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Abstract

Microplastic fibers (MPFs) have been found to be a major form of microplastics in freshwaters, and washing of synthetic textiles has been identified as one of their main sources. The aim of this work was to use a panel of 12 different textiles of representative fibers and textile types to investigate the source(s) of the MPF during washing. Using standardized washing tests, textile swatches tailored using five different cutting/sewing methods were washed up to 10 times. The MPF quantity and fiber length were determined using image analysis. The 12 textiles demonstrated great variability in MPF release, ranging from 210 to 72,000 MPF/g textile per wash. The median MPF length ranged from 165 to 841 μm. The number of released MPF was influenced by the cutting method, where scissor-cut samples released 3-21 times higher numbers of MPF than the laser-cut samples. The textiles with mechanically processed surfaces (i.e., fleece) released significantly more (p-value < 0.001) than the textiles with unprocessed surfaces. For all textiles, the MPF release decreased with repeated wash cycles, and a small continuous fiber release was observed after 5-6 washings, accompanied by a slight increase in the fiber length. The decrease in the number of MPF released is likely caused by depletion of the production-inherited MPFs trapped within the threads or the textile structure. The comparison of MPF release from laser-cut samples, which had sealed edges, and the other cutting methods allowed us to separate the contributions of the edge- and surface-sourced fibers from the textiles to the total release. On an average, 84% (range 49-95%) of the MPF release originated from the edges, highlighting the importance of the edge-to-surface ratio when comparing different release studies. The large contribution of the edges to the total release offers options for technical solutions which have the possibility to control MPF formation throughout the textile manufacturing chain by using cutting methods which minimize MPF formation.

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... From the 52 selected articles, 28 examined textile parameters varying in fibre content (e.g., [10,21,[34][35][36][37][38]), 24 dealt with variations in yarn properties (e.g., [36,[39][40][41][42][43][44][45]), 34 considered different fabric structures (e.g., [21,35,36,[46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53]), and 21 focused on reducing FF release through the manipulation of finishing treatments (e.g., [52,[54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63]). Lastly, five articles studied the influence of garment construction on FF release (e.g., [39,50,[64][65][66]). The majority (37) of the articles had samples that varied more than one textile parameter. ...
... All articles solely used polyester textiles. Four of the articles dealt with various fabric cutting methods (i.e., laser, ultrasonic, and scissor cutting) and their influence on FF release (i.e., [39,50,64,66]). The sewing method is the other garment construction property that was studied in two articles (i.e., [65,66]). ...
... It is important to note that there have been some conflicting findings regarding the impact of textile and fabric structures. In studies by Cai et al. [64], Belzagui et al. [34], and Ramasamy and Subramanian [58], the fabric structure did not have a significant influence over emissions. However, it is possible for fabric structure to have less of an influence depending on the fibre types being tested [36]. ...
Article
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With an expanding global clothing and textile industry that shows no signs of slowing, concerns over its environmental impacts follow. Fibre fragments (FFs)—short pieces of textiles that have separated from a textile construction—are a growing area of concern due to increasing evidence of their accumulation in the environment. Most of the existing research on this topic focuses on the role of consumer behaviour rather than the textiles themselves. A systematic literature review is used here to explore the key textile parameters that influence FF release. A search of articles published between 2011 and June 2024 was conducted following the PRISMA guidelines. Three databases (Scopus, Web of Science, and EBSCO) were used, and articles were screened to ensure that a minimum of one textile parameter was manipulated in the study. A total of 52 articles were selected and where appropriate, comparisons between samples used and key findings were made. The textile parameters that were found to reduce FF release include fibres of a longer length and higher tenacity, as well as filament yarns with low hairiness and higher twists. At the fabric level, tight fabric structures and high abrasion resistance show lower FF shedding. Mechanical finishes that reduce the number of protruding fibre ends or chemical finishes that increase abrasion resistance also prove to be beneficial. Lastly, sewing and cutting methods that enclose or seal the textile edge can reduce FF release. While optimal parameters have been identified, they are not applicable to all textile end-uses. Rather, these factors can serve as a guide during future production and be applied where possible to limit FF release.
... The ubiquitous presence of fibershaped microplastics in the environment (Zhang et al., 2020;Egger et al., 2020) triggered the investigation of the release of microplastic fibers (MPF) during laundry (Hernandez et al., 2017;De Falco et al., 2019). Synthetic textiles, depending on their structure, can release up to 72,000 fibers per gram during washing (Cai et al., 2020a). A significant portion of these fibers are believed to originate from various production processes, including fiber spinning and yarn production (Cai et al., 2020b;Pinlova et al., 2022). ...
... The same batch of fleece textiles was also used in previous microplastic fiber release studies by washing (Cai et al., 2020a), abrasion (Cai et al., 2021;Yang et al., 2023), and UV degradation (Pinlova and Nowack, 2023) and in the investigation of nanoplastic release during washing and abrasion (Yang et al., 2021). This will allow a direct comparison of all the results obtained for the release of various materials by different mechanisms. ...
... Our study clearly showed the formation of nanoparticles during UV degradation of polyester textiles mimicking daily use. To evaluate how relevant the process of UV degradation is in comparison to other releases of particles from textiles, we have compared the mass of MPFs, fibrils (fibers with a diameter < 5 μm), and nanoparticles released from the same fleece fabric with different release and formation mechanisms including washing, abrasion, and weathering in Fig. 5 (Cai et al., 2020a;Pinlova and Nowack, 2023;Yang et al., 2023;Yang et al., 2021). The highest mass release is observed for MPFs during UV degradation, followed by the release of MPFs during washing. ...
