Content uploaded by Mahoudo Fidèle ASSOGBA
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Mahoudo Fidèle ASSOGBA on Apr 16, 2020
Content may be subject to copyright.
~ 335 ~
Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 2019; 8(3): 335-341
E-ISSN: 2278-4136
P-ISSN: 2349-8234
JPP 2019; 8(3): 335-341
Received: 19-03-2019
Accepted: 21-04-2019
OG Fadeyi
Research Unit Tropical
Mycology and Plant Soil Fungi
Interactions-Faculty of
Agronomy, University of
Parakou, Benin
FM Assogba
Laboratoire de Pharmacognosie
et des Huiles Essentielles
(L.A.P.H.E); Faculté des
Sciences et Techniques,
Université d’Abomey-Calavi,
01BP 526, Cotonou, Bénin
DDCB Chabi
Research Unit Tropical
Mycology and Plant Soil Fungi
Interactions-Faculty of
Agronomy, University of
Parakou, Benin
NS Yorou
Reseach Unit Tropical Mycology
and Plant Soil Fungi
Interactions-Faculty of
Agronomy, University of
Parakou, Benin
JD Gbenou
Laboratoire de Pharmacognosie
et des Huiles Essentielles
(L.A.P.H.E) ; Faculté des
Sciences et Techniques,
Université d’Abomey-Calavi,
01BP 526, Cotonou, Bénin
Correspondence
OG Fadeyi
Research Unit Tropical
Mycology and Plant Soil Fungi
Interactions-Faculty of
Agronomy, University of
Parakou, Benin
Ethnomycology, myco-chemical analyzes and
antioxidant activity of eleven species of the genus
Amanita (Basidiomycota, fungi) from Benin (West
Africa)
OG Fadeyi, FM Assogba, DDCB Chabi, NS Yorou and JD Gbenou
Abstract
Fungi of the genus Amanita (Basidiomycota) contain secondary metabolites very useful for human
welfare. They are much exploited by tropical African people for various purposes. The objective of this
study is to identify the myco-chemical groups and evaluate the antioxidant activity of eleven
macromycetes of the genus Amanita harvested in woodlands of Benin. The species were selected based
on ethnomycological surveys conducted on a sample of 68 randomly selected persons from three ethnic
groups in the Angaradebou village (Borgou Province, central Benin). All target species were subjected to
chemical screening according to standard methods. The antioxidant activity was determined using the
1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl. Ethnomycological investigates reported three (03) edible and eight (08)
inedible species with chemical compounds and antioxidant activity. The eleven species of Amanita can
be useful in primary health care of local people.
Keywords: Wild mushrooms, chemical composition, edibility, health care, local people, Benin
Introduction
Previous studies have documented the various biological activities of fungi, including
antibacterial, antiviral, antitumor and hepato-protective activities [1]. Like plants, fungi possess
antioxidant capacity in in vitro systems. They contain antioxidant compounds such as:
phenolics [2], alkaloids [2], organic acids [3] and can therefore be used both as a food supplement
and in the pharmaceutical industry. These compounds do not act in the human organism when
there is oxidative stress. Oxidative stress is generally related to the imbalance between the
production of free radicals and the body's ability to neutralize and repair various oxidative
damage [4]. The oxidative stress usually affects many cells such as the oxidation of sugars and
proteins, lipid peroxidation and various genetic mutations [5]. It represents a very crucial factor
promoting the development of many sources of diseases in humans; like diabetes, neuro-
degenerative diseases, cardiovascular problem, and aging. Nevertheless, oxidative stress can
be neutralized by antioxidants, which are considered to be any substance that can retard or
prevent the oxidation of biological substrates [6]. These antioxidants actually have the ability to
neutralize free radicals derived from either normal essential metabolic processes in the human
body or from external sources. These are mainly micronutrients such as vitamin C (ascorbic
acid), vitamin E (α-tocopherol), β-carotene and vitamin A; naturally available in fungi [7],
phenolic compounds (flavonoids, and phenolic acids) and nitrogen compounds (alkaloids,
amino acids and amines) [8]. Certain antioxidants such as flavonoids are used in the cosmetic,
pharmaceutical and food sectors [9].
Fungi are ubiquitous organisms that produce a variety of biomolecules with both nutritional
and pharmaceutical properties [10]. Secondary metabolites of Basidiomycota are exploited
fortheir pharmacological activities to face various pathologies such as chronic inflammation,
pathologies associated with oxidative processes, diabetes, infections (HIV, fungi, bacteria),
immunological disorders and cancer [11]. Apart from their taste and their attractive aroma, fungi
are known for their content in proteins, fats carbohydrates, amino acids and vitamins [12] such
as vitamins B, C and D and mineral elements [13]. Fungi are also known for their richness in
different bioactive substances with antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antioxidant and anti-
parasitic properties [1]. Antioxidants found in fungi [14] provide the same medical services as
plants because of their chemical composition [15]. However, the different therapeutically
valuable phytochemicals may act as antioxidants or prevent the oxidative stress underlying
pathological conditions such as cancer and diabetes [16], heart disease [17] and microbial
~ 336 ~
Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry
pathogens [18]. Some species of the genus Amanita
(Basidiomycota) have very important myco-chemical
elements for the organism [19].
In tropical Africa, and in Benin in particular, several species
of Amanita are consumed [20] by local people, although the
genus presents a wide range of edible and toxic species [21].
Not only some species can be eaten as food, but such edible
taxa can be incorporated into diets as food supplements whilst
inedible species can also be exploited as a source of bioactive
metabolites. Edible and non-edible Amanita species can
therefore be powerful sources of bioactive compounds, thus
conferring their important chemical characterization on the
human organism. In the present study, we are attempting to
document the chemical composition of the genus Amanita,
one of the most controversial fungal taxa when it comes to
edibility, and to discussing their potential importance to local
inhabitants.
Material and methods
Study site
The present study was carried out in the forest reserve of
“Ouémé Supérieur” located in central part of North Benin,
between 9 ° 11 'and 9 ° 47' N latitude and 1 ° 58 'and 2 ° 28' E
longitude. The specimens used in the present study have been
collected in Ceasalpinioid-dominated woodlands in Figure 1
below.
Fig 1: Vegetation map of the ''Ouémé Supérieur" forest reserve showing the sampling sites in red, blue and yellow circles.
Materials
Specimens’ collection, identification and preservation of
specimens
Specimens sampling consisted in harvesting the whole fruit
bodies by mean of the knife, taking care not to bruise any part
of the fruit body necessary for a reliable identification of the
species. Professional photographs (see Appendice 1) of the
specimens were taking in situ by mean of the digital camera
type Power Shot A2200 HD CANON (4 x Optical Zoom; 14.
1 Mega Pixels). The specimens are thereafter dried by mean
of a field dryer [22] to the low heat until dehydration and
stabilize their weight. After complete dehydration, the
samples are kept in plastic bags type minigrip in order to
avoid rehydration and deposited at mycological herbarium of
the University of Parakou (UNIPAR, 23), for further
investigations. Various field books, among others [22, 24] and
the serie Flore Iconographique des Champignons du Congo
[25] are used for identification. Nomenclatural and spelling of
the scientific names are checked in index fungorum
(www.mycology.net).
Sampling of the population for ethnomycological survey
A rapid survey was done on 100 people (all ethnic groups
combined) sampled randomly in the Angaradébou village. We
adopted the sampling strategy of Dagnelie [26] to retain the
number of people who effectively know and/or use the target
fungi. By referring the methods as developed and used by [26,
27], we considered a final sampling size of 68 respondents
sorted as follow into the three most represented ethnic groups
in the regions: Yom (41), Peuhls (15) and Lokpa (12).
Ethnomycological surveys
The fresh specimens sampled during forest visits have been
used to make ethnomycological surveys. The surveys were
carried out following semi-structured interviews in which
each respondent or group of respondents were subjected to a
questionnaire addressing the main lines related to our study.
Fresh specimens of Amanita, are presented to local
populations. The ultimate goal of the ethnomycological
surveys is to identify the use and kind of use made of Amanita
species, but also to rank the species according to their utility
and importance.
Evaluation of endogenous knowledge of local populations
To assess the endogenous knowledge of local populations
with respect to the different uses
made of wild species of the genus Amanita, scores were used
to calculate the reported Value Use of Gomez Beloz (RVU),
Ethnobotanical Use Value (EUV), Total Ethnobotanical Use
Value (TUV) and the K Sorensen index to evaluate
homogeneity degree of knowledge among all three ethnic
group. We refer to [26, 27] for the calculation of the various
indices mentioned above. These scores attributed are
following: the species is not used at all: 0, the species is rarely
used: 0.5, the species is frequently used: 1 and the species is
very frequently used: 1.5.
~ 337 ~
Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry
Preparation of extracts for mycochemical screening
To obtain the extract, one hundred (100) g of powder of each
mushroom species were macerated in 1 liter of distilled water
and then heated for 30 min. The decocts obtained were
filtered on wattman filter paper 3 mm thick. The aqueous
extracts obtained were stored in the freezer for all subsequent
uses.
Qualitative chemical analyzes of selected species
Qualitative mycochemical screening was performed on the
powder samples after extracted with aqueous solvent, using
the standard method based on staining and precipitation as
described [28] and used by [ 29, 30].
Determination of the antioxidant activity (EC50) of the
extracts
For this test, the samples were prepared by dissolution in
distilled water [31]. Each stock solution is diluted in a
geometric series of reason 2 to have different concentrations.
In dry test tubes, 1 ml of the solution of the extract to be
tested, added to 2 ml of the DPPH solution (0.08 mg / ml), are
introduced. Then the tubes are protected from light for 30
minutes. The absorbance is read at 517 nm on the
spectrophotometer. The positive control is represented by
ascorbic acid and is treated under the same conditions as the
test sample.
Data processing and analysis
The antioxidant activity of the extract was expressed in EC50.
The IC50 values were obtained from a linear regression
between optical densities (OD) and concentrations.
Results
Diversity, use and ethnomycological use value of wild
mushrooms investigated
A total of 11 species is recorded. Ethnomycological
investigation allowed record three (3) edible species in the
study region. The list of species collected in the study and
their uses by local people area are presented in table 1 below.
Table 1: List of species of the genus Amanita and their uses according to ethnic groups
Voucher number of the specimen
Scientific names
Edibility by ethnic group
Yom
Peuhls
Lokpa
FOG 0546
Amanita crassiconus Bas
-
-
-
FOG 0655
Amanita afrospinosa Pegler & Shah-Smith
-
-
-
FOG 0656
Amanita cf. xanthogala nom.prov.
-
-
-
FOG 0657
Amanita cf. xanthogala (witish form) nom.prov.
-
-
-
FOG 0163
Amanita craseoderma Bas
-
-
-
FOG 0658
Amanita loosii Beeli
+
+
-
FOG 0325
Amanita masasiensis Härk. & Saarim.
+
+
-
FOG 0659
Amanita pulverulenta Beeli
-
-
-
FOG 0660
Amanita subviscosa Beeli
+
+
+
FOG 0305
Amanita virido-odorata nom.prov.
-
-
-
FOG 0657
Amanita strobilaceo- luteotacta nom. prov.
-
-
-
Legend: (+) Edible species (-) Inedible species
Three (03) species are reported to have trade-therapeutical importance by Yom people (see table 2 below).
Table 2: List of therapeutic species and patterns of use
Yom
Species
Disease Treated
Potency Preparation
Dosage
Amanita masasiensis
Ulcer or heart disease
Boil the mushroom and add a little salt
Drink during the discomfort
Amanita crassiconus
Heals the pimples on body
Boil and pass to the infected parts
Applied as needed
Amanita subviscosa
Hard feet or hard hands
Boiling with water without salt + adding shea
butter Next
Qualitative chemical analyzes of selected
species
Qualitative myco-chemical content of the species
The results of the phytochemical analysis (Table 3) of the eleven (11) species reveal the presence of several compounds at levels
variables.
Table 3: Chemical compounds present in the eleven (11) species of the genus Amanita
Phytochemical compound
Species
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Alkaoids
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Anthocyanins
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Free Antracenic
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Cardenolides
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
C-Hétérosides
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Reducing compounds
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Coumarines
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Cyanogenic derivatives
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Quinone derivatives
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Flavonoids (Flavones)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Leuco-anthocuyanes
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Mucilages
+
+
+
-
±
±
±
-
-
+
-
O-Hétérosides
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
~ 338 ~
Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry
Saponosides
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Steroids
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Catechin tannins
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Gallic tannins
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
Terpénoïdes
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1: Amanita crassiconus; 2: Amanita pulverulenta; 3: Amanita loosii; 4: Amanita strobilaceo-
luteotacta; 5: Amanita cf. xanthogala; 6: Amanita craseoderma; 7: Amanita virido-odorata; 8:
Amanita cf. xanthogala (witish form); 9: Amanita afrospinosa; 10: Amanita masasiensis et
11: Amanita subviscosa.
Radical activity of aqueous extracts of Amanites species
From the table 4 below, species with low value of IC50 or EC50 and high ARP are the most
active.
Table 4: Values of inhibitory concentration (IC50); efficient concentration (EC50) and antiradical power (ARP)
Solution tested
IC50 (µg/ml)
EC50 (µg/mg/DPPH)
ARP
AC. Ascorbique
1,683±0,000
0,032±0,000
31,681±0,042
A. stobilaceo luteotacta
8,919±0,00002
0,167±0,0005
5,979±0,0185
A. pulverulenta
14,65±0,0001
0,275±0,001
3,641±0,018
A. cf xanthogala
15,275±0,007
0,286±0,125
3,861±1,689
A. crassiconus
16,679±0,002
0,313±0,031
3,214±0,321
A. loosii
20,045±0,0001
0,376±0,001
2,661±0,010
A. craseoderma
116,053±0,022
2,176±0,404
0,468±0,087
A. masasiensis
128,303±0,004
2,406±0,079
0,416±0,014
A. cf. xanthogala (witish form)
133,335±0,002
2,500±0,030
0,400±0,005
A. subviscosa
133,945±0,0003
2,511±0,007
0,398±0,001
A. afrospinosa
251,762±0,001
4,721±0,025
0,212±0,001
A. virido-odorata
875,07±0,039
16,408±0,745
0,061±0,003
Discussion
Diversity and exploitation of wild mushrooms of the genus
Amanita
Amanita masasiensis, A. subviscosa and A. loosii are
exploited by local populations as food. Eight (8) species are
reported as inedible. The low consumption of species of the
genus Amanita is due to unpleasant colors and forms. The low
diversity of useful species can also be attributed to the
sedentarily habit of the ethnic groups, who for the most part
are neither nomadic nor transhumant and therefore do not
know the species consumed by other peoples or ethnic groups
from other regions. The differential use of fungal taxa
reported in our study were already reported in tropical Africa
[26] demonstrated that sociolinguistic groups living in the same
village use the fungal resources differently. This is mostly
attributed to the cultural and culinary background of each
ethnic group, but also to their installment history in the area.
The more an ethnic group is ancient, the deeper the ethno
biological knowledge [32]. Our results confirm the globally
recognized reputation of this genus as having enough toxic
species. Globally, only seven (07) species are reported to be
edible for the whole West Africa, from a putative diversity of
70 [33]. In addition, this low number of edible species is also
reported in Togo where the same species (Amanita loosii, A.
masasiensis and A. subviscosa) are also consumed [34].
Similarly, three (03) species are consumed by the Bobo
Madaré, Mooré and Gouindougouda ethnic groups in Burkina
Faso [35]. Nevertheless, the rejection of a species by a people
does not necessarily justify this species being inedible [20, 32].
Some species considered inedible by the local populations of
our region are consumed and appreciated in other localities.
For example, Amanita craseoderma is consumed by the Yom
in the N'Dali region [22] A. crassiconus and A. cf. xanthogala
are mentioned as edible by Nagot people in Benin [22], whilst
these species are rejected by the ethnic groups of our study
area [36]. These results confirm that mycophagy does indeed
vary from one region to another on the same territory [35], but
also between populations living in the same forest villages [32].
Qualitative chemical analyzes
The mycochemical screening reveals the presence of
phytochemicals such as alkaloids, flavonoids, saponosides,
catechin tannins, gallic tannins, leuco-anthocyanins, reducing
compounds and mucilages that vary with species. These
results are consistent with earlier works on selected fungi in
Nigeria and Sudan [37] and are somewhat consistent with
results by [38] on fungi from Kenya. The active compounds
identified are biological substances of plant origin, which
have the capacity to strengthen the immune system of the
human body. Alkaloids are known for their antimalarial, anti-
tumor, anti-bacterial properties [39]. Saponosides have a wide
range of beneficial pharmacological properties, such as anti-
inflammatory and anti-diabetic effects, expectorant and
immune stimulant effects [40]. Phenolic compounds are broad-
spectrum antioxidants with medicinal properties such as anti-
cancer, anti-inflammatory and diabetic effects [41]. This is the
case for flavonoids that have pharmacological properties
including anti-cancer, antimalarial, anti-diabetic, antiviral,
anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, and anti-allergic [42]. The
different secondary metabolites identified in species of the
genus Amanita could explain the satisfaction that its last ones
provide in traditional medicine.
Mcotherapy in this region is practiced by men, the edible
species Amanita masasiensis and A. subvicosa are used to
treat ulcers and to treat hard feet and slit hands respectively.
The inedible species Amanita crassiconus is used to treat
pimples on the body. The therapeutic properties reported by
local populations is therefore due to the presence of some
most important secondary metabolites: alkaloids, saponosides
and tannins [43].
Antioxidant activity of the species investigated
According to [40], any extract with an inhibitory concentration
~ 339 ~
Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry
(IC50) of less than 10 mg/ml has an antioxidant activity. As such,
the 11 taxa investigated in this study therefore have an
effective antioxidant activity. That some taxa are edible
attests of the utility of these fungi for local inhabitants for
antioxidant activities. Although organisms have antioxidants
and natural repair systems to protect them from oxidative
damage, these systems are not enough to prevent them
completely [30]. Hence, the importance of antioxidants in food
as protective agents to help humans in the reduction of
oxidative damage. Nevertheless, the values of the effective
concentrations observed in the present study are all superior
to ascorbic acid, a powerful antioxidant [44]. This means that
ascorbic acid (vitamin C) has a better antioxidant activity than
the Amanita extracts because of its low IC50 values (1.683 μg
/ ml); EC50 (0.032 μg / mg / DPPH) and its high ARP value
(31,681). At the same time, Amanita vaginata [16]; Tricholoma
giganteum [16]; Volvariella volvacea and Ramaria aurea [45],
whose antioxidant activity is determined with methanoic
extracts, also give low EC50 respectively 1.48, 0.75, 0.265 and
0.857 mg/ml; all higher than that of 'ascorbic acid.
It has been demonstrated that a strong correlation between the
antioxidant activity of plant materials and their phenolic
compounds [46]. Edibles fungi consumed by local people have
all of the phénolitic compounds; Amanita loossi and A.
masasiensis with their catechiques tannin and flavonoid
(flavones) and A. subviscosa which consists not only of
catechiques tannin, flavonoids but also of Gallic tannins. The
same observations were made for Amanita loosii with its
phenol and flavonoids composition [46]. Hence; in growing
demand of food and pharmaceutical industries, such wild
edible mushrooms can be important candidates [47]. This is for
the first time; Amanita loosii, Amanita masasiensis and
Amanita subviscosa were subjected to preliminary
biochemical analysis. New studies on nutritional values and
on their heavy metal composition will give more certainty on
their edibility.
Annex
Fresh specimens of the genus Amanita
Plate 1: Amanita cf. xanthogala (whitish form) non.prov, 2- Amanita craseoderma, 3- Amanita crassiconus, 4. Amanita loosii, 5- Amanita
masasiensis, 6- Amanita pulverulenta, 7-Amnita qfrospinosa, 8- Amanita strobilaceo-luteotacta non.prov, 9- Amanita subviscosa, 10- Amanita
virido-odorata non.prov 11- Amanita cf. xanthogala non.prov. Photo de terrain 2015
Acknowledgement
Our sincere thanks to the local communities (Yom, Peuhls
and Lokpa) for sharing their knowledge. Fieldworks have
been possible thanks to the project “Diversity and
productivity of locally harvest mushrooms in the face of
climate variability in central Benin (grant n° 226-2014-1109)
financed by the Swedish Research Foundation. Preliminary
identifications of the specimens have been possible by mean
of laboratory equipment granted by the German Academic
Exchange Service (DAAD, grant PKZ 300499). We thank the
anonymous reviewers for their constructive critics and
comments.
References
1. Lindequist U, Niedermeyer THJ, Jülich WD. The
pharmacological potential of mushrooms. Evid Based
Complement Alternat Med. 2005; 2:285-299.
2. Quezada N, Ascensio M, Del Valle JM, Aguilera JM,
~ 340 ~
Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry
Gómez B. Antioxidant activity of crude extract, alkaloid
fraction and flavonoid fraction from boldo (Peumus
boldus Molina) leaves. Journal de Food Science 2004;
69:371-376.
3. Mato I, Huidobro J, Simal-Lozano J, Sancho MT.
Significance of nonaromatic organic acids in honey.
Journal of Food Protection. 2003; 66:2371-2376.
4. Pincemail J, Bonjean K, Cayeux K, Defraigne JO.
Nphysiological mechanisms of antioxidant defense.
Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism 2002; 16:233-239.
5. Gutteridge JM, Halliwell B. A compilation of cause and
consequence. Free Radical Research Communications
1993; 3:141-158.
6. Boyd B, Ford C, Koepke MC, Gary K, Hom E, Mcanally
et al. Open pilot study of the antioxidant effect of
Ambrotose AOTM on healthy people. Glyco Science &
Nutrition 2003; 4:1-7.
7. Payel M, Jit S, Narayan CM, Krishnendu A.
Phytochemical Analysis and Evaluation of Antioxidant
Efficacy of Ethanolic Extract of Termitomyces medius.
Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Rev. Res. 2014; 27:261-266.
8. Meddour A, Yahia M, Benkiki N, Ayachi A. Study of the
antioxidant and antibacterial activity of extracts from a
set of parts of the flower of Capparis spinosa L.
Lebanese Science Journal. 2013; 14:49-60.
9. Chebil L, Humeau C, Falcimagine A, Engasser J, Ghoul
M. Enzymatic acylation of flavonoids. Process Biochem
2006; 41(11):2237-51
10. Wei S, Helsper JPFG, Van Griensven LJLD. Phenolic
compounds present in medicinal mushroom extracts
generate reactive oxygen species in human cells in vitro.
Int J Med Mushrooms. 2008; 10(1):1-13
11. Poucheret P, Fons F, Rapior S. Biological and
pharmacological activity of higher fungi: 20-year
retrospective analysis. Cryptog Mycol. 2006; 27:311-333.
12. Chang ST, Buswell JA. Mushroom neutraceuticals.
World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology. 1996;
12(5):473-476.ie.
13. Fasidi IO, Kadiri M. Changes in nutrient contents of two
Nigerian mushrooms. Termitomyces robustus (Beeli)
Heim and Lentinus subnudus (Berk), during sporophore
development. Die Nahrung, 1990; 34:141-420.
14. Bjelakovic G, Nikolova D, Gluud LL, Simonetti RG,
Gluud C. Antioxidant supplements for prevention of
mortality in healthy patients and patients with various
diseases. Cochrane Systematic Review. 2008. DOI:
10.1002/14651858.CD007176.pub2.
15. Phan TT, See PO, Lee ST, Chan SY. Antioxidant effects
of the leaves of the leaves of the chromosome of the
human body and the skin of the skin and the skin of the
skin and hypoxanthine-xanthine oxidase. Burns 2001;
27:319-327.
16. Chatterjee A, Khatua S, Chatterjee S, Mukherjee A, Paloi
S, Acharya K et al. Fraction riche en polysaccharides de
Termitomyces eurhizus accélérer la cicatrisation de
l’ulcère gastrique induit par la méthacine souris,
Glycoconjugate. 2013; 30:759-768.
17. Biswas G, Rana S, Sarkar S, Acharya K.
Cardioprotective activity of the thanolic extract of
Astraeushy grometricus (Pers.). Morg, Pharmacology
online 2011; 2:808-817.
18. Rai M, Sen S, Acharya K. The antimicrobial activity of
four wild edible fungi from the Darjeeling Hills, West
Bengal, India. International Journal of Pharmech
Research. 2013; 5:949-956.
19. Sushri ST, Ashutosh R, Nibha G. Nutritive properties and
antioxidative activity of Amanita caesarea and a. Loosii
wild edible mushrooms from odisha. International
Journal of Innovative Drug Discovery. 2014; 4:124-129.
20. Fadeyi OG, Badou SA, Aignon HL, Codjia JEI,
Mutouama JK, Yorou NS. Ethnomycological studies and
identification of wild edible fungi most consumed in the
Monts-Kouffè region of Benin (West Africa). African
Agronomy 2017; 29:93-109.
21. Zhang P, Tang LLP, Cai Q, Xu JP. A review on the
diversity, phylogeography and population genetics of
Amanita mushrooms. An International Journal on Fungal
Biology. 2015, ISSN; 6: 86-93.
https://doi.org/10.1080/21501203.2015.1042536.
22. De Kesel A, Codjia JTC, Yorou SN. Guide des
champignons comestibles du Bénin. National Botanic
Garden of Belgium, Brussels, 2002; 135(35).
23. De Kesel A, Amalfi M, Kasongo BN, Yorou NS, Raspe
O, Degreef J et al. New and interesting Cantharellus from
tropical Africa. Cryptogamie, Mycologie. 2016; 37:283-
327.
24. Walter R. Flore Iconographique des champignons du
Congo. Editeur: Jardin Botanique National de Belgique,
1960. 353.
25. Dagnelie P. Theoretical and applied statistics. Brussels,
De Boeck and Larcier, 1988, 736
26. Codjia JEI, Yorou NS. Ethnicity and gender variability in
the diversity, recognition and exploitation of Wild Useful
Fungi in Pobè region (Benin, West Africa). Journal of
Applied Biosciences. 2014; 78:6729-6742. ISSN 1997–
5902.
27. Boni S, Yorou NS. Inter-ethnic diversity and variability
in the consumption of wild mushrooms in the N'Dali
region of Benin. Tropicultura 2015; 33:266-276.
28. Houghton PJ, Raman A. Laboratory handbook for the
fractionation of natural extracts. New York: Chapman
and Hall; 1998, 208.
29. Djengue HW, Dansi A, Assogba MF, Ahissou H, Adjatin
A, Dansi M et al. Phytochemical screening and toxicity
of Lippia multiflora Moldenke, a minor aromatic leafy
vegetable consumed in Benin. Int. J Curr. Res. Biosci.
Plant Biol. 2017; 4(5):77-84.
30. Assogba MF. Phytochemistry and pharmaco-biological
properties of leaf extracts of Elaeis guineensis jacq
(Arecaceae). Single Doctoral Thesis, 2015, 226.
31. Panichayupakaranant P, Kaewsuwan S. Bioassay-guided
isolation of the antioxidant constitute from Cassia alata L.
leaves. Songklanakarin. J Sci. Technol. 2004; 26:103-
107.
32. Yorou NS, De Kesel A. Ethnomycological knowledge of
the Nagot peoples of central Benin (West Africa).
Proceedings of the AETFAT Congress, Brussels 2000.
Systematics and Geographic of Plants. 2002; 71:627-637.
33. Yorou NS, Koné NGA, Guissou M, Guelly KA, Maba
LD, Ekué M et al. Biodiversity and Sustainable Use of
Wild Edible Fungi in the Sudanian Centre of Endemism:
A Plea for Valorisation. Wild Edible Fungi of West
Africa 2014, 241-269.
34. Kamou H, Nadjambe P, Guelly AK, Yorou NS, Maba
DL, Akpagana K. Wild edible fungi from Fazao-
Malfakassa National Park (PNFM) in Togo (West
Africa): Diversity and ethnomycological knowledge.
African Agronomy. 2015; 27(1):37-46.
35. Guissou KML, Lykke AM, Sankara P, Guinko S.
Declining Wild Mushroom Recognition and Use in
~ 341 ~
Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry
Burkina. Econ. Bot 2008; 62:530-539.
36. Yorou NS, De Kesel A, Codjia JTC, Sinsin B.
Biodiversity of edible mushroom of Benin Proceedings of
the Symposium-Workshop on Biodiversity in Benin.
Abomey-Calavi (Benin) October 30th to November 18th
2002, 231-240.
37. Ehssan HO, Saadabi AM. Screening of antimicrobial
activity of wild mushrooms from Khartoum State of
Sudan. Microbiol J. 2012; 2:64-69.
38. Wandati TW, Kenji GM, Onguso JM. Phytochemical in
edible wild mushrooms from selected areas in Kenya. J
Food Res. 2013; doi 10.5539/jfr.v2n3p137.
39. N'Diaye M, Eric A, Séne M, Diatta W, Dieye AM, Faye
B et al. Mechanisms underlying the endothelium-
dependent vasodilatatory effect of an aqueous extract of
Elaeis guineensis Jacq. (Arecaceae) in porcine coronary
artery ring. African traditional newspaper,
complementary and alternative medicines. 2010; 2:118-
124.
40. Lee Y, Jian S, Lian P, Mau JL. Antioxidant properties of
a white mutant of the mushroom Hypsizigusmarmoreus. J
Food Compos Anal. 2008; 21:116-124.
41. Hamzah UK, Egwim EC, Kabiru AY, Muazu MB.
Phytochemical and in vitro antioxidant properties of the
methanolic extract of fruits of Blighia sapida, Vitellaria
paradoxa and Vitex doniana. Oxid Antioxid Med Sci.
2013; 2(3):215-221.
42. Morel S. Phytochemical study and biological evaluation
of Derris ferruginea Benth. (Fabaceae). Biochemistry,
Molecular Biology, University of Angers, French 2011,
266.
43. Lingarao M, Savithramma N. Phytochemical studies of
Svensonia hyderobatensis (walp) Mold - are medicinal
plant. Der Pharm Lett. 2011; 3:51-55.
44. Hemnani T, Parihar MS. Reactive oxygen species and
oxidative DNA damage. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol.
1998; 42:440-452.
45. Rai M, Acharya K. Proximate composition, free radical
scavenging and NOS activation properties of Ramaria
aurea. Res. J Pharm. Technol. 2012; 5:1421-1427.
46. Velioglu YS, Mazza G, Gao L, Oomah BD. Antioxidant
activity and total phenolics in selected fruits vegetables
and grain products. Journal of Agriculture and Food
Chemistry. 1998; 46:4113-4117.
47. Tripathy SS, Rajoriya A, Gupta N. Nutritive properties
and antioxidative activity of Amanita caesarea and
A. loosii wild edible mushrooms from Odisha. Innovative
Drug Discovery. 2014; 4(3):124-129.
