further into two main strategies, namely the “Develop and demonstrate desirable traits” and the “Deceive about undesirable traits,” which was generally consistent across the different countries.
... Single women tend to use more cosmetics to attract suitors, while married women use them to maintain their partner's attraction (Mohammed et al., 2022). The greater use of cosmetics for attraction among older students underscores age as a factor in marriage suitability (Mafra et al., 2020), with younger women being more attractive for marriage and older women using cosmetics to enhance beauty. ...
Article
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Cosmetics are used for cleansing, beautifying, enhancing attractiveness, or altering appearance and commonly applied by young women. This study examined the use and effects of cosmetics on the skin of female students at Bayero University Kano, Nigeria. A sample of 360 students from five faculties were randomly selected. Data on age, purpose, type, frequency of use, and effects of cosmetic products were collected. The age groups were divided into younger (18-25 years) and older (25+ years). Pearson’s Chi-square test assessed associations between age, ethnicity, and cosmetic use. The study found that facial creams (83.1%), lipstick (52.2%), eyeliners (54.7%), mascara (33.1%), eyelashes (12.5%), eyeshadow (16.1%), and foundation (15.6%) were the most commonly used cosmetics. Usage was mostly occasional (63%) or daily (37%), with 88% preferring daytime application. Significant associations were found between age and usage purpose (p=0.043), and between ethnicity and choice of cosmetics (p=0.030). Reported side effects included acne (23.3%), bleaching (25.7%), pigmentation (12.2%), rashes/itching (13.9%), irritation (5.2%), skin hardening (4.5%), and other complications (15.3%). Eye-related issues included redness (52.2%), itching (20.2%), soreness (15.4%), puffiness (3.5%), and miscellaneous problems (8.8%). Lip problems were primarily cracking (70.8%), swelling (16.9%), and bumps (12.3%). In conclusion, the use of facial cosmetics is prevalent among students, mainly for occasional use and primarily during the day. The purpose of cosmetic use varies with age and ethnicity. The most common side effects are skin pigmentation, eye redness, and swollen lips.
... Esta condição é influenciada pelos especialistas que mostram os benefícios de uma boa aparência (SUHARNANIK, 2020). Inegavelmente, o uso de cosméticos aumenta as percepções positivas em relação às pessoas (MAFRA et al., 2020). ...
Chapter
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Este artigo tem o objetivo de analisar a territorialização camponesa na Reforma Agrária do município de Sidrolândia no estado de Mato Grosso do Sul nesses 28 anos da implantação do primeiro assentamento, Capão Bonito em 1996. Desde então, foram implantados outros 24 grupos de assentados. Assim, seu objetivo está em apresentar as condições atuais de vida, territorialidade e educação impostas a população camponesa nos assentamentos. A pesquisa de revisão bibliográfica comparativa está referenciada em trabalhos anteriores sobre a territorialidade e em pesquisa de campo realizada nos anos de 2022 e 2023.
... Partner's Characteristics: We based this part on previous cross-cultural literature on partner preferences (Buss, 1989;Li et al., 2002;Walter et al., 2020), including studies on partner preferences developed in the same country as this manuscript (Mafra et al., 2016(Mafra et al., , 2020Takayanagi et al., 2024). Despite their variations across different human populations, seven traits that are cross-culturally recognized as important in mate choice were assessed: kindness, intelligence, health, physical attractiveness, income/financial perspective, femininity-masculinity, and dominance/authoritarianism. ...
Article
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The female orgasm remains a subject of extensive debate within evolutionary sciences, primarily due to the absence of a consensus regarding its adaptive function. Some hypotheses propose that it could function as a mechanism for mate selection, possibly linked to reproductive strategies. Studies have observed that lesbian women tend to experience orgasms more frequently than straight women, suggesting a potential link to advantageous partner characteristics. We explored the connection between the female orgasm and mate selection, aiming to ascertain its role as an adaptive tool for mate choice. A total of 939 sexually active Brazilian women (Mage = 28.3 years) engaged in committed relationships participated by completing the Marital Empathy Questionnaire, the Female Sexual Function Index, and evaluations of their partners’ attributes. Analysis using structural equation models revealed that higher orgasm scores were positively associated with perceptions of partner kindness, intelligence, good health, physical attractiveness, and empathy. However, the small effect sizes of these associations warrant caution in their interpretation, and no significant association was found for relationship duration, financial prospects, dominance, and masculinity/femininity. Additionally, no differences were found between women in same-sex and other-sex relationships regarding orgasm frequency and its association with partner traits. The findings partially support the mate-choice theory, encompassing both sire-choice and pair-bond hypotheses, suggesting that female orgasm is positively associated with some partner attributes related to genetic quality and the capability for emotional connection and resource investment. Therefore, female orgasm may offer information about the partner that might not be primarily accessed and contribute to relationship maintenance.
... Across different cultures, individuals enhance their physical appearance through weight loss, exercise, and muscle building (Kowal et al., 2022;McCabe et al., 2009;Shomaker and Furman, 2010). Women often use makeup and cosmetics to improve facial appearance (Mafra et al., 2020), while men focus on increasing muscle mass (Gosse and Arnocky, 2012;Vartanian et al., 2012). Both sexes engage in cosmetic surgeries to boost their attractiveness, with women typically investing more time and resources in these enhancements (Arnocky, 2016). ...
Article
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Introduction Mate-seekers employ several strategies to become more attractive as mates. In the present study, we examined the use of 10 strategies for becoming more desirable as a mate in the Lithuanian cultural context. Methods Using a sample of 295 Lithuanian-speaking participants, we explored the frequency and types of strategies employed to enhance mate appeal. Results The most frequently used strategy was “Enhance looks,” followed by “Show off abilities and talents” and “Demonstrate similarity.” The least used strategies were “Show off and exaggerate wealth” and “Drastic appearance changes.” The 10 strategies could be classified into two domains or main strategies, with participants indicating a more frequent use of “Develop and demonstrate desirable traits” followed by “Deceive about undesirable traits.” Additionally, sex differences and age differences were identified for several strategies. Discussion The findings highlight the prominence of certain strategies over others in the Lithuanian context, with a notable emphasis on developing and demonstrating desirable traits. The study also reveals variations in strategy use based on sex and age, suggesting that these factors influence mate-seeking behaviors.
... Indonesia has a total female population of 136.3 million. The female population has the potential to become users of cosmetics and makeup as part of their daily lives (Mafra et al., 2020). Aytug (2015) revealed various reasons that cause someone to need a makeup artist including the desire to look beautiful on a special day. ...
Article
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The creative economy industry has created millions of jobs in Indonesia. One of the creative economy fields in Indonesia is makeup artist. But the makeup artist field also has many challenges in the increasingly fierce business competition. This research aims to investigate the influence of social media usage, innovation and competitive advantage on makeup artist business performance by considering the role competitive advantage as mediators. This research was conducted in Malang Raya with a focus on the makeup artist services business. The research method used was a survey with a questionnaire as a data collection instrument. The research sample consisted of 112 respondents who were owners of makeup artist business in Indonesia. The quantitative approach is used to describe, strengthen, and explain the hypotheses proposed in the study of observed phenomena. The statistical method used for data processing is Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). This study demonstrates a significant and positive correlation between social media usage, innovation and competitive advantage on the makeup artist business performance. The results of the mediation analysis also show that competitive advantage mediate the relationship between social media usage and innovation on makeup artist business performance. Therefore, makeup artists should optimize the use of social media to improve their business performance goals. This includes the use of the latest wardrobe, makeup trend, photo and video taking techniques, keep up to date with viral makeup content. The better the use of social media, the better the innovation, and the ability to maintain a competitive advantage by fulfills client expectations will make clients buy and recommend makeup services so as to improve the performance of makeup artists both financially and nonfinancially.
... Women are more vulnerable to the pressure from society to use cosmetics to look beautiful and also as a ploy to attract mates [7]. It is very important for women to understand the probable harms of chemical ingredients of cosmetics on women's reproductive aging, reproductive health and overall health. ...
Article
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The Cosmetics used for beautification or enhancement of appearance are in high demand especially among the women but these products have deep dark side. Many additive chemicals in cosmetics like parabens, phthalates, polyethylene glycol, hydroquinone, resorcinol, 1,4 dioxane, trace heavy metals etc. are hazardous and pose a variety of health risks ranging from neurotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, carcinogenicity, endocrine disruption, reproductive disorders etc. Hence the safety of the cosmetics is an issue of prime concern. It is necessary to make people aware of cosmetic chemicals and their deleterious effects. The present study analyses the current scenario of cosmetic use in India, the behaviour of women consumers in Indian Cosmetic market in terms of age group using cosmetics, reasons for using cosmetics and expenditure on beauty products etc. The harmful chemical ingredients in cosmetics are discussed along with their adverse effects on health. The study is carried out with objective of making women aware of large number of toxic chemicals used in cosmetics and their negative health impacts. It will also draw attention of researchers and clinicians to investigate the likely causes of their negative consequences. A relatively new concept of green cosmetics is also mentioned, which are associated with less toxicity to human health and is suggested to be promoted and adopted by women.
... Arnocky and Piché (2014) found that women's interest in and the endorsement of elective plastic surgery are correlated with their level of intrasexual competitiveness as measured by the ICS, even after removing the mediating effect of their tendency to make physical appearance comparisons of themselves to others. Likewise, Mafra et al. (2020) reported that make-up (i.e., cosmetics) use is positively correlated with scores on the ICS. Further, Davis et al. (2018) documented that for both men and women, the ICS was predictive of the use and acceptance of gossip. ...
Article
Full-text available
Researchers have studied intrasexual competition by priming competition using a variety of techniques including manipulated sex ratios and vignettes implying a competition either for resources critical for obtaining mates or directly for mates themselves. When priming intrasexual competition, changes in the dependent variable of interest are generally taken as evidence of intrasexual competition; few researchers have tried to independently assess intrasexual competition. The studies presented replicate and extend one such state measure of intrasexual competition using the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS-Short Form) with additional competition words. The first study used a vignette manipulation and the second used a sex ratio manipulation. Participants responded to the modified PANAS, the Intrasexual Competition Scale (ICS), and the Intrasexual Rivalry Scale (IRS). Results indicated that neither manipulation resulted in effects on the ICS or IRS. There were differences on the negative and competitive subscales of the modified PANAS, but only for the vignette manipulation; sex ratio did not result in effects on any of the subscales. These results suggest that different intrasexual competition primes may not be accessible by a single measure. One explanation may be that the vignettes specify a target while the unbalanced sex ratios do not, which could create a difference in the psychological distance to a target. Studies in nonhuman animals have shown that distance and time to reinforcement affect the types of responses and conditioned responses that the reinforcer can support (e.g., behavior systems, Timberlake & Lucas, 1989), which we apply to this work.
... Most women use cosmetic products for their beauty so that their partner is comfortable with their beauty (Mafra et al., 2020) but do not see the side effects that will occur in the future. The side effects include facial wrinkles, acne, and blackheads. ...
Article
Background: Interpersonal meaning is the interaction between the speaker and the listener and the writer and the reader. This study aims to determine the structure of mood and how the structure of mood is found. The purposes of this study are (1) to be more sensitive to the mood structure shown in Maybelline New York cosmetic advertisement. (2) to investigate the reason of why interrogative sentences are more difficult to find than declarative sentences. Through this research, we can see the types of mood structures, and how these mood structures are used. Methods: The type of research approach used is descriptive qualitative. Research in this case describes systematically, factually and accurately facts and causal relationships of the phenomena studied. The sources of data in this study are eight cosmetic Maybelline New York products, namely the Maybelline gel pencil, L’oreal colour riche nail, Maybelline mascara and eyeliner, Maybelline creamy lipmatte and Maybelline eyeshadow, Maybelline eyeliner, Maybelline lipstick, and Maybelline clear smooth all in one. Results: In analyzing the data, the researcher of the 2014 Halliday theory revised by Mathiesse found that there are three types of manifested mood, four types of realized speech function, and mood-based realization of speech function. The moods manifested were declarative (48.64%), interrogative (5.40%) and imperative (45.94%). Speech functions that are realized are statements (48.64%), questions (5.40%), offers (18.91%) and command (24.32%). Conclusions: It can be concluded that declarative sentences are mostly found in Maybelline New York products. Researchers suggest that readers be more careful in using mood structures in cosmetic advertisements so that there are no misunderstandings.
... Therefore, physical attractiveness is often a key factor in intrasexual competition, where individuals of the same sex compete for access to mates (Gangestad & Scheyd, 2021;Fisher & Cox, 2011;Mafra et al., 2020). Women tend to engage in more competitive behaviors regarding physical appearance, probably due to the importance men give to it when looking for their romantic partners (for a deeper understanding, read "Bodily attractiveness: sex differences in mate preferences"). ...
... Evolutionary theory suggests that the rise of beautification strategies may be attributed to women's desire to increase their value for potential mates (Davis & Arnocky, 2020;Jones, et al. 1995) as physical attractiveness is considered the most common and effective strategy for women to attract or retain partners (e.g., Buss, 1988;Buss & Shackelford, 1997;Durante et al., 2011;Hill & Durante, 2009, 2011Schmitt & Buss, 2001). Recent studies have also shown that mate value and intra-sexual competition, which refers to a competitive attitude toward same-sex others (Buunk et al., 2017), positively predicted the use of makeup, thereby validating it as a strategy employed by women to attract partners (Mafra et al., 2020). ...
Article
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Contemporary women frequently employ beautification strategies. The impact of such strategies, such as plastic surgery, on mating popularity in different mate contexts remains unclear. To investigate this issue, the current study conducted two experiments. In Experiment 1, beautification strategies were manipulated using three images of the same female with different conditions (natural, makeup, and plastic surgery). The results indicated that when the beautification strategies were not informed, surgical-enhanced and makeup targets were perceived as significantly more attractive, loyal, and popular among potential mates than natural targets. However, when participants were informed of the beautification strategies, both natural and makeup targets showed a significant increase in perceived loyalty and mating popularity. In contrast, surgically enhanced targets saw a reduction in these dimensions. Experiment 2 aimed to reduce the confounding effect of facial attractiveness by using vignettes. The results indicated that the mating popularity of natural targets was significantly higher than that of makeup or surgically enhanced targets, with surgically enhanced targets being the least popular. Moreover, the results revealed the mediating role of perceived loyalty in the impact of beautification strategies on long-term mating popularity. This study sheds light on the potential stigmatization and negative bias toward beautification strategies in the mating market. Additionally, it provides guidance for women who intend to enhance their mate popularity through plastic surgery.
... Most women use cosmetic products for their beauty so that their partner is comfortable with their beauty (Mafra et al., 2020) but do not see the side effects that will occur in the future. The side effects include facial wrinkles, acne, and blackheads. ...
Article
Background: Interpersonal meaning is the interaction between the speaker and the listener and the writer and the reader. This study aims to determine the structure of mood and how the structure of mood is found. The purposes of this study are (1) to be more sensitive to the mood structure shown in Maybelline New York cosmetic advertisement. (2) to investigate the reason of why interrogative sentences are more difficult to find than declarative sentences. Through this research, we can see the types of mood structures, and how these mood structures are used. Methods: The type of research approach used is descriptive qualitative. Research in this case describes systematically, factually and accurately facts and causal relationships of the phenomena studied. The sources of data in this study are eight cosmetic Maybelline New York products, namely the Maybelline gel pencil, L’oreal colour riche nail, Maybelline mascara and eyeliner, Maybelline creamy lipmatte and Maybelline eyeshadow, Maybelline eyeliner, Maybelline lipstick, and Maybelline clear smooth all in one. Results: In analyzing the data, the researcher of the 2014 Halliday theory revised by Mathiesse found that there are three types of manifested mood, four types of realized speech function, and mood-based realization of speech function. The moods manifested were declarative (48.64%), interrogative (5.40%) and imperative (45.94%). Speech functions that are realized are statements (48.64%), questions (5.40%), offers (18.91%) and command (24.32%). Conclusions: It can be concluded that declarative sentences are mostly found in Maybelline New York products. Researchers suggest that readers be more careful in using mood structures in cosmetic advertisements so that there are no misunderstandings.
... Arnocky and Pinche (2015) found that women's interest in and the endorsement of elective plastic surgery are correlated with their level of intrasexual competitiveness as measured by the ICS, even after removing the mediating effect of their tendency to make physical appearance comparisons of themselves to others. Likewise, Mafra et al. (2020) reported that make-up (i.e., cosmetics) use is positively correlated with scores on the ICS. Further, Davis et al. (2018) documented that for both men and women, the ICS was predictive of the use and acceptance of gossip. ...
Preprint
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Purpose Researchers have studied intrasexual competition by priming the competition using a variety of techniques, including manipulated sex ratios and vignettes implying a competition either for resources critical for obtaining mates or directly for mates. When priming intrasexual competition, changes in the dependent variable of interest are generally taken as prima facie evidence of intrasexual competition; few researchers have tried to independently assess intrasexual competition. Methods The studies presented here replicate and extend one such state measure of intrasexual competition using words taken from the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) with additional competition words (PANAS-Short Form with an added competitive subscale). The first study used a vignette manipulation and the second used a sex ratio manipulation. Participants then responded to the modified PANAS, the Intrasexual Competition Scale (ICS) and the Intrasexual Rivalry Scale (IRS). Results Results indicated that neither manipulation resulted in differences on the ICS or IRS. There were differences on the negative and competitive subscales of the modified PANAS, but only for the vignettes manipulation; sex ratio did not result in effects on any of the subscales. These results suggest that different intrasexual competition primes may not be accessible by a single measure. Conclusion One explanation may be that the vignettes specify a target while the unbalanced sex ratios do not, which could create a difference in the psychological distance to a target. Studies in non-human animals have shown that distance and time to reinforcement affects the types of responses and conditioned responses that the reinforcer can support (e.g., behavior systems, Timberlake & Lucas, 1989), which we apply to this work.
... It was inspired by previous studies that tackled the topic of beauty investments and used similar measures (see, e.g. Apostolou et al. 2021;Mafra et al. 2016Mafra et al. , 2020. The first block concerned bodyrelated questions, and the second face-related questions (e.g. ...
Article
Clothing style and the extent of body revealing in public are cultural and social factors that can influence one’s beauty investments and assessments of attractiveness. To explore this further, we recruited 99 Polish women from Poland (perceived to represent a western approach to dress and body) and 100 Iranian women from Iran (perceived to represent a Muslim culture with a more modest approach to dress). We asked these women to respond to questionnaires to test whether cultural norms regarding one’s clothing are linked to investments in one’s beauty and self-perceived attractiveness. In line with our hypotheses, Polish women (who have more freedom to reveal their bodies publicly) spent more time caring for their bodies than Iranian women. Polish women also spent more time caring for their bodies than their faces. However, contrary to our predictions, Iranian women did not spend more time caring for their faces than their bodies. In fact, Iranian women did not spend more time caring for their faces than Polish women. Furthermore, we observed that older participants spent less time thinking about their attractiveness and owned fewer care products than younger participants. We further discuss our findings in the context of cultural norms regarding female body dressing and how it might relate to beauty investments.
... Women who do not have the physical qualities men want can win the competition by utilizing several perceptual adaptation tricks, including coloring, cosmetics, and clothing. 29 Studies have shown that cosmetic products and procedures can enhance men's desired qualities, such as youth, femininity, health, and general attractiveness. 30 Makeup, for example, can make older women look younger. ...
Article
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Laser procedures for skin care is becoming increasingly popular and used by the global community and affect many aspects of human life. However, there is very little research on the role of men in women’s decision to follow this dermatological procedure. This study aimed to identify the role of men in motivating women to choose laser-based procedure. A systematic literature review research design was applied in this study. A total of 27 papers were obtained by searching PubMed Central for the 2013–2022 editions. The extraction of samples and the motivation of patients or research respondents in choosing laser procedures for cosmetic treatments were conducted to obtain clues about the role of men in making these decisions. Only six studies explicitly reveal the role of men as motivators of women to perform laser-based dermatological procedures. Four of these six studies were conducted in Asia in countries with a high degree of collectivism. The remaining two studies reveal a minor role for men in women’s motivation to choose dermatological procedures. Other studies only indirectly implicate the role of men through intrasexual competition, increased self-esteem, and the needs of the world of work. Limitations of the study lies in the non-specificity of the study sample in the female population, laser-based treatments, and the role of men in motivating women. The role of men in motivating women to perform laser-based skin care procedures is stated explicitly in collectivist cultures while only implicitly in individualist cultures. These findings indicate that the strategy of utilizing the added value of men to laser treatment procedures should be directed at the relationship between men and women in real terms in collective cultured countries.
... Salah satu tujuan tata rias wajah adalah mengoreksi bagian-bagian wajah yang kurang idealseperti mata, hidung, alis, dagu, pipi, bibir agar menjadi proporsional (Vivi, 2018). Seorang perias harus mampu memadukan kombinasi dua unsur yang berbeda karena tujuan tata rias adalah untuk menutupi kekurangan dan menarik perhatian sehingga tampak lebih menarik (Mafra et al., 2020;. Ada tiga hal yang harus diperhatikan dalam merias pengantin yaitu warna, lighting (fotografi) dan koreksi wajah (Nanik, 2001;Maulina & Lutfiati, 2021). ...
Article
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Tata rias wajah merupakan bagian yang tidak dapat dipisahkan khususnya bagi kaum hawa. Tata rias ini mereka gunakan pada saat aktivitas sehari-hari, pesta maupun acara-acara khusus seperti pentas seni, fashion show, dan lain-lain. Karakteristik tata rias harus disesuaikan dengan acara, usia dan kesempatan. Permasalahannya adalah banyak remaja putri yang melakukan tata rias tidak sesuai dengan usianya sehingga membuat mereka tampak lebih dewasa. Tujuan kegiatan ini adalah untuk memberikan pengetahuan dan keterampilan mengenai teknik merias wajah pesta untuk remaja putri. Dari hasil pra survey yang dilaksanakan, mereka tidak tahu tata rias yang tepat untuk remaja putri khususnya pada saat kegiatan pentas seni, sehingga hasil riasannya membuat mereka tampak lebih dewasa dari usia sesungguhnya. Kegiatan pengabdian ini akan mengedukasi bentuk tata rias wajah yang cocok untuk usia remaja. Kegiatan ini dilaksankan Panti Asuhan “Darul Hadlonah” Jl. Kepodang Raya, Kelurahan Bandarjo Kecamatan Ungaran Barat Kabupaten Semarang. Pada kegiatan ini, peserta pengabdian dilatih untuk melakukan tata rias wajah pesta yang sesuai dengan usia remaja. Kegiatan pendampingan ini dilaksanakan selama dua kali. Dari kegiatan ini, peserta mampu menerapkan tata rias pesta untuk usia remaja dan tidak menutup kemungkinan keahlian ini bisa mereka kembangkan untuk berwirausaha dibidang tata rias.
... Self-enhancement is a common stagey used in intrasexual competition in women [44]. Women who report a higher level of intrasexual competition report a higher frequency of make-up usage and spend more money per month on make-up and beautification products [45]. When primed about competing for a romantic partner and attractive member of the same sex, women show an increase likelihood to take diet pills [32]. ...
Article
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Women's breasts are considered sexually attractive because they may infer a woman's residual reproductive value. Given that men find women's breasts attractive, women may compete with other women to enhance their physical attractiveness when primed with an intrasexual competitive cue. The current study investigated women's intrasexual competition when viewing variations in breast morphology. Women (N = 189) were randomly assigned to a partner threat condition and shown images of women's breasts that included variations in breast size, ptosis (i.e., sagginess), and intermammary distance (i.e., cleavage). Women were more likely to report an increase in enhancing their appearance, wearing revealing clothing, dieting and exercising, and perceiving the breasts as a sexual threat as a function of larger breast sizes with low ptosis and intermediate distances. The partner threat prime did not play a role in ratings. Interestingly, there was a moderating role for women's dispositional levels in intrasexual competition. Women with higher levels of intrasexual competition were more likely to enhance their appearance when viewing large breast sizes. The study points to the role that breast morphology indicative of residual reproductive value has on increasing enhancement strategies.
... Os artefatos mais antigos do Homo sapiens sapiens foram feitos à mão para decoração corporal (como conchas marinhas perfuradas e pigmentadas com marcas de desgaste) datadas de 70.000 a 164.000 anos atrás (d'Errico et al. 2009;Marean et al. 2007), e eram antigos também em Neandertais (115.000 a 130.000 anos atrás, Hoffmann et al. 2018;Radovčić et al. 2015). Na nossa espécie, os registros associados ao uso de perfumes, maquiagem e demais pigmentos foram encontrados em culturas como no Egito antigo (aproximadamente 1.200 a 200 a.C) (Etcoff et al. 2011 (Mafra et al. 2020 (Hudders et al. 2014;Miller 2009;Sundie et al. 2011;Wang & Griskevicius 2014). ...
Book
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Este livro foi pensado para ser um primeiro texto introdutório às bases ecológicas e evolutivas do comportamento humano, voltado para o ensino ao nível de graduação. Embora cada capítulo possa ser lido em qualquer ordem, organizamos de modo que a sequência sugerida permita ao aprofundamento paulatino dos diferentes conceitos e disciplinas dedi- cadas aos estudos do comportamento humano.
... Indeed, the same women's vocal parameters that men find attractive (i.e., femininity) are used by other women to track the threat of potential rivals . Selfpromotion via aesthetics and beauty can be both an intersexual ornament and an intrasexual armament in both sexes, although mostly in women Mafra et al., 2020). Fisher and Candea (2012) showed that popular women musicians include in their song lyrics topics of intrasexual competition such as mate manipulation, self-promotion, and competitor derogation/manipulation. ...
Article
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Since Darwin proposed that human musicality evolved through sexual selection, empirical evidence has supported intersexual selection as one of the adaptive functions of artistic propensities. However, intrasexual competition has been overlooked. We tested their relative importance by investigating the relationship between the self-perceived talent/expertise in 16 artistic and 2 sports modalities and proxies of intersexual selection (i.e., mate value, mating and parenting efforts, sociosexuality, and number of sexual partners) and intrasexual competition (i.e., aggressiveness, intrasexual competitiveness) in heterosexuals. Participants were 82 Brazilian men, 166 Brazilian women, 146 Czech men, and 458 Czech women (Mage = 26.48, SD = 7.12). Factor analysis revealed five factors: Literary-arts (creative writing, humor, acting/theater/film, poetry, storytelling), Visual-arts (painting/drawing, sculpting, handcrafting, culinary arts, architecture design), Musical-arts (playing/instruments, singing, dance, whistling), Circus-arts (juggling, acrobatics), and Sports (individual, collective). Multivariate General Linear Model (GLM) showed more associations of the arts to intersexual selection in women and to intrasexual selection in men, and overall more relationships in women than in men. In women, literary and musical-arts were related to elevated inter- and intrasexual selections proxies, visual and circus-arts were related to elevated intersexual selection proxies, and sports were related to intrasexual selection proxies. In men, literary-arts and sports were related to elevated inter- and intrasexual selection proxies, musical-arts were related to intrasexual proxies, and circus-arts were related to intersexual proxies; visual-arts did not have predictors. Although present in both sexes, each sexual selection component has different relative importance in each sex. Artisticality functions to attract and maintain long/short-term partners, and to compete with mating rivals.
... Furthermore, the focus of the intrasexual competition may differ across genders. Whereas males tend more to compete on status, power, strength, and resources (47,72), females' competition resolve more around attractiveness and promiscuity (73)(74)(75)(76). Future studies could examine what types of intrasexual aggression are most distressing in women. ...
Article
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Women report greater post-traumatic distress (PTD) than men following physically threatening events. However, gender differences in PTD following social stressors such as status losses are understudied. Whereas the social construction account points to a general sensitivity in women following any type of stressor, the evolutionary account suggests enhanced sensitivity to status losses in men, especially following inter-males aggressions. These propositions were examined in two studies (Study 1, N = 211; Study 2, N = 436). Participants were asked to recall a status loss and to fill out measures assessing PTD and depression severity. In line with the evolutionary account, men, as compared to women, displayed enhanced PTD following status loss. Status losses conducted by men against men were associated with greater PTD than were instances involving other target-aggressor pairings. Finally, age was negatively associated with PTD in men but not in women. The examination of evolutionary challenges modifies the standard view linking the female gender to enhanced sensitivity to trauma. Thus, the pattern of enhanced sensitivity to stressful events appears to be affected by gender- and development-specific adaptive challenges.
... are keener in using cosmetics that improve their appearance to be comfortable in meeting potential suitors. 23 Urban residents also use cosmetics far more than the rural residents and this is partially influenced by the proximity to shopping malls and the higher interest in hygiene and aesthetics, which is popular in urban residences. 24 It is noted that the majority of cosmetics users are among those who have reached a tertiary level in education. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: The use of cosmetic products is growing in dominance in the Arab population, making it essential to measure its effects on users. The production of cosmetics has been largely driven by consumerism and a bid to keep abreast with the latest trends in the beauty industry with less attention on how the users' quality of life (QoL) is affected. Aims: This study aims to investigate the effect of cosmetic products on users' quality of life in eight Arab countries. Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out using an online data collection approach. A validated and specialist instrument tool called BeautyQoL, which consists of five domains and a total of 52 questions, was distributed to a sample of 2219 cosmetic users. Descriptive and inferential statistical analysis was done using SPSS® version 26.0. Results: The mean age of participants was 34 ± 11.25 years, and more women were represented in the sample (71%) than men. The majority of respondents had oily skin type (39.6%) and tan skin tone (30.4%). QoL through cosmetic use is computed with a mean score of 51 out of 100. The users' mean score satisfaction from cosmetic use is centred on attractiveness (56.1), followed by self-confidence (51.8). Cosmetics have a statistically significant effect on participants who are young adults, women, single, and employed with high income. As the respondents' skin tone deepens from very fair to dark, the mean score for each domain significantly increases, whereas when skin type changes from very oily to dry, the mean score for each domain decreases. Conclusion: The effect of cosmetics on the users' QoL is limited, contrary to the narrative commonly portrayed in cosmetics' advertisements. Therefore, the use of cosmetics among the Arab population should be from an informed perspective of their specific needs instead of conforming to the viral trends pedalled by influencers and bloggers on social media, which might be irrelevant for them.
... The relative importance of estradiol and corticosterone in regulating female behaviors in the context of competition for mates remains largely unknown, as most studies on hormonal mechanisms of female aggression have focused on monogamous species in the context of maternal or territorial defense. Female intrasexual competition for mates, however, has been documented in several species (Yasukawa and Searcy 1982;Slagsvold and Lifjeld 1994;Kvarnemo et al. 1995;Bowler et al. 2002;Bro-Jørgensen 2002;Lewis et al. 2004;Razzoli and Valsecchi 2006;Fernandez-Duque and Huck 2013;Mafra et al. 2020). Female-female competition for mates can be strong even in polygynous species when the breeding season is short, or the operational sex ratio favors females (Forsgren et al. 2004;Rusu and Krackow 2004;Duque-Wilckens and Trainor 2017). ...
Article
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Female competitive behaviors during courtship can have substantial fitness consequences yet we know little about the physiological and social mechanisms underlying these behaviors – particularly for females of polygynous lek mating species. We explored the hormonal and social drivers of female intersexual and intrasexual behavior during courtship by males in a captive population of Indian peafowl. We investigated whether (1) female non-stress induced circulating estradiol (E2) and corticosterone (CORT) levels or (2) female dominance status in a dyad predict female solicitation behavior. We also tested whether female circulating E2 and CORT predict dominant females’ aggressive behaviors toward subordinate females in the courtship context. Our findings demonstrate that females with higher levels of circulating E2 as well as higher levels of circulating CORT solicit more courtships from males. Dominant females also solicit more courtships from males than subordinate females. Female intrasexual aggressive behaviors during courtship, however, were not associated with circulating levels of E2 or CORT. Overall, we conclude that circulating steroid hormones in conjunction with social dominance might play a role in mediating female behaviors associated with competition for mates. Experimental manipulation and measures of hormonal flexibility throughout the breeding season in relation to competitive and sexual behaviors will be necessary to further examine the link between hormonal mechanisms and female behavior in polygynous lekking systems.
... These findings thus show that cosmetic consumption is strongly linked with the opinions and perceptions of others. More recent findings showed that makeup is a tactic (Mafra et al., 2020) that women use to attract potential mates and compete with rivals. Compared with men, women are more prone to use cosmetics as a self-promoting tactic (Sulikowski et al., 2022). ...
Article
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The use of cosmetics is ubiquitous, signaling the importance of aesthetics for humans. Yet, little is known on drivers of cosmetic consumption. In a set of multiple surveys among over 5,000 women across seven countries in three continents (Study 1), we consistently show that heightened perceived pressure to change appearance is associated with higher cosmetic consumption. Further, perceived pressure (and subsequently cosmetic consumption) is influenced by implicit theories of human beauty, such that holding an entity beauty belief—that is, beauty beauty is fixed and unalterable—counterintuitively is associated with heightened perceived pressure to change appearance, which in turn is associated with higher cosmetic consumption. This pattern of results remains in Study 2 where an entity (vs. incremental) beauty belief was experimentally induced. Study 3 further shows that an entity (vs. incremental) beauty belief leads to higher intention to consume cosmetic products but only in a social, not a private, context. Our studies thus provide evidence that beauty-related consumption phenomena could be directly influenced by perception and indirectly influenced by deep-seated, almost philosophical, implicit theories.
... In a recent review, Davis and Arnocky [18] argued that makeup may be used as a strategy to enhance social status. In fact, besides bringing advantages in attracting mates and competing with rivals [21], makeup usage was positively associated with social interaction and performance [43], with women who use makeup being perceived as more competent [44], more dominant, and higher in social prestige [45]. As social interactions are important for people with high social selfesteem levels, makeup may be a tool to increase confidence in interpersonal relationships. ...
Article
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Women wearing makeup are perceived by others as more attractive, competent, dominant, and more socially prestigious. Individuals differ in how much and how frequently they use makeup. Some studies show that women with lower self-esteem use more makeup, probably to hide imperfections. However, women with higher self-esteem can also use makeup to attract attention. This study verified whether social and general self-esteem and body image are associated with makeup usage in Brazilian women. We collected data from 1,483 women (Mage = 31.08; SD = 11.15) about body image (appearance orientation and appearance evaluation), social self-esteem, general self-esteem, and makeup usage (frequency of makeup usage, time spent applying makeup per day, and money spent on makeup per month). Appearance orientation positively predicted frequency of makeup usage, time spent applying makeup, and money spent on makeup, whereas appearance evaluation inversely predicted money spent on makeup per month. Social self-esteem and general self-esteem also positively predicted money spent on makeup, but in different directions. The results suggest that the significance given to appearance and social interactions are importantly associated with makeup usage in women.
Article
Background Interpersonal meaning is the interaction between the speaker and the listener and the writer and the reader. This study aims to determine the structure of mood and how the structure of mood is found. The purposes of this study are (1) to be more sensitive to the mood structure shown in Maybelline New York cosmetic advertisement. (2) to investigate the reason of why interrogative sentences are more difficult to find than declarative sentences. Through this research, we can see the types of mood structures, and how these mood structures are used. Methods The type of research approach used is descriptive qualitative. Research in this case describes systematically, factually and accurately facts and causal relationships of the phenomena studied. The sources of data in this study are eight cosmetic Maybelline New York products, namely the Maybelline gel pencil, L’oreal colour riche nail, Maybelline mascara and eyeliner, Maybelline creamy lipmatte and Maybelline eyeshadow, Maybelline eyeliner, Maybelline lipstick, and Maybelline clear smooth all in one. Results In analyzing the data, the researcher of the 2014 Halliday theory revised by Mathiesse found that there are three types of manifested mood, four types of realized speech function, and mood-based realization of speech function. The moods manifested were declarative (48.64%), interrogative (5.40%) and imperative (45.94%). Speech functions that are realized are statements (48.64%), questions (5.40%), offers (18.91%) and command (24.32%). Conclusions It can be concluded that declarative sentences are mostly found in Maybelline New York products. Researchers suggest that readers be more careful in using mood structures in cosmetic advertisements so that there are no misunderstandings.
Article
Full-text available
Decorating the body as well as (semi-)permanent bodily modifications are a longstanding human practice, together with spending a great amount of time and effort on such body alterations. The present article reviews the mental functions of body-altering behavior. The primary aim is to identify and elucidate the predominant mental function underpinning these body alterations. Following several guidelines for reviews, we synthesized the literature, including several categories of body-altering entities from different eras. We argue that there are two crucial commonalities for individuals engaging in body-altering behavior that comprise the mental functions for doing so: aesthetics and group affiliation (dynamics), including the latter’s subfunctions of supporting individuality, resistance, personal narrative, physical endurance, and sexual motivation. Incorporating the existing literature, we find that aesthetic motivation takes precedence over group affiliation, thereby establishing aesthetics as the primary mental function of body-altering behavior; factors substantiating this conclusion are explored in detail within the article.
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Traditional cosmetics play a significant role in the cultural practices and personal hygiene of many ethnic groups worldwide. The Oromo, an indigenous community in Ethiopia, has a rich history of utilizing local plants for cosmetic purposes. However, the use of plants as traditional cosmetics has only been poorly investigated as more emphasis was given to traditional medicines. The study thus aimed to identify and document plant species, and parts used in traditional cosmetics and associated knowledge, and practices among Oromo women in the Madda Walabu district, Southeastern Ethiopia. A total of 150 Oromo women were interviewed to gather ethnobotanical information including the plant species used for cosmetics, their preparation methods, and their applications. Ethnobotanical indices were computed to determine the most important species used by the women. A total of 48 plant species belonging to 31 families used as sources of traditional cosmetics were recorded. Most of these plants were trees. Leaves were the most commonly used plant part in traditional cosmetics, and maceration and decoction were the most common preparation methods applied to prepare traditional cosmetics. Topical application of traditional cosmetics was the most common, while oral infusions were rarely reported type of administration. All categories had high informant consensus factor (ICF) values, ranging from 0.80 to 0.98. The highest ICF value was found for skin treatment, followed by the hair, and face mask. Overall, Commiphora habessinica, Gnidia stenophylla, Kalanchoe lanceolata, Mimusops kummel, Sesamothamnus rivae, Terminalia brownii, T. laxiflora, Acacia drepanolobium, A. mellifera, and Aloe citrina were the most frequently cited and culturally important plants by Oromo women for traditional cosmetics in the area. The study highlights the importance of local plant resources for maintaining cultural practices and personal hygiene. However, the cultural heritage associated with traditional cosmetics is facing threats from various factors. Therefore, a continuous effort to document and disseminate knowledge about traditional cosmetics practices to ensure their preservation and transmission and awakening younger generations about the importance of traditional cosmetics and their role in cultural heritage is crucial.
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The use of plants as natural cosmetics has been perceived as a source of welfare. However, the plants and the associated indigenous knowledge are continuously depleting globally. The study thus aimed to investigate the ethnobotany of traditional cosmetics among Oromo women in the Madda Walabu District of Bale Zone, Southeastern Oromia, Ethiopia. Ethnobotanical information such as plant species used for traditional cosmetics, method of preparation, and administration were collected among 150 Oromo women using semi-structured questionnaires. Thereafter, quantitative ethnobotanical indices, including the Informant consensus factor (ICF), and the level of fidelity (Fl) were computed to determine the most important species used by the women. A total of 48 plant species belonging to 31 families used as sources of traditional cosmetics were recorded among Oromo women in the district. The most frequent family was Fabaceae followed by Bigonaceae, Burseraceae, and Combretaceae. Most of the plants used as traditional cosmetics were trees, followed by shrubs and herbs in life forms Leaves are the most commonly used plant part in traditional cosmetics followed by barks; and maceration and decoction are the most common preparation methods applied to prepare plant-based traditional cosmetics. Traditional cosmetics are applied to various parts of the body and are mainly administered topically while oral infusions were not common. All categories had high ICF values, ranging from 0.80 to 0.98. The highest ICF value was found for skin treatment, followed by the hair, and Face mask. Overall, Commiphora habessinica,Gnidia stenophylla, Kalanchoe lanceolata, Mimusops kummel, Sesamothamnus rivae, Terminalia brownii, T. laxiflora, Acacia drepanolobium, A. mellifera and Aloe citrina were the most frequently cited plants by Oromo women for traditional cosmetic purposes in the study area. However, there will be a need to conduct laboratory-based experiments to establish the efficacy and safety of these documented plants using relevant biological assays.
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The interface of sexual behavior and evolutionary psychology is a rapidly growing domain, rich in psychological theories and data as well as controversies and applications. With nearly eighty chapters by leading researchers from around the world, and combining theoretical and empirical perspectives, The Cambridge Handbook of Evolutionary Perspectives on Sexual Psychology is the most comprehensive and up-to-date reference work in the field. Providing a broad yet in-depth overview of the various evolutionary principles that influence all types of sexual behaviors, the handbook takes an inclusive approach that draws on a number of disciplines and covers nonhuman and human psychology. It is an essential resource for both established researchers and students in psychology, biology, anthropology, medicine, and criminology, among other fields. Volume 3: Female Sexual Adaptations addresses theory and research focused on sexual adaptations in human females.
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The interface of sexual behavior and evolutionary psychology is a rapidly growing domain, rich in psychological theories and data as well as controversies and applications. With nearly eighty chapters by leading researchers from around the world, and combining theoretical and empirical perspectives, The Cambridge Handbook of Evolutionary Perspectives on Sexual Psychology is the most comprehensive and up-to-date reference work in the field. Providing a broad yet in-depth overview of the various evolutionary principles that influence all types of sexual behaviors, the handbook takes an inclusive approach that draws on a number of disciplines and covers nonhuman and human psychology. It is an essential resource for both established researchers and students in psychology, biology, anthropology, medicine, and criminology, among other fields. Volume 3: Female Sexual Adaptations addresses theory and research focused on sexual adaptations in human females.
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Physical attractiveness has long been established as a desirable trait in society. Physically attractive individuals are considered more competent, successful, and sociable. Numerous studies have examined the influence of makeup on physical attractiveness and its subjective psychological effects. However, the effect of nail care has not yet been examined. This study aimed to explore the psychological effects of nail care. Female Japanese participants (N = 334) completed an online questionnaire. The results showed that nail care positively elevated three aspects: positive emotions, relaxation, and vitalization. Moreover, they confirmed significant differences between receiving nail care from salon manicurists and self-performed nail care in terms of positive emotions and relaxation. The results indicated that nail care altered the appearance of the recipients’ nails and their self-esteem, including their feelings, mood, and motivation. Furthermore, this study indicates that it may be preferable for both manicurists and clients not to self-disclose in-depth, as this would negate the positive effects of nail care. The study concludes with recommendations for future research.
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Human appearance enhancement effort has recently been considered from an evolutionary perspective as an adaptive and sexually dimorphic strategy for effective female intrasexual and intersexual competition. Most writing and research on the topic to date has focused on appearance enhancement as a means of mate attraction, with relatively less research examining its role in mate retention. The present study considered whether romantic jealousy, as a negative emotion experienced in response to perceived threat to a desired relationship, predicts costly and/or risky appearance enhancement independent of the closely related emotion of envy. In a sample of 189 undergraduate women, results showed that romantic jealousy and dispositional envy were positively correlated with one another. Results further demonstrated that romantic jealousy predicted women's positive attitude toward cosmetic surgery, willingness to use a one-week free tanning membership, willingness to use a risky diet pill, and intent on spending a greater proportion of their income on appearance enhancement, but not intended use of facial cosmetics. Results held independent of participants' dispositional envy, suggesting that romantic jealousy is a unique predictor of women's efforts at enhancing their physical appearance, which could extend into costly and physically risky mate retention efforts.
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Individuals vary in their intrasexual competitiveness attitude, i.e., an important variable reflecting the potential threat or the extent to which one perceives other individuals of the same sex as social or mating rivals. In this study, we investigated the relationship between self-perceived mate value, a construct usually linked to intersexual selection, and intrasexual competitiveness attitude. We postulated that those psychological traits that increase mate value are related to psychological traits underlying intrasexual competitiveness attitude. The results obtained from a sample of 711 young participants of both sexes ( M = 16.93 years ± SD = 0.86) indicated that mate value was positively related to intrasexual competitiveness attitude. Specifically, the subscales of Fear of Failure , Wealth , and Looks were positive predictors of intrasexual competitiveness attitude. Moreover, the Looks subscale was more relevant in determining intrasexual competitiveness attitude in women than in men. These three subscales were part of the same factorial structure that appears to be indicative of a self-promoting strategy based on the ostentation of traits through attitudes. As a conclusion, we argue that the individual differences in intrasexual competitiveness attitudes are associated with the differences in psychological features usually associated with intersexual selection.
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Previous studies have found a positive effect of cosmetics on certain behavioral measures, such as the tip given to waitresses by male patrons. These studies have employed confederates who usually wear cosmetics. We therefore sought to examine whether the positive effect found in these studies could, in part, be explained by a change in behavior. In order to test the possibility of a ‘cosmetics placebo effect’, we employed a confederate to solicit donations from passersby. On some days our confederate would not have any cosmetics applied to her face (i.e., no cosmetics condition), on some days cosmetics were pretended to be applied to her face (i.e., placebo cosmetics condition), and on other days cosmetics were actually applied to her face (i.e., cosmetics condition). In line with previous research, we found that across conditions men donated significantly more than women to our female solicitor, providing support for the ‘showoff hypothesis’, in which male generosity serves as a mating tactic. When investigating men’s donations in more detail, we found that the highest percentage of donations came in the cosmetics condition, followed by the placebo cosmetics condition, and then by no cosmetics condition. The effect of condition on donation rates, however, was not statistically significant. Our study was limited to one solicitor and one dependent variable (i.e., percentage of people approached who donated) and therefore future research would benefit from using more confederates as well as examining other behavioral measures. Given the influence of cosmetics use on so many real-world outcomes, we believe that further exploration into a possible ‘cosmetics placebo effect’ would be valuable.
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Makeup accentuates three youth-related visual features – skin homogeneity, facial contrast, and facial feature size. By manipulating these visual features, makeup should make faces appear younger. We tested this hypothesis in an experiment in which participants estimated the age of carefully controlled photographs of faces with and without makeup. We found that 40- and especially 50-year-old women did appear significantly younger when wearing makeup. Contrary to our hypothesis, 30-year-old women looked no different in age with or without makeup, while 20-year-old women looked older with makeup. Two further studies replicated these results, finding that makeup made middle-aged women look younger, but made young women look older. Seeking to better understand why makeup makes young women look older, we ran a final study and found evidence that people associate makeup use with adulthood. By activating associations with adulthood, makeup may provide an upward bias on age estimations of women who are not clearly adult. We propose that makeup affects social perceptions through bottom-up routes, by modifying visual cues such as facial contrast, facial feature size, and skin homogeneity, and also through top-down routes, by activating social representations and norms associated with makeup use.
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Previous research demonstrates that women’s beauty is rewarded across a myriad of social contexts, especially by men. Accordingly, from a functional perspective, another woman’s attractiveness can signal competitive disadvantage—and evoke negative responses—among female observers. Further, because the benefits of beauty are rewarded based on superficial qualities rather than on merit or performance, women may perceive same-sex others who use appearance enhancement to gain advantages as being dishonest or manipulative. We examined these possibilities across four experiments testing whether college-aged women impose a strategic beautification penalty (SBP) on female targets that have enhanced their appearances with cosmetics. We found that women made more negative attributions about, and experienced diminished desire to affiliate with, female targets wearing (vs. not wearing) cosmetics. The SBP was: specific to female observers (Experiment 2); mediated by decreases in perceived trustworthiness (Experiment 3); and driven by less desirable women (Experiment 4). Importantly, the negative effects of beautification effort extended beyond the increased physical attractiveness that resulted from this effort. The results suggest that engaging in appearance enhancement can produce unintended negative consequences for relationships between women.
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Many women wear facial makeup to accentuate their appeal and attractiveness. Makeup may vary from natural (light) to glamorous (heavy), depending of the context of interpersonal situations, an emphasis on femininity, and current societal makeup trends. This study examined how light makeup and heavy makeup influenced attractiveness ratings and facial recognition. In a rating task, 38 Japanese women assigned attractiveness ratings to 36 Japanese female faces with no makeup, light makeup, and heavy makeup (12 each). In a subsequent recognition task, the participants were presented with 36 old and 36 new faces. Results indicated that attractiveness was rated highest for the light makeup faces and lowest for the no makeup faces. In contrast, recognition performance was higher for the no makeup and light make up faces than for the heavy makeup faces. Faces with heavy makeup produced a higher rate of false recognition than did other faces, possibly because heavy makeup creates an impression of the style of makeup itself, rather than the individual wearing the makeup. The present study suggests that light makeup is preferable to heavy makeup in that light makeup does not interfere with individual recognition and gives beholders positive impressions.
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Envy has recently been considered from an evolutionary perspective as an emotion which might motivate compensatory action following unfavorable social comparisons. In two studies, the role of envy in women’s motivation to enhance their physical appearance was examined. Study 1 explored the mediating role of dispositional envy on the relationship between social comparison and women’s resource spending on appearance-enhancing products, desired weight loss, and tanning intention in a cross-sectional sample of undergraduate women (N = 188). Controlling for age and self-perceived mate-value, results revealed that social comparison significantly predicted all three dependent variables, with mediation effects of envy on desired weight loss, consumer spending, and tanning intentions. Study 2 replicated and extended these findings via an experimental social comparison priming procedure. Women (N = 90) who made social comparisons toward attractive women in magazine advertisements (N = 45) reported greater state envy relative to women viewing advertisements featuring a product only (N = 45). Moreover, induced state envy subsequently predicted greater willingness to use facial cosmetics and to take a risky diet pill, and increased positive attitudes toward cosmetic surgery. These results support the role of envy, activated by unfavorable social comparisons, in motivating compensatory competitive appearance enhancement behaviors.
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Men and women prefer certain characteristics that are interpreted as clues to the reproductive quality of potential partners. Physical appearance, for example, is an important characteristic for both sexes because it can signal youth and fertility in females and capacity for protection, dominance, competitive ability, and high social status in males. Therefore, we predicted that people would put significant effort into improving their physical attractiveness in order to compete in the mating market, and this relationship would be influenced by self-perception and socioeconomic status. In order to investigate whether investment in beauty and exercise are related to self-perception as romantic partners and self-esteem, this study was conducted with 205 men and women of lower socioeconomic status from Brazil. They were asked about their self-esteem (Rosenberg self-esteem scale), socioeconomic status, investment in beauty, time exercising, and self-perception as a romantic partner. Although no significant relationship between self-perception as a romantic partner and exercise was found, our results suggest that female investment in beauty is related to their financial condition, whereas male investment in beauty is related to greater evaluation in handsome face, beautiful body, sociability, and agreeableness, being correlation stronger when controlled by participants’ self-esteem. The results support Leary and Baumeister’s sociometer theory (2000 cited in Bale and Archer Evolutionary Psychology, 11, 68–84, 2013) and Penke and Denissen’s (Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 1123–1129, 2008) findings, in which men would associate more characteristics of their self-perception in a mate market with their self-esteem.
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This chapter highlights and discusses the role of women’s competitive ornamentation as one of the relevant, and so far overlooked, ancestral selective pressures in the evolution of artistic propensities. The authors critically discuss how and why sex differences and sexual selection processes acting on women have been disregarded for more than a decade. The authors review available convergent evidence about sex differences in aesthetics and artistic propensities showing that, overall, women outnumber men. Then the authors propose and show evidence that higher women’s inclination toward artistic domains, including ornamentation of body, behavior, and objects/places, can serve as a social arena for attracting/maintaining mates and dealing with rivals, primarily through self-promotion via competitive ornamentation. The chapter concludes by developing connections with related theories that broaden the scope of the field and highlight predictions for future research.
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The use of cosmetics by women seems to consistently increase their attractiveness. What factors of attractiveness do cosmetics alter to achieve this? Facial contrast is a known cue to sexual dimorphism and youth, and cosmetics exaggerate sexual dimorphisms in facial contrast. Here, we demonstrate that the luminance contrast pattern of the eyes and eyebrows is consistently sexually dimorphic across a large sample of faces, with females possessing lower brow contrasts than males, and greater eye contrast than males. Red-green and yellow-blue color contrasts were not found to differ consistently between the sexes. We also show that women use cosmetics not only to exaggerate sexual dimorphisms of brow and eye contrasts, but also to increase contrasts that decline with age. These findings refine the notion of facial contrast, and demonstrate how cosmetics can increase attractiveness by manipulating factors of beauty associated with facial contrast.
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Previous studies on luxury consumption demonstrated that men spend large sums of money on luxury brands to signal their mate value to women, and thus, increase their reproductive success. Although women also spend copious amounts of money on luxuries, research focusing on women’s motives for luxury consumption is rather scarce. Relying on costly signaling and intrasexual competition theory, the goal of the current study was to test whether female intrasexual competition in a mate attraction context triggers women’s spending on luxuries. The results of the first experiment reveal that an intrasexual competition context enhances women’s preferences for attractiveness enhancing, but not for neutral luxuries. This finding indicates that women may use luxury consumption as a self-promotion strategy during within-sex competitions, as these luxuries improve their advantages against same-sex rivals for mates. A follow-up study shows that compared to women who do not consume luxuries, women who do so are perceived as more attractive, flirty, young, ambitious, sexy, and less loyal, mature and smart by other women. These results suggest that luxury consumption may provide information about a women’s willingness to engage in sex, as well as her views about other women, and consequently, her success in intrasexual competitions.
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The matching performance of automated face recognition has significantly improved over the past decade. At the same time several challenges remain that significantly affect the deployment of such systems in security applications. In this work, we study the impact of a commonly used face altering technique that has received limited attention in the biometric literature, viz., non-permanent facial makeup. Towards understanding its impact, we first assemble two databases containing face images of subjects, before and after applying makeup. We present experimental results on both databases that reveal the effect of makeup on automated face recognition and suggest that this simple alteration can indeed compromise the accuracy of a biometric system. While these are early results, our findings clearly indicate the need for a better understanding of this face altering scheme and the importance of designing algorithms that can successfully overcome the obstacle imposed by the application of facial makeup.
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Mate value is a construct of importance to many psychological (especially evolutionary psychological) theories. However, there are no well validated self-report measures of mate value. In light of this, we designed the Mate Value Scale (MVS): a brief, four-item measure that can assess mate value of the self, of one’s partner, or of another target. Study One demonstrates that the MVS has good internal consistency, a one-factor structure, and good convergent validity. Study Two replicates these psychometric findings along with demonstrations of good test–retest reliability and further convergent and discriminant validity. Study Three demonstrates how the MVS can successfully be applied to an evolutionary psychological domain (the sex difference in jealousy). Additional cited research demonstrates the MVS’s utility in a number of other domains. We conclude that the MVS is a short and effective measure of mate value.
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Indirect aggression includes behaviours such as criticizing a competitor's appearance, spreading rumours about a person's sexual behaviour and social exclusion. Human females have a particular proclivity for using indirect aggression, which is typically directed at other females, especially attractive and sexually available females, in the context of intrasexual competition for mates. Indirect aggression is an effective intrasexual competition strategy. It is associated with a diminished willingness to compete on the part of victims and with greater dating and sexual behaviour among those who perpetrate the aggression.
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Intrasexual competition implies viewing the confrontation with same-sex individuals, especially in the context of contact with the opposite-sex, in competitive terms. After constructing the items for the preliminary scale and after conducting a pilot study, in two studies with a total of 706 participants from The Netherlands and Canada, a 12-item scale for individual differences in intrasexual competition was developed that was sex neutral, and that had a high degree of crossnational equivalence. In The Netherlands, sociosexuality, sex drive and social comparison orientation were independently related to intrasexual competition. In Canada, intrasexual competition was strongly, and independently of the Big Five, related to social comparison orientation, but only among women. There was no effect of birth order, but sibling rivalry did correlate with intrasexual competition. Among men, intrasexual competition was more strongly, and differently, related to the Big Five than among women. Among women, intrasexual competition was predicted by a lack of agreeableness, and among men by a high level of neuroticism and extraversion.
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Age is a primary social dimension. We behave differently toward people as a function of how old we perceive them to be. Age perception relies on cues that are correlated with age, such as wrinkles. Here we report that aspects of facial contrast-the contrast between facial features and the surrounding skin-decreased with age in a large sample of adult Caucasian females. These same aspects of facial contrast were also significantly correlated with the perceived age of the faces. Individual faces were perceived as younger when these aspects of facial contrast were artificially increased, but older when these aspects of facial contrast were artificially decreased. These findings show that facial contrast plays a role in age perception, and that faces with greater facial contrast look younger. Because facial contrast is increased by typical cosmetics use, we infer that cosmetics function in part by making the face appear younger.
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Two sites of the Neandertal-associated Middle Paleolithic of Iberia, dated to as early as approximately 50,000 years ago, yielded perforated and pigment-stained marine shells. At Cueva de los Aviones, three umbo-perforated valves of Acanthocardia and Glycymeris were found alongside lumps of yellow and red colorants, and residues preserved inside a Spondylus shell consist of a red lepidocrocite base mixed with ground, dark red-to-black fragments of hematite and pyrite. A perforated Pecten shell, painted on its external, white side with an orange mix of goethite and hematite, was abandoned after breakage at Cueva Antón, 60 km inland. Comparable early modern human-associated material from Africa and the Near East is widely accepted as evidence for body ornamentation, implying behavioral modernity. The Iberian finds show that European Neandertals were no different from coeval Africans in this regard, countering genetic/cognitive explanations for the emergence of symbolism and strengthening demographic/social ones.
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Contemporary mate preferences can provide important clues to human reproductive history. Little is known about which characteristics people value in potential mates. Five predictions were made about sex differences in human mate preferences based on evolutionary conceptions of parental investment, sexual selection, human reproductive capacity, and sexual asymmetries regarding certainty of paternity versus maternity. The predictions centered on how each sex valued earning capacity, ambition— industriousness, youth, physical attractiveness, and chastity. Predictions were tested in data from 37 samples drawn from 33 countries located on six continents and five islands (total N = 10,047). For 27 countries, demographic data on actual age at marriage provided a validity check on questionnaire data. Females were found to value cues to resource acquisition in potential mates more highly than males. Characteristics signaling reproductive capacity were valued more by males than by females. These sex differences may reflect different evolutionary selection pressures on human males and females; they provide powerful cross-cultural evidence of current sex differences in reproductive strategies. Discussion focuses on proximate mechanisms underlying mate preferences, consequences for human intrasexual competition, and the limitations of this study.
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Research on intrasexual competition for mates focused on the strategies of self-promotion and competitor derogation. Although these strategies describe many competitive behaviors, it was predicted that they do not describe all possible strategies. In Study 1, a qualitative investigation, participants reported how they compete with same-sex rivals for mates. This led to the discovery of the strategies of competitor manipulation and mate manipulation. All 4 strategies were compared and no sex difference in their frequency of application was found. In Study 2, a quantitative survey using the 4 strategies was created. There was no sex difference in strategy use, but those involved in a romantic relationship were significantly more likely to use competitor derogation than any other strategy. A scan of the literature on intrasexual compe-tition indicates that it is typically depicted as the complement to mate choice (e.g., Buss, 1988). People are thought to compete with same-sex others for access to mates using the traits or abilities for which the opposite sex expresses a preference. The coupling of competition with mate preference is inherent in Darwin's (1871) theory of sexual selec-tion; characteristics evolve to enable an indi-vidual to gain an advantage over same-sex competitors in order to successfully repro-duce. Therefore, the traits providing the high-est probability of competitive success are the most preferred by the opposite sex (see also Andersson, 1994). Using this perspective, one could predict, for example, that because men highly value women's attractiveness (e.g., Buss, 1989), women should compete intra-sexually in terms of their attractiveness, and indeed they appear to do so (Fisher, 2004).
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Are people today any more or less interested in looks than those who lived 100, 200, or 2,000 years ago?For Appearances' Sakeanswers that question and more as the first reference work to examine all aspects of beauty, body ornamentation, and grooming. More than 300 entries tell the story, from ancient times to the present, of the products, practices, and people that make beauty a multi-billion dollar industry. Quite different from reference works that focus on the how-to aspects of beauty, this volume is innovative for its historical and global approach to how people care for their appearance. Additionally, this encyclopedia takes a look at many of the attitudes and beliefs about body and appearance that pose challenging questions to society.
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