Article
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Micro- and nanoplastics have emerged as critical pollutants in various ecosystems, posing potential environmental and human health risks. Washing of polyester textiles has been identified as one of the sources of nanoplastics. However, other stages of the textile life cycle may also release nanoparticles. This study aimed to examine nanoparticle release during UV degradation of polyester textiles under controlled and real-world conditions. Fleece polyester textiles were weathered under simulated sunlight for up to two months, either in air or submerged in water. We conducted bi-weekly SEM image analyses and quantified released nanoparticles using nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA). At week 0, the fiber surface appeared smooth after prewashing. In the air group, nanoparticles appeared on the fiber surface after UV-exposure. In the group of textiles submerged in water, the surfaces developed more pits over time. The cumulative nanoparticle emission from the weathered textiles ranged from 1.4 × 1011 to 4.0 × 1011 particles per gram of fabric in the air group and from 1.6 × 1011 to 4.4 × 1011 particles per gram of fabric in the water group over two months. The predominant particle size fell into the 100 to 200 nm range. The estimated mass of the released nanoparticles was 0.06–0.26 g per gram of fabric, which is lower than the amount released during the washing of new textiles. Additionally, Scanning Transmission X-ray Microscopy (STXM) images indicated that the weathered nanoparticles underwent oxidation. Overall, the research offers valuable insights into nanoparticle formation and release from polyester textiles during UV degradation.
... The textiles were then cut into rectangular pieces (for washing studies) sized 40 mm × 100 mm, and round pieces (for abrasion studies) with a diameter of 38 mm (specimen) and 140 mm (abradant) using a laser cutter (tt-1300, Times technology) following the ISO standard 12,947-2:2016(ISO, 2016. Laser cutting was shown to minimize fiber release from the edges compared to cutting by scissors or folding and sewing (Cai et al., 2020b). All samples were prepared as triplicates. ...
... All samples were prepared as triplicates. Pre-washing was performed on the samples for abrasion studies to remove the microplastic fibers from yarn and textile production following the previous microplastic washing study protocol (Cai et al., 2020a(Cai et al., , 2020b. After pre-washing the textile samples were dried overnight under aluminum foil at room temperature. ...
... The washing experiments were performed following the protocol established in previous release studies in a Gyrowash washing machine (James Heal, Gyrowash model 1615) (ISO,1994;Cai et al., 2020b). The steel washing beakers were rinsed and cleaned with deionized water (DI water) before the experiments, and each beaker was filled with 150 mL 0.75 g/L linear alkylbenzene sulfonic acid (LAS) solution, simulating the detergent in real-life domestic washing progress (Hernandez et al., 2017). ...
Article
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Both washing and abrasion result in release of fibers from polyester textiles. The aim of this work was to investigate how fabrics made from recycled polyester compare to those made from virgin polyester. We analyzed microplastic fibers (MPF, diameter >10 µm) and fibrils (diameter 2-5 µm) during abrasion from four pairs of commercially available textiles. Each pair was identical except for the type of polyester (virgin vs. mechanically recycled). We used image analysis to count MPF and fibrils and to determine their length and diameter. No statistically significant difference in the number of released fibers was found between virgin and recycled fabrics, although the fabric structure (filament vs. staple yarns, with/without surface treatment) influenced the release. Although the textiles tested in this work made from recycled polyester have the same release potential fibers as fabrics made from virgin polyester, we better need to understand the influence of material properties on release.
... Fibres are the major type of microplastics found in environmental samples, with textiles being an important source of environmental microplastics 2 , especially those comprising fibres 3 . The domestic washing of synthetic textiles releases microplastic fibres (MPFs) at a scale ranging from a few to more than 10,000 MPFs per gram of textile washed [4][5][6][7] and accounts for a notable proportion of the MPFs released worldwide. It has been estimated that between 200,000 and 500,000 tonnes of microplastics from textiles enter the global marine environment each year, representing a 9% share of the total environmental microplastics 8,9 . ...
... It has been estimated that between 200,000 and 500,000 tonnes of microplastics from textiles enter the global marine environment each year, representing a 9% share of the total environmental microplastics 8,9 . Recent studies on MPFs have revealed that they are produced before delivery to customers, from yarn production to textile cutting and finishing, remaining in polyester textiles until extracted during washing 5,10,11 . ...
... It is challenging for customers to identify clothing items with a low potential for releasing nanoplastics solely through visible textile characteristics. For instance, avoiding processed fabrics such as Fleece may not always guarantee a reduction in nanoplastic release, although this is feasible for microplastic fibre release 5 . We have identified the critical processes for the generation of submicrometre particles in the synthetic textile production chain: they are either introduced during the production of polyester fibres or formed after the migration of oligomers to the fibre surface during storage. ...
Article
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Synthetic textiles are a significant source of microplastic fibre pollution. While the microplastic fibre release mechanism during the washing of textiles is well studied, little is known about the release of nanoplastics. The first investigations on the nanoplastic fraction released during the washing and abrasion of polyester textiles have been published; however, questions were raised regarding the chemical composition of the observed submicrometre particles. Using a combination of analytical methods, we show here that 12 different polyester textiles released 4.6 × 1010 to 8.9 × 1011 particles per gram of textile during washing, with a mean size of 122–191 nm. The number of released submicrometre particles was not significantly influenced by the cutting method nor by the textile structure, but positively correlated (P < 0.01) with the number of submicrometre particles present on the fibre surface before washing. We found that 34–89% of the extracted submicrometre particles were soluble in ethanol. These particles are most likely water-insoluble poly(ethylene terephthalate) oligomers. Our results clearly show the urgent need to better understand the contribution of water-insoluble oligomer particles to the pollution of the environment by anthropogenic nanoplastics.
... Microfiber release occurs throughout various stages of textile and garment production, as well as during normal wear, laundering, emissions from outdoor textile equipment, and from discarded textiles. Among these sources, domestic and commercial laundry has been identified as a primary contributor to microfiber pollution [43], with stud-ies reporting that around 700,000 microfibers (about 0.5 g in weight) can be released with every wash cycle [44]. Rivers serve as the main transport pathway for these mishandled microfibers, which flow downstream and are eventually discharged into the ocean [45] and underground systems. ...
Article
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In this study, a systematic review of the scientific literature was carried out to summarize the emerging evidence on microplastic pollution in natural caves. After the screening of 655 papers on the topic from a combined search on the Web of Knowledge and the Scopus databases, we found only 14 studies reporting quantitative data on microplastics from a total of 27 natural caves. Most of the assessments focused on water and sediment, with very limited investigations concerning the cave biota. Overall, the most common types of particles found in caves were small (<1 mm) fibers (~70–90% of items), transparent or light-colored, mostly made of polyethylene and polyethylene terephthalate. Anthropogenic cellulosic materials, however, represented a non-negligible portion of particles (i.e.,~20–30%). Microplastic concentrations in caves varied between 0.017 and 911 items/L for water and 7.9 and 4777 items/kg for sediment, thus falling within the levels of microplastic pollution found in other terrestrial, freshwater, and marine environments. Levels of microplastic pollution appear largely variable among caves, stressing the need to extend the geographic and environmental ranges of the assessments, which are currently concentrated on Italian caves on land, with very few case studies from other regions of the world and from marine caves. Despite their putative isolation, natural caves have a high vulnerability to microplastic contamination, requiring much more research effort to understand the potential risk that plastics pose to these fragile ecosystems.
... Estimations of the rates of primary microplastic production from the use of personal care products ranged from 2.4 to 27.5 mg per person per day, based on studies by Gouin et al. 55 and Napper et al. 56 . Similarly, estimates of synthetic fibres produced through laundering vary, with studies reporting between 107 and 1286 mg per day per person 36,39,40,[57][58][59][60][61] . ...
Preprint
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Microplastics release in Antarctica are becoming a concerning issue, despite of the limited human presence. This study estimates the annual release of primary microplastics from scientific facilities and analyse the policy interventions to efficiently target this pollution. The study has estimated an amount of 238kg per year, which is negligible on a continental scale but could have significant local environmental impacts. A comprehensive cost-efficiency analysis demonstrates that microplastics release can be effectively mitigated through low-cost preventive measures, such as installing washing machine filters and banning hygiene products containing microbeads. Furthermore, the implementation of wastewater treatment systems is suggested as a crucial and long-term cost-effective solution for treating wastewater effluent and removing other pollutants from the Antarctic region. These results provide a framework to inform policy decisions on microplastics release in Antarctica and lay the foundation for improved environmental protection strategies in this sensitive region.
... Various factors of appliance efficiency, washing or drying conditions (e.g. temperatures) and fabric quality (e.g. chemical composition, textile surface density, yarn type and aging garments etc.) will influence the release of microfibers from washers V.K. Snekkevik et al. and dryers [73,[81][82][83][84][85][86][87][88], but ultimately placing dryers in kitchens and living areas may increase exposure risks through air and deposition on kitchen surfaces. Thus, relocating laundry facilities away from living spaces could be an effective strategy to reduce daily exposure to microplastics in the form of microfibers. ...
Article
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Given that a substantial amount of time is spent in kitchens preparing food, the kitchen equipment used may be relevant in determining the composition and amount of microplastics ending up on our dinner plate. While previous research has predominantly focused on foodstuffs as a source of microplastics, we emphasise that micro- and nanoplastics are ubiquitous and likely originate from diverse sources. To address the existing knowledge gap regarding additional sources contributing to microplastics on our dinner plates, this review investigates various kitchen processes, utensils and equipment (excluding single-use items and foodstuffs) to get a better understanding of potential microplastic sources within a home kitchen. Conducting a narrative literature review using terms related to kitchenware and kitchen-affiliated equipment and processes, this study underscores that the selection of preparation tools, storage, serving, cooking, and cleaning procedures in our kitchens may have a significant impact on microplastic exposure. Mechanical, physical, and chemical processes occurring during food preparation contribute to the release of microplastic particles, challenging the assumption that exposure to microplastics in food is solely tied to food products or packaging. This review highlights diverse sources of microplastics in home kitchens, posing concerns for food safety and human health.
... Also, using a detergent increased MPFs release (O'Brien et al., 2020;Zambrano et al., 2019;Wang et al., 2023) or decreased it , or had no influence (Pirc et al., 2016); the type (powder or liquid) was significant (Xu et al., 2021), while detergent's chemical composition prevailed on the type (Periyasamy &Tehrani-Bagha, 2022) or showed no influence (O'Brien et al., 2020). In the studies conducted, it has been observed that the lengths of microfibers released from textiles are approximately between 100 and 850 μm Cai et al., 2020). ...
Article
Textile materials are one of the primary sources of microplastic pollution. The washing procedure is by far the most significant way that textile products release microplastic fibers (MPFs). Therefore, in this study, the effects of various textile raw materials (A acrylic, PA polyamide, PET polyester, RPET recycled polyester and PP polypropylene), fabric construction properties (woven, knitted), thickness and basis weight values on MPFs release at different washing stages (pre-washing, soaping/rinsing) were examined separately. To mimic the most popular home washing procedures, a 10-min pre-wash and a 35-min soaping/rinsing phase at 40 • C were selected for the washing procedure. Utilizing the Image J program on macroscopic images captured by a high-resolution SL. R camera, the microfibers collected by filtering the water have been visually counted. According to the results, knitted fabrics released fewer MPFs than woven fabrics, with the woven acrylic sample (A3-w) exhibiting the highest release (2405 MPFs). The number of MPFs increased along with the thickness and weight of the fabric. Recycled polyester was found to release more MPFs than virgin polyester under the same conditions (1193 MPFs vs. 908 MPFs). This study demonstrates how recycled polyester, although initially an environmentally beneficial solution, can eventually become detrimental to the environment. Furthermore, it is known that the pre-washing procedure-which is optional-releases a lot more MPFs than the soaping and rinsing procedures, and that stopping this procedure will drastically lower the amount of MPFs incorporated into the water.
... Throughout the manufacturing stages and handling of textiles, continuous abrasion, and wear can degrade the textile fibers. High-speed machinery used in textile processing and chemical processes like scouring, bleaching, dyeing, printing, washing, and finishing involves the use of harsh chemicals and high heat with mechanical force exposure that can weaken the integrity of fibers (Cai et al., 2020). If the fabric contains synthetic fibers, these broken or unbroken fibers can be released into the wastewater as microfibers. ...
Article
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Bangladesh is one of the hubs of the textile industry in the world; consequently, microfibers are an emerging threat to the aquatic ecosystem. Traditional effluent treatment plants (ETPs) might not be capable of removing most emerging pollutants like surfactants, dyes, and additives, including microfibers, and the textile industry may be a major source of microfiber pollution through products and ETPs. This study investigated the eleven woven, knit, and denim industries' ETP microfiber abundance and removal efficiency. The average (range) of microfibers found in influent, effluent, and sludge samples was 615.45 ± 377.52 particles/L (170−1,460), 212.72 ± 80.14 particles/L (130−380), and 10,545.45 ± 7,989.54 particles/kg (4,400−31,000), respectively. The abundant shape was fiber, and most microfibres had sizes between 0 and 100 μm. Eight distinct colors of microfibers were found in the samples; black was the most abundant color among all the samples, followed by brown and blue. The studied ETPs showed a 23.52% to 82.19% microfiber removal rate, which is not satisfactory for minimizing pollution. The Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis revealed that the main polymers in the samples were nylon, ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA), polyethylene terephthalate (PETE), acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), cellulose acetate (CA), low-density polyethylene (LDPE or linear LDPE), and high-density polyethylene (HDPE). The contamination factor (CF) and pollution load index (PLI), which assess ecological risks, showed that samples were moderately to very highly contaminated by microfiber and could pose a threat to the aquatic ecosystem. The findings would help identify transformative challenges required for minimizing microfiber pollution from industrial sectors and improving ETP systems
... The impact of the fashion industry on the environment is widespread and thought-provoking, accounting for an estimated 8-10% of global CO 2 emissions 6 . Meanwhile, the textile wastes are predominantly subjected to landfilling or incineration at the end of life, resulting in a depletion of resources and environmental pollution [7][8][9] , as well as the potential health threat of microfibers, which have been found in rivers, oceans, and drinking [10][11][12] . To tackle environmental concerns, chemcycling is regarded as a promising method to develop sustainable fashion and circular economy [13][14][15] . ...
Article
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Recycling strategies for mixed plastics and textile blends currently aim for recycling only one of the components. Here, we demonstrate a water coupling strategy to co-hydrolyze polyester/cotton textile blends into polymer monomers and platform chemicals in gamma-valerolactone. The blends display a proclivity for achieving an augmented 5-hydroxymethylfurfural yield relative to the degradation of cotton alone. Controlled experiments and preliminary mechanistic studies underscore that the primary driver behind this heightened conversion rate lies in the internal water circulation. The swelling and dissolving effect of gamma-valerolactone on polyester enables a fast hydrolysis of polyester at much lower concentration of acid than the one in the traditional hydrolysis methods, effectively mitigating the excessive degradation of cotton-derived product and undesirable product formation. In addition, the system is also applicable to different kinds of blends and PET mixed plastics. This strategy develops an attractive path for managing end-of-life textiles in a sustainable and efficient way.
... 02 agitation encountered in regular use leads to their formation. However, many of these microfibres may already be present in the fabric before it reaches consumers, as is demonstrated by numerous reports of decreasing quantity of microfibres released in laundering with repeated laundering cycles (Pirc et al., 2016;Sillanpää and Sainio, 2017;Carney Almroth et al., 2018;Belzagui et al., 2019;Kelly et al., 2019;Zambrano et al., 2019;Cai et al., 2020b;Cesa et al., 2020;Lant et al., 2020;Vassilenko et al., 2021;Özkan and Gündoğdu, 2021;Rathinamoorthy and Raja Balasaraswathi, 2022b;Jabbar and Tausif, 2023). This suggests that many microfibres are being formed during the fabric manufacturing and remain loosely held within the fabric structure. ...
Article
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Microfibres generated and released during the use and laundering of textiles have been identified as an important source of environmental pollution. The quantity of microfibres released from a fabric can be influenced by several external factors, such as laundering conditions and consumer use, as well as intrinsic factors such as the fibre composition, yarn characteristics, and fabric structure. This study investigates the influence of various yarn characteristics on microfibre release from knitted fabrics as well as exploring the generation of microfibres during the knitting process. Fibre composition and the yarn spinning system has the greatest influence on microfibre release. The greatest quantity of microfibre was released from ring-spun lyocell (1313 ± 140 mg/kg) and the lowest quantity was released from vortex-spun polyester (80 ± 26 mg/kg). The yarn spinning system was also found to have a significant influence, with vortex-spun yarns consistently demonstrating lower microfibre release than corresponding ring-spun yarns, likely due to the reduced hairiness of yarns spun by the vortex system. The importance of fibre damage during the knitting process was also investigated. Several yarns demonstrated significantly greater microfibre release in knitted form compared to loose, hank form, but the scale of difference was found to be dependent on fibre composition.
... Indeed, one of the fabric types that is thought to shed the most fiber during laundering is synthetic fleece fabric (Carney Almroth et al., 2018), which is liked by consumers for its softness and warmth. Cutting and sewing techniques also influence fiber loss in laundering (Cai et al., 2020;Dalla Fontana et al., 2021). The fibers lost during laundering of garments could be captured through the addition of filters to washing machines. ...
Article
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Microplastic pollution is a growing concern for the earth’s terrestrial and marine environments. Synthetic fibers from textiles are one source of microplastic pollution as fibers may be released from garments during use and especially during laundering, whereby they may enter the aquatic environment via wastewater systems. Wool is a natural fiber, but it is often given treatments to enhance its performance, such as to make it resistant to shrinkage caused by machine washing. Treatments of this type might influence the fiber’s inherent biodegradability. We sought to understand the aquatic biodegradation behavior of wool (in its unmodified form, and chlorine-Hercosett shrink-resist treated) and a range of synthetic fibers that are used in similar clothing applications. The biodegradation test was carried out in a simulated marine environment using a natural seawater inoculant according to the ASTM D6691 method with some modifications. Biodegraded wool residues were characterized by Fourier transform infrared and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopies. The extent of fiber damage was observed by scanning electron microscopy. Both types of wool biodegraded readily under these conditions and machine-washable wool biodegraded to a greater extent than untreated wool. Regenerated cellulosic fiber (viscose rayon) also degraded readily, but all three synthetic fibers (polyester, nylon and polypropylene) showed virtually no biodegradation. Analysis of solid and liquid residues generated by the biodegraded wool showed no evidence that the chlorine-Hercosett-treated wool generated any non-degraded residues. Based on these findings we believe that, unlike synthetics, wool fibers are very unlikely to lead to microplastic pollution in the aquatic environment.
... As a general trend, the intensity of the MF shedding was observed to decline significantly after the first couple of washes, particularly after the first wash (Napper & Thompson, 2016). For example, a study by Cai et al. (2020) indicated that MF release was stabilized after the fifth wash, with levels potentially being 6-120 times higher in the first wash compared to the tenth wash. There are studies implying that the duration of the washing cycle does not have a significant impact on MF release (Kelly et al., 2019). ...
... A 1-L sample of the washing effluent was then collected using a filtration system. The filtration process involved using a vacuum pump to draw the washing effluent through a 47 mm diameter filter paper with a pore size of 2.7 µm (Whatman GF/D glass microfiber filters, Hangzhou, China), as suggested by Cai et al. [45] and Wang et al. [46]. The choice of a 1 L filtration volume was to minimize the presence of overlapping MFs on the filters [47]. ...
Article
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The use of washing machines to wash textiles gradually breaks down synthetic fibers like polyethylene terephthalate (PET) or polyester (PES) in diverse clothing materials, a process that is growing in notoriety because it generates microplastics (MPs). In this study, we investigated the emission of microfibers, including both microplastic fibers (MPFs) and natural fibers (MFs), from top-loading washing machines. Our investigation focused on four popular textiles with prevalent weave structures (plain, satin, and twill): (i) PES, (ii) tetron cotton (TC), (iii) chief value cotton (CVC), and (iv) cotton (CO) fabrics. This study also examined the effects of textile weight and detergent dosage on MF emissions. After washing, MFs were collected through filtration, and their concentrations were determined using micro-Fourier Transform Interferometry (μFTIR). The results showed varying concentrations of MFs in the washing effluent depending on the type of textile. Specifically, CVC exhibited the highest emission at 4022 particles/L, followed by TC, PES, and CO at 2844 particles/L, 2382 particles/L, and 2279 particles/L, respectively. The hydrophobic nature of PES makes this type of textile prone to rapid degradation in detergent-rich environments, leading to high MF emissions. Additionally, the mechanical properties of textiles, such as tensile and bending strengths, may play a crucial role in the generation of MFs in washing machines. Textiles made of CO with twill weaves demonstrated superior strength and correlated with lower emissions of MFs. In comparison, textiles made of CVC and satin weave exhibited lower mechanical properties, which could explain their high emissions of MFs. Finally, the MF emissions of textiles composed of PES and TC, which are plain weaved, could be attributed to their intermediate mechanical properties compared with those of CVC and CO.
... Furthermore, owing to the fact that most of the environmental pollution estimates were derived from previous domestic laundry studies, it has demystified the significance of industrial effluent as a source of MF emissions persistently. Existing estimates calculate MFs shed or lost from domestic laundry related to different textile compositions, fabric types, wash conditions and methodologies (Bruce et al., 2017;Lant et al., 2020;Cai et al., 2020;Tiffin et al., 2021). These figures vary widely and were difficult to compare by significant orders of magnitude. ...
Chapter
Microfibres released from textiles are consistently found in various environments, indicating human impacts on natural systems. It is mostly reported that microplastic fibres, a subset of synthetic textile microfibres, are the primary contributors to microplastic pollution. According to the forecast, textile production will grow remarkably, and microfibre pollution will magnify and become more challenging to resolve. Wastewater treatment plants play an essential role in microfibre pollution, as research suggests they can be a sink and source. Despite the significant prevalence of microfibres in the ambient, the most common release pathways investigated are domestic textile laundering, transport through and retention in municipal wastewater treatment plants and subsequent application of processed sludge to agricultural fields as a soil amendment. There is limited research on textile industrial wastewater effluent, which is equally relevant to the upstream textile lifecycle. Studies showed that microfibres in textile industrial wastewater could be higher than municipal wastewater by a thousand times more. Microfibres released in industrial wastewater effluents do not yet have a standard test method for detection and quantification, and legislation is not yet feasible. Considering the significant abundance of microfibres in industrial wastewater effluent, narrowing the knowledge gaps and specifically targeting this major source of microfibre release into the aquatic environment is imperative.
... Mechanical abrasion is a significant aging process that occurs during wind or water erosion in the presence of solid particles, which is common in soils, water bodies, and the air. The plastic gauze pieces were mixed with 6 mm diameter steel balls [53,54] and stirred at 300 rpm for 1 and 2 d, respectively. ...
Article
Accumulation of plastic debris in the environment is a matter of global concern. As plastic ages, it generates microplastic (MP) particles with high mobility. Understanding how MPs are generated is crucial to controlling this emerging contaminant. In this study, we utilized high-density polyethylene (HDPE) plastic gauze, collected from urban settings, as a representative example of plastic waste. The plastic gauze was subjected to various aging conditions, including freeze-thaw cycling, mechanical abrasion, and UV irradiation. Following aging, the plastic gauze was rinsed with water, and the number of generated MPs were quantified. It was found that aged plastic gauze generated up to 334 million MP particles per m2 (> 10 µm) during rinsing, a number two orders of magnitude higher than unaged plastic. Fragmentation occurred in two dimensions for bulk MPs of all morphotypes. However, specific aging approaches (i.e., mechanical abrasion and UV irradiation) generated spheres and fibers via pseudo-3D fragmentation. Additionally, changes in molecular weight, size distribution, and surface oxidation characteristics unveiled a complex pattern (i.e., irregular changes with exposure time). This complexity underscores the intricate nature of plastic debris aging processes in the environment.
... They were followed by particles (44 %). Similar percentage contributions of fibers were found in other studies (Atamanalp et al., 2022;Woods et al., 2018;Cai et al., 2020;Periyasamy et al., 2022;Filgueiras et al., 2020), while similar fibers to particles share were observed in fish from Thailand (Klangnurak and Chunniyom, 2020), southern Australia (Wootton et al., 2021a), China (Jabeen et al., 2017), and Saudi Arabia (Baalkhuyur et al., 2018). The domination of fibers in water reservoirs, and hence in fish bodies, is widely discussed and explained. ...
Article
The presence of microplastics (MP) in the organs of five fish species caught in the freshwater reservoirs of northern Poland was evaluated. Gills, liver, and digestive tracts of several commercial fish species such as common perch, silver Prussian carp, roach, and rainbow trout were tested to assess MP uptake due to their high population size as well as they play significant role as biomonitors. Since the mentioned species are gladly consumed they can be considered as a source of MP for humans. MP items were identified in all fish species. The highest contribution of MP was observed in predatory fish such as rainbow trout and perch. None of the correlations between MP abundance and fish body size. The number of items per individual fish ranged from 1 to 12, with an average of 1.78. Among the investigated MP shapes two types were found: fibers (56 %) and particles (44 %). MP were observed in different organs, such as the gills (50 %), liver (11 %), and digestive tract (39 %). The most dominant color observed was blue (58 %). The dominant size range was 1–5 mm (42 %), and 0.1–0.5 mm (42 %) respectively. The FT-IR characterization revealed the presence of polymers predominantly containing polyethylene, polypropylene, polyacrylic acid, cellophane, and polystyrene.
... The existing estimates calculate the MFs shed or lost from domestic laundry related to different textile compositions, fabric types, wash conditions, and methodologies [85][86][87][88]. These figures vary widely and were difficult to compare by significant orders of magnitude. ...
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The release of microfibres (MFs) from textiles has been observed in various environments, pointing towards the impact of human activities on natural systems. Synthetic textile microfibres, a subset of microplastic fibres (MPFs), are reported to be the primary contributor to microplastic pollution. With the forecasted growth in textile production, the problem of MF pollution is expected to worsen and become more challenging to address. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are crucial in managing microfibre pollution as they can act as a sink and source of these pollutants. Studies have shown that textile industrial effluent can contain MFs at a rate of up to a thousand times higher than municipal wastewater. As more garments are made than sold and worn, the impact of industrial MF release could be higher than predicted. The detection and quantification of microfibres released in industrial wastewater effluents do not have a standard test method, and legislation to address this issue is not yet feasible. To tackle this issue, it is crucial to raise awareness in the industry and tackle it using a more holistic approach. With its urgency, but still being an underdeveloped research area, priorities for mitigation actions are examined where efforts are needed to accelerate. These include the need to raise awareness and encourage more investigations from industry and academia. A consistent protocol will help us to compare studies and find solutions of high impact and measure MFs in WWTPs, which can help define the maximum limit for MF releases and support legislation implementation.
... Plastic debris also enter the oceans through textiles. It is estimated that approximately 7,00,000 micro fibres generated and directly released by washing 6 kg synthetic clothes [34,35]. ...
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Today, the world is struggling with the colossal amount of microplastics (MPs) due to the tremendous increase in the global production. Presence of MPs in the water samples, biological samples, and its potential to carry lethal chemicals raised the interest on better management of MPs. However, an effective degradation methodology is necessary to decrease the prolonged lifetime of such polymeric materials. So far, very limited reports are available on the degradation methods such as photo-oxidation, biodegradation, photo-thermal oxidative process, subsequent mechanisms involved during the degradation of MPs. Many critical challenges pertaining to those are poorly understood. Particularly, the extraction process, reliable methods to degrade MPs and their analytical techniques, level of MPs contamination in commercially caught fishes and the population at large. Here, we have revisited shortly on current MPs extraction process, various degradation methods using catalyst with their respective mechanisms. Also, the role of most common analytical methods/tools, to identify, analyse the degraded product from MPs, both environment samples and experimental samples, were elaborated. Finally, the solutions to overcome the problems were identified. Graphical Abstract
... Previous studies have shown that there are numerous potential sources of fibrous atmospheric MPs, including, to mention a few, clothing, carpet, and other textiles, fishing gear (e.g., discarded nets), and city dust, the latter consisting of highly weathered and abraded plastics. Within the study area, the most likely sources of fibrous MPs are textiles, which are often associated with urban areas (Liu et al., 2019a); the use, washing, and drying of clothing (Cai et al., 2020); and the manufacture of carpets, clothing, and other items. The sampling site northwest of Wuliangsuhai is close to Erdos City, and there were a large number of textile factories in the city, leading to more fibrous MPs at the sampling site. ...
Article
The extensive use of single-use or disposable face masks has raised environmental concerns related to microfiber contamination. In contrast, research on the potential release and ecological impact of microfibers from washable masks (WMs), suggested as an eco-friendly alternative, is currently lacking. Here, we comprehensively investigated the release of microfibers from disposable and WMs of different types in simulated aquatic environments and real-life scenarios, including shaking, disinfection, hand washing, and machine washing. Using a combination of wide-field fluorescence microscopy, He-ion microscopy, and confocal μ-Raman spectroscopy, we revealed that disposable masks (DMs) released microfibers ranging from 18 to 3042 microfiber/piece, whereas WMs released 6.1 × 104–6.7 × 106 microfibers/piece depending on the simulated conditions above. Another noteworthy finding was the observed negative correlation between microfiber release and the proportion of reinforcement (embossing) on the DM surfaces. Microfibers from tested DMs primarily comprised polypropylene (PP), while WMs predominantly released poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) and cellulose microfibers. Furthermore, acute toxicological analyses unveiled that PP microfibers (0.01–50 mg/L) from DMs impacted zebrafish larval swimming behavior, while PET microfibers from WMs delayed early-stage zebrafish hatching. This study offers new insights into the source of microfiber contamination and raises concerns about the environmental implications linked to the use of washable face masks.
Chapter
In recent times, particles of synthetic microfibers have been ubiquitously noticed in a broad range of shapes, sizes, polymers, and also concentrations in the various segments of our natural environment. Research on environmental occurrence, physicochemical properties, impact on biota and ecosystems, and sustainable remediation of synthetic microfibers is being carried out worldwide. Synthetic fibers are preferred over natural fibers due to their widespread availability, durability, and affordability. Although synthetic microfibers have many advantages, they have many disadvantages such as nonrenewable, nonbiodegradable and are made up of harmful chemicals that are detrimental to our environment and human health. In addition to regenerated cellulosic fibers like viscose or rayon, triacetate fiber, bamboo fiber, and diacetate fibers, man-made microfibers like polyolefin, polyester, acrylic, and nylon are also considered as synthetic microfibers. It is reported that every year 2MT of microfibers were introduced into the sea. After entering into rivers and oceans, these fibers absorb heavy metals, toxic chemicals, and oil which are present in water bodies and become fatal. Currently, numerous studies document the negative impact of microfibers on terrestrial, marine ecosystem, and food webs as well as on human health. Due to the tiny size of these microfibers, small fish unintentionally swallow them as food, depositing in their gills, intestines, and liver. These contaminated fish are then eaten by larger aquatic species. This kind of feeding allows the spread of these harmful microfibers from one species to another through the food chain. Microfibers that are released from synthetic clothing during washing at home are the primary source of marine microplastic contamination. Six kgs of synthetic garments produce around 700,000 MFs in a single wash in domestic laundering. It is estimated that 1100 tons of synthetic fibers with polymer composition of polyethylene, polyamide, acrylic, and polypropylene are released by synthetic textile factories each year. Smaller microfiber particles are produced by the fragmentation of larger microfiber in aquatic environment. Abrasion of tires and wastewater treatment plants are also potential microfibers sources. So, to know microfibers’ effect on environment, it is necessary to detect and characterize them. The most trustworthy technique used for the characterization and identification of microfiber pollutants is the spectroscopic technique. Microfibers are synthetic fibers, with a diameter of less than 10 micrometers and finer than one denier. Fibers are categorized into two types, that is, staple fiber and filament (based on length-to-diameter ratio). Exposure to organic microfiber dust for an extended period of time and at a high dose, both through skin contact and inhalation, is harmful to the epithelial growth and it can cause allergies, lung disease, and respiratory illness in textile workers. The techniques mainly used nowadays for the removal of microplastics are physical, chemical, and biological processes. Coagulation, filtration, and sedimentation are the main physical removal techniques. Similar to that, photocatalytic oxidation and oxidation removal are used in chemical treatment technology. Cora Ball and lint filters are used to reduce the release of microfibers into the aquatic sources. Similarly, electrocoagulation and the use of Fe3O4 nanoparticles are the emerging techniques used for the remediation.
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We assessed microplastic (μP) pollution in water and sediment samples during the dry and rainy season (October/2018 and March/2019, respectively) from the Guarapiranga Reservoir in the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo, Brazil, which provides drinking water for up to 5.2 million people. The concentration of mPs varied spatially and seasonally, with the higher concentrations observed near the urbanized areas and during the dry season. Water column concentrations ranged from 150 to 3100 particles/m³ and 0.07–25.05 mm³ plastic/m³ water during the dry season, and 70–7900 particles/m³ and 0.06–4.57 mm³ plastic/m³ water during the rainy season. Sediment samples were collected only during the rainy season, with concentrations ranging from 210 to 22,999 particles/kg dry weight and 0.15–111.46 mm³/kg dry weight. The particle size distribution exhibited seasonal variation, with μPs >1 mm predominating during the dry season, constituting 60–75% of all particles. In terms of quantity, fibers accounted for the majority of microplastics, comprising 55–95% during the dry season and 70–92% during the rainy season. However, when considering particle volume, irregular particles dominated in some samples, accounting for up to 95% of the total amount. The predominant colors of microplastics were white/crystal, black, and blue, with the main compositions identified as polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET), suggesting the influence of untreated domestic sewage discharge. Additionally, some additives were detected, including the pigments Fast RED ITR and phthalocyanine blue. The management of reservoir water levels appears to influence the quantity of μPs in the water column. As the water level increases up to 90% of the reservoir capacity during the rainy season, the amount of μPs in the water decreases, despite the higher influx of particles resulting from surface runoff caused by rainy conditions. This suggests a “dilution” effect combined to the polymictic mixing hydrodynamics. Our results may contribute to the creation and improvement of monitoring programs regarding mP pollution and to the adoption of specific public policies, which are still lacking in legislation.
Article
To investigate the escalating issue of microplastic (MP), pollution in urban water bodies, this study focuses on the aftermath of the Brahmapuram landfill fire in Kochi, India, analyzing its impact on MP concentrations in nearby freshwater system. The study conducted sampling sessions at the landfill site immediately before and after the fire. Post-fire, findings demonstrated a substantial increase in MP concentrations in surface waters, with levels rising from an average 25793.33 to 44863.33 particles/m³, featuring a notable presence of larger, predominantly black MPs. Sediment samples showed no significant change in MP count, but there was a significant increase in mass concentration. SEM/EDS analysis revealed changes in surface morphology and elemental composition, suggesting thermal degradation. Risk assessment using the Microplastic Pollution Index (MPI) and Risk Quotient (RQ) methods indicated heightened MP pollution risk in surface water post-fire. Hierarchical cluster analysis revealed the landfill's proximity as a significant factor influencing MP characteristics in the aquatic system. The study highlights the escalated challenge of MP pollution in urban water bodies following environmental disasters like landfill fires, underscoring the urgent need for policy and environmental management strategies.
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While microplastics (MPs) are globally prevalent in marine environments, extending to the Arctic and sub-arctic regions, the extent and distribution of MPs in terrestrial waters, drinking water sources, and recreational...
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The global increase of the amount of microplastics in aquatic systems is an ever-growing problem. Household laundering of synthetic textiles has been identified as one significant reason for the release of fibrous microplastics (FMP), although a high proportion of the waste water generated by the washing process is filtered by wastewater treatment plants, e.g., in Germany, before it enters the environment. The washing of garments made of synthetic materials is considered particularly and was investigated during this study. Therefore, 11 fleece garments, one mixed batch and three non-raised garments were washed several times and under different conditions in houshold washing machines. However, this study utilizing different functional polyester garments showed that mechanical raised textiles (e.g., fleece) do not generally have higher emission values than non-raised textiles, such as sports shirts and sports pants. During the washing process, the release of FMP can be influenced by different washing parameters, always aiming for a good washing result. The experiments showed, that the release of FMP into the aquatic environment can be reduced by the washing habits—especially a high washing machine load and a shortened washing time were found to be effective.
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With the pervasive consumption (currently >65% of total market shares and steadily increasing) of petroleum-derived synthetic textiles, the escalating concern of microfiber fragment (MF) pollution has emerged as a formidable menace to our ecological equilibrium. Over the lifetime (pre- and post-consumption) of these textiles, they shed tiny fibers recognized as MFs. These MFs are carriers of persistent organic pollutants and have been linked to cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, and genotoxicity, even at minimal exposures via air and water sources. Grounded in the state-of-the-art literature, this review discusses the primary and secondary sources of MF release, their fate, transport, environmental impacts, and novel technologies for MF pollutant remediation. Our results infer that MF pollution is a multifactorial issue with serious environmental and public health implications, as studies reported their presence in human blood, feces, and urine samples. We recommend a multifaceted approach to increase sanitation coverage, ensuring adequate wastewater treatment prior to environmental discharge for MF pollution mitigation. Additionally, transformation is warranted for consumers’ use, care, and purchase behavior of textile products. Government regulation of fast fashion (a major user of synthetic textiles), exemplified by recent French legislation, is essential to preventing microfiber pollution. We urge similar policy-making efforts globally to safeguard public health.
Chapter
Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) have become significant environmental concerns due to their potential adverse effects on marine and human health. These microplastic particles are created by discontinuing more considerable plastic waste or delivered straightforwardly into the climate through different sources. While the impact of microplastics on marine life has been well-studied, their effects on terrestrial ecosystems are still poorly understood. Studies have shown that microplastics can be ingested by various organisms across the food chain, including phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish, and even humans. Once ingested, these particles can accumulate in the organs and tissues of the organism, leading to cytotoxicity and immune responses. Additionally, microplastics can act as carriers for other harmful chemicals and pollutants, further exacerbating their impact on human and environmental health. This study shows that the economic impact of micro- and nanoplastic pollution is also significant, affecting industries such as fisheries, agriculture, transportation, and tourism. The cost of cleanup and the loss of revenue due to the negative perception of affected areas can be substantial. To address the issue of micro- and nanoplastic pollution, it is essential to identify and address the primary sources of plastic waste, promote waste reduction and recycling, and educate the public on the potential harm caused by microplastics. Additionally, research into the use of microorganisms to degrade plