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Abstract

The focus of this article is on the important need for educators in trauma-informed schools to receive ongoing support themselves. That K-12 teachers should attend to their students’ mental health is now commonly emphasized and indeed is invaluable for prevention purposes. At the same time, teachers in general are at high risk for burnout, and there can be much additional stress from routinely providing empathic support to troubled students in classrooms. After reviewing the relevant literature, we provide preliminary data – based on first-hand reports from 10 teachers in trauma-informed K-12 schools – about major challenges faced and ways in which these might be alleviated. These exploratory insights are then discussed within the framework of current recommendations in the field of resilience in childhood. The latter clearly indicates that if adults in major socializing roles (parents as well as teachers) contend with high everyday stress, the most important protective factor is their ongoing access to supportive relationships in everyday life settings. The paper concludes with directions for future work, highlighting areas where educational and school psychologists might spearhead and support training efforts, and help to incorporate support-based interventions within schools’ institutional cultures.
Running Head: TRAUMA-INFORMED SCHOOLS
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#International Journal of School & Educational Psychology
PRE-PUBLICATION VERSION
For published version, please email SLuthar@Authconn.com
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$ '%
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&'$
"'""
$%"%B$%%
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#&'$%$"
52'$02'&"
$.%$$
*"-$
$'
De'ning central terms: Trauma and its e*ects
'%0"%
%%"34
""6.''Ce"'"'
e2%"
"e*".
''''$-%D3'7E'>4
4
TRAUMA-INFORMED SCHOOLS
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364'$"$%
=''5%@388>4$
'CDCD63!
F%"'77745
'6'<356'784'''
*''-
'"G#'
6'=''5%'@388>4
6$"""'$%&
@''-'
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L%0'<'77M4
What does it mean for a school to be trauma-informed?
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0trauma-informed approachesC;D''C'
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5
TRAUMA-INFORMED SCHOOLS
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20'C-$
0-$
D3<'79'O4
-%"3'A'<='7>4
')37>4" 
0%-$%$"
L"
"-$-
%"'$
*"3@'L'<;'7>4
Bene'ts and challenges of using trauma-informed approaches
%0$$-
%.?'
""2
3''<'7J4%
."'$"'
 $.13'7>?'
)'<P'78?4'-'
6
TRAUMA-INFORMED SCHOOLS
 $.%""
'%%
*'%.-
"%"''
"$$.3'
7E4
'2'-'
$"% 
3=''<N*'7O?@<'774'
""2"

%3Q%'N$'<%"'79?%''L.('<
@'778?+'77J47EQ
'E9:%

;%-
"$?
3''%'('<)'
7M4$%%'
%$$-%'
%$$
$"3;'"&-N''<Q%'794#
'.%%
*3-;'7M4&"%
"$'%"1
*%$% ?
-0$3<6%'7M?
56'784
%%$""
?burden of caregiving. #
$%'$'
2"'
3)'7O?%-=<'77O?'
7>4%%% *
7
TRAUMA-INFORMED SCHOOLS
3N'7?'7J?'7?RN1<
'7794='C%D%
2$%23)'@'<'74'
$CD3'N'<='
7794
;'$'%trigger
painful re-experiencing .$34'$
%"$3'7J?'@'''<
)'7J4%$
%%$'
$%''"%
"'$"
3;'%'<@*'7O4
.involves their parents
"'$
%%2*'

.'$
$-"'
%"''"
'"3')'<P'4
&competent about their abilitiesto help
$3'N'('F'<'
7?@'Q '<'7794?%.$-%
1 $$3'74;
"gaps in training"
'"-%"
*-
3Q%'78?;'''F'<Q'74
=' traumatic events occurring at school 
*#'%
%""
3)'Q'@'6$'<5-;'77J4(
7J-9'$OMO'877327:4%
8
TRAUMA-INFORMED SCHOOLS
$$1%'7'O77
%3'P'@'P'<L'
784-*.$-%35'
777?@'('<'74'
"H$"
3('77M4'"'%'-"
 3'7?7>4$
CD%.
Qualitative insights on teachers’ needs
@""
-'"
"%'".37>4
 %$" '
'$%$-
)-'$"

Methods
$-'&"%
-%$-)-
$"-*$
$%
.$%1
.2$-''
$%%"F
$0'C@%$%
2BD
Participants
?"%)-
5$$$$
6$.
"2 %13''
4'$%%%%'
$"'
9
TRAUMA-INFORMED SCHOOLS
'%%

Results
#2'2'
compassion fatigue2
"%
#'*
C"D1
'$"%%%
%
'"%feelings of inadequacy and even
fearfulness$.
$".'C#$
%%'%
S#$#%$
'$D'$*$
"

%physical aggression and violence at school $
$L"0CD
$C.$$.
%"%D%$
 physical restraint practices
$.%"
%'evaluative policies 
=2'
$"*
"%
2%'""%
.%/"%$%
./".
10$standardized testing
'%C$
T
10
TRAUMA-INFORMED SCHOOLS
D$3"4
$$C
"%D6%'C
%%"
.'D'-
 $$A$$$
-'

#%'
$.increasing the
number of professionals dedicated to children’s mental health needs
.""'&%
*.%"L
.$$C0
'D$'C$
U$VDL
022=
2'0$$
N-0N"3NN4"%
additional training$2%'$
0#.'
$""22'
%%".*'C
""
%$%$
"%'&%'"$"%'
%%.D
0&*
'"2overall policy changes
"CUV$'D
$$"
&$
$"$'
$%$%@'
11
TRAUMA-INFORMED SCHOOLS
2'$%%"
$"%3<)*'7O4?
'%$
#$
'C#1$%%"&0'
*'$##.$#.$
.%"
$$#.%/
SD
-.0
%%how much trauma information can or should be shared'$
$'%$"'
C#$%$$
.%
'$
D
='0mandated social-emotional
learning364#
$'C#6
-'$'$.
%$D
@2'
6'
'%%"3''
'4
Discussion
N$&"1
'21%$1
 $'$
"2'$
0"#'$%2
'"*
"%$%
$0'
12
TRAUMA-INFORMED SCHOOLS
2-'$34&"-
'$3%4&"a priori 
"$%
-'&"2
2$%
@0%
$"'
=$'$
$'%$%
Resonant themes
%$.'0'
$$
''$'*"
*$$
0"
"6"$'$2 
0$$"
%%*
?7E-7J'2'
"J773
'7J4$?
%' 7-7JJ
M9$3L6('
7>4'%%'
&-
"3''
784
%$
2$$
-""%.
."-'$""
C$D
%3'7>4=
'$"
13
TRAUMA-INFORMED SCHOOLS
$$
;'
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14
TRAUMA-INFORMED SCHOOLS
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5. )-%
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$#$$"
$$1$'DC$1
$'%N#$D
6'$ 
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C%$#%#$
'##$$$$
$#$$'DC#.W$'
''%'#.
0#%"%"."
&N.#X"YD35'
784
The critical missing ingredient: Ongoing support for the teachers
#'"
'2
ongoing supports forthemselves. '
$$K'
$'-'$
1%%$$-%'
$$CD
'%
"'%
15
TRAUMA-INFORMED SCHOOLS
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'0$0"
"3<'7J?<
6%'7M4'"
2"$'$
$'."1;
$"'"'"
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16
TRAUMA-INFORMED SCHOOLS
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'3%4".$-%"@
'X1%%%C"$
%'2'2D3='77'
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/'%'**/"
0%%
%$
%"2'"
-%"%1.$-%'
'%3<)'7>4
Conclusions
17
TRAUMA-INFORMED SCHOOLS
$"!
'$-$'
% %%%
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$''
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and Practice, 38394'9J-9J8
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('+' '''6'<%" '3794
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Health'83794'9O/M9HHH777MHO7-79-8MM-7
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374
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and Consumer Sciences,903O4'O
='+'''<N*'F37O4"
F#Handbook of resilience in children3
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Social Psychology of Education, 5(3),8-J
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20
TRAUMA-INFORMED SCHOOLS
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Theory and Practice'173E4'EM8/E89
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;'F"!"
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F"Child and Adolescent
Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 2434'O8/OOO
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Review of Educational Research, 7934'E8/JJ
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Managerial Psychology, 20'M>/>M
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Psychology, 313M4'>EO/>J9HHH77>7H7EEOE7797>9J7
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 'Clinical Supervisor, 3234'E/EO
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21
TRAUMA-INFORMED SCHOOLS
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5'(;37774R#(<
N364'Violence in American schools: A practical guide for counselors
3O/742'R
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23
TRAUMA-INFORMED SCHOOLS
[\%*7%J<[\<[\%<
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L6(37>4L6(3-" 4
62M+78
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$BClinical Psychology Review, 233O4'EE8/
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$"6F>=='
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Future of Children, 2734'OM/JJ
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24
TRAUMA-INFORMED SCHOOLS
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Forward, American Medical Association.
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25
TRAUMA-INFORMED SCHOOLS
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... While understanding the neuroscience and a traumatised student's need for safety, relationships and self-regulation provides a critical first step, there is still a great deal more required of the teacher. Being trauma-informed requires teachers not only to develop complex, individualised pedagogy (Becker-Blease, 2017) but also to manage significant personal and emotional responses (Luthar & Mendes, 2020). ...
... They had the impression that teaching was moving away from teaching children academic skills toward playing a major role in children's social and emotional development. (Alisic, 2012, p. 54) This extended role often meant that teachers did not feel adequately competent about their abilities as they felt they were both under-resourced and under-trained, an observation that also features in similar studies (Luthar & Mendes, 2020). The feelings of inadequacy or lack of efficacy that ensue are problematic as they can often lead to burnout (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2010). ...
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Research documenting the effects of trauma in early childhood describes the profound and long‐term consequences of child abuse and neglect on the developing brain and the subsequent deficits in critical cognitive and social development. While educators have increasingly endeavoured to understand this impact and become more ‘trauma‐informed’ in their classrooms, little is understood about the process or what it requires of the teacher. This study explores the experiences of six teachers in regional Victoria, Australia, who sought to apply their neuroscientific understandings in their classrooms, and identifies the many personal and professional challenges they confronted. Critical reflection was employed both to deeply explore their collective experiences and to support them in this complex work. Findings describe the nuanced and interpersonal nature of trauma‐informed education and imply the need for critical reflection in teacher practice as an important element in the process.
... If teachers are not supported by administrators and licensed mental health professionals as a team effort to provide supports for students with ACEs, it might cause a feedback loop of higher incidences of teacher attrition and turnover which might cause gaps in care for at-risk students. Teachers who have a supportive administration are more likely to have higher morale [81]. ...
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Emotional intelligence (EI) is a term derived from the concept of interpersonal intelligence in Gardner’s multiple intelligences (MI) theory. This term has been used to explain one of the many expectations placed on K-12 teachers in that they are often expected to display EI. Given the prevalence of this term and popularity of MI theory, there is need to contextualize the semantic use of EI. To do so, Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory (EST) is discussed in relation to EI to provide a perspective on ways to conceptualize how to address secondary traumatic stress (STS) risk among teachers. The semantic use of EI relates to a theoretical understanding of teachers’ emotional labor. The purpose of this analysis is to highlight semantic conceptualization and links made between these concepts and to call for additional research on this interdisciplinary topic. Implications are discussed for how collaboration with speech-language pathologists can benefit general education teachers.
... Current SEL promotion initiatives in schools are often limited in scope and fail to incorporate broader systems-level practices that nurture all parties involved in children's caring environments [45]. This gap is particularly stark for caregivers and educators, as these providers are often balancing their own and others' needs in high-stress environments, which can contribute to mental health challenges in themselves that spillover into challenges in providing appropriate care for children [46,47]. Further, in the context of COVID-19, early childhood educators are at elevated risk for compassion fatigue, secondary traumatic stress, and burnout [48], which can negatively impact their ability to provide sensitive care. ...
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Background Social-emotional capacities contribute to children’s mental health by helping them navigate their own and others’ emotional states and forge healthy relationships. Caregivers and educators are critical socialization agents in early and middle childhood, but gaps remain in the systematic integration of social-emotional research into caregiver and educator trainings. The aim of this pilot study was to test the feasibility and preliminary efficacy of a social-emotional training designed to promote caregivers’ and educators’ capacities to support social-emotional development in children ages 3–8 years. Methods Fifty adults ( n = 24 caregivers of children ages 3–8 years, n = 26 educators working with children ages 3–8 years) participated in a virtual training over 3 weeks. Participants completed pre-training, post-training, and 2-month follow-up questionnaires evaluating their knowledge of social-emotional concepts, use of training strategies, mental health, and satisfaction with the training. Caregivers also reported children’s social-emotional capacities and mental health. Results On average, caregivers and educators completed 83% of the virtual training sessions and reported high satisfaction with the training. Further, preliminary evidence indicated that caregivers’ and educators’ knowledge of social-emotional concepts increased pre- to post-training and was maintained at the 2-month follow-up. Increases in caregivers’ and educators’ knowledge and greater use of training strategies were associated with improvements in children’s social-emotional capacities and caregivers’ and educators’ own mental health. Conclusions These pilot results support the feasibility of infusing evidence-based social-emotional content into caregiver and educator training initiatives aimed at nurturing child social-emotional development and mental health. The results inform future evaluation of the short- and long-term benefits of this training with a full-scale randomized controlled trial design.
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Exposure to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) is increasingly recognised as a risk factor for health problems in later life. Awareness of ACEs and associated trauma is increasing in schools and educational settings, as well as demand for supportive services to deal with needs. However, there is a lack of clear evidence for effective interventions which can be delivered by non-clinicians (e.g., the school staff themselves). For this review, we conducted a search across five electronic databases for studies published since January 2013. These studies assessed the efficacy of non-clinician delivered interventions for supporting trauma recovery or improvements in mental health in school age youth (4-18 years) who have experienced ACEs. Out of the 4097 studies identified through the search, 326 were retrieved for full text screening and 25 were included in the final review. There was considerable heterogeneity in study design, outcome measures and the intervention being studied. The majority of studies were assessed to be of weak quality due to convenience sampling of participants and potential bias, indicating there is a lack of high quality research evidence to inform non-clinician delivered trauma-informed interventions for improving mental health outcomes in school-age young people. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)-based approaches are tentatively suggested as a suitable target for future rigorous evaluations of interventions addressing ACE-related trauma recovery and mental health improvement in school-age young people.
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To minimize negative interactions and their impacts, teachers and students must successfully negotiate loaded moments, points in time when two or more parties realize that their needs differ and that they must confront that difference. In this literature review, we synthesize 30 studies, published from 2000 to 2020, that describe the evolution of loaded moments between teachers and students with the goal of identifying and explicating the co-construction of escalation and de-escalation during classroom interactions. We found that macro level social contexts and existing classroom patterns set the scene for the occurrence of a loaded moment. In addition, loaded moments emerge when specific instigating circumstances are co-constructed, which refer to incompatibilities between teacher and student(s). Furthermore, loaded moments (de)escalate, depending on the co-construction of the moment as it progresses, such as through mutual trade-offs, turnings, or refusals. Finally, these co-constructions can result in a specific long-term relationship- and bond-development. Implications of these findings for research concerning student–teacher conflict are discussed.
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dverse childhood experiences (ACEs) incorporate a group of adverse life events such as neglect that affect a significant number of students in classrooms today. ACEs link with difficulties across development and problems in physical and psychological health during childhood and adult life. In this paper, the different approaches to ACEs conceptualization are presented through employing a narrative reviewmethodology.Moreover,thelinkbetweenthevarioustheoreticalapproaches to ACEs and their collective and independent effect on development, learning and mental health is highlighted. Finally, the role of the school is discussed as a trauma- sensitive community and a supportive context that caters to the psychosocial and learning needs of students with ACEs that can be stressful and traumatic.
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In interventions for at-risk children, Tom Dishion strongly exhorted programs that are short term, cost-effective, and delivered in families’ own communities, just as resilience researchers underscore the need for programs that provide ongoing support for children's primary caregivers, and are implementable on a large scale. Presented here are preliminary results on a short-term intervention for mothers, the Authentic Connections Virtual Groups. A previous randomized trial of the in-person version of this program, conducted with mothers at high risk for stress and burnout, showed significant benefits. There had been zero dropouts across the 3-month program, and participants showed significant improvements on psychological indices as well as cortisol, even 3 months after the program ended. In the present study, virtual groups were conducted with five sets of women, all white-collar professionals with highly stressful, exacting careers, and most also primary caregivers of their children. Again, there were zero dropouts. Mean satisfaction ratings were 9.6 of 10, and the Net Promoter Score (promoters vs. detractors) fell in the “world class” range. To illuminate mechanisms of change, participants’ responses to open-ended questions on the groups’ value are presented verbatim. Recurrently mentioned were the development of new, authentic connections and invaluable ongoing support. These results, with the low costs and ease of women's attendance, attest to the value of expanding offerings such as these, toward benefiting even more highly stressed mothers themselves as well as the children for whose care they are responsible.
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Growing acknowledgement that adverse childhood experiences are widespread and can threaten healthy development has led to advocacy for schools to systematically incorporate trauma-sensitive practices and policies. While the background and training of school psychologists would seem to make them the ideal professionals to lead such work, little is known regarding their preparedness to engage in these school-based practices. The current pilot study examines the experiences, education and training, confidence and competence, current and desired roles, and perceived barriers and supports of school psychology trainers, trainees, and practitioners to engage in trauma-informed practices within schools. Results indicated that high majorities reported scant knowledge or competencies across domains of professional practice considered essential to trauma-informed care delivery. Findings and implications are discussed. Keywords: trauma-informed care, post-traumatic stress disorder, complex trauma, training, school psychology
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Secondary traumatic stress (STS) impacts many helping professionals and staff who are indirectly exposed to the graphic details of others’ traumatic experiences and to the posttraumatic stress symptoms of those persons. A nascent but growing database documents the nature and effects of STS, but no consensus definition exists for STS. As a result, there has not been a systematic program of research and development for STS preventive, and ameliorative interventions. Current STS interventions tend to focus on generic wellness, health promotion, workplace safety, worker morale, and self-care rather than addressing the specific effects of indirect exposure to others’ traumatic events or traumatic stress reactions. To address this gap, a scientific meeting of STS experts convened to consider the science regarding STS interventions and to create an agenda for advancing the field toward the development of evidence-based treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder following indirect exposure. This article reports on meeting findings, reviews the evidence supporting treatment of STS, and identifies symptom targets, best practice treatment approaches, and strategies for moving the field forward.
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In this chapter, we review evidence on a group recently identified as "at-risk", that is, youth growing up in the context of high achieving schools (HAS), predominated by well-educated, white collar professional families. Though these youngsters are thought of as "having it all", they are statistically more likely than normative samples to show serious disturbances across several domains including drug and alcohol use, as well as internalizing and externalizing problems. We review data on these problems with attention to gender-specific patterns, presenting quantitative developmental research findings along with relevant evidence across other disciplines. In considering possible reasons for elevated maladjustment, we appraise multiple pathways including aspects of family dynamics, peer norms, and pressures at schools. All of these pathways are considered within the context of broad, exosystemic mores: the pervasive emphasis, in contemporary American culture, on maximizing personal status, and how this can threaten the well-being of individuals and of communities. The chapter concludes with ideas for future interventions, with discussions on how research-based assessments of schools can best be used to reduce pressures, and to maximize positive adaptation, among youth in highly competitive, pressured school environments.
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Teachers are the engine that drives social and emotional learning (SEL) programs and practices in schools and classrooms, and their own social-emotional competence and wellbeing strongly influence their students. Classrooms with warm teacher-child relationships support deep learning and positive social and emotional development among students, writes Kimberly Schonert-Reichl. But when teachers poorly manage the social and emotional demands of teaching, students’ academic achievement and behavior both suffer. If we don’t accurately understand teachers’ own social-emotional wellbeing and how teachers influence students’ SEL, says Schonert-Reichl, we can never fully know how to promote SEL in the classroom. How can we boost teachers’ social-emotional competence, and how can we help them create the kind of classroom environment that promotes students’ SEL? Teachers are certainly at risk for poor social-emotional wellbeing. Research shows that teaching is one of the most stressful occupations; moreover, stress in the classroom is contagious-simply put, stressed-out teachers tend to have stressed-out students. In the past few years, several interventions have specifically sought to improve teachers’ social-emotional competence and stress management in school, and Schonert-Reichly reviews the results, many of which are promising. She also shows how teachers’ beliefs-about their own teaching efficacy, or about whether they receive adequate support, for example-influence the fidelity with which they implement SEL programs in the classroom. When fidelity is low, SEL programs are less successful. Finally, she examines the extent to which US teacher education programs prepare teacher candidates to promote their own and their students’ social-emotional competence, and she argues that we can and should do much more.
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Teachers in the US are now considered integral to promoting students’ mental health; here we report on two major challenges for educators in high achieving schools (HAS). The first involves high adjustment disturbances among students. We present data on nine HAS cohorts showing elevated rates of clinically significant symptoms relative to norms; rates of anxious-depressed symptoms, in particular, were six to seven times those in national norms on average. As high achieving youth often keep internalizing symptoms hidden, their teachers will need help in understanding how to identify early signs of these types of distress, and to ensure appropriate, timely interventions. The second challenge we consider has to do with relationships between service providers and parents. Data obtained from the former showed that they tend to perceive relatively wealthy parents more negatively, and as more likely to threaten litigation, compared to parents from middle- or low-income backgrounds. We discuss the importance of proactively addressing such potentially adversarial relationships for the success of both the early detection of HAS students’ adjustment problems, and appropriate interventions for them. Next, we appraise how the aforementioned challenges can greatly exacerbate risks for burnout among educators in HAS settings, and how this might be alleviated via evidence-based, institutional-level interventions. Schools must ensure ongoing support for educators who carry the weighty, dual charge of tending to the emotional needs of a group of highly stressed students, in addition to ensuring their continued, exemplary levels of educational accomplishments.
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Excessive pressures to excel, generally in affluent contexts, are now listed among the top 4 "high risk" factors for adolescents' mental health, along with exposure to poverty, trauma, and discrimination. Multiple studies of high-achieving school (HAS) cohorts have shown elevated rates of serious symptoms relative to norms, with corroborating evidence from other research using diverse designs. Grounded in theories on resilience and ecological influences in development, a conceptual model is presented here on major risk and protective processes implicated in unrelenting achievement pressures facing HAS youth. These include forces at the macrolevel, including economic and technological changes that have led to the "middle class squeeze," and proximal influences involving the family, peers, schools, and communities. Also considered are potential directions for future interventions, with precautions about some practices that are currently widespread in HAS contexts. In the years ahead, any meaningful reductions in the high distress of HAS youth will require collaborations among all stakeholders, with parents and educators targeting the specific areas that must be prioritized in their own communities. Leaders in higher education and social policy could also help in beginning to curtail this problem, which is truly becoming an epidemic among today's youth. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).
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Promoting children’s mental health in education environments has many advantages. In the United States, preschool education and the care of children is not organized or consistent across jurisdictions or income levels. Consequently, the first time society pays attention to the development of children in an organized way is when they enter Kindergarten or grade one. Therefore, the investment in promoting children’s mental health, which is critical to child development and to society, can be universally supported by the educational system. The goal of this chapter is to highlight approaches to strengthening educational systems for the promotion of mental health from implementation and scaling research and systems science perspectives. We introduce theoretical and practical frameworks that incorporate both perspectives and deduce strategies of creating enabling contexts for promoting children’s mental health in educational environments.
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Hundreds of thousands of children are confronted with traumatic experiences each year in the United States. As trauma-informed care begins to take hold in schools, school mental health providers (e.g., school psychologists, counselors, and social workers) desire concrete service-delivery options for students affected by trauma. This article provides examples from the literature via a narrative review of assessment, intervention, and practitioner support options related to childhood trauma. Specific attention is paid to framing concrete school-based trauma service-delivery options within a multitiered systems of support model to align with existing school practices. Given the large amount of literature on this topic, this article aims to reduce the barriers practitioners face when looking to implement trauma services in their schools by organizing example practices from the literature in a commonly used service-delivery framework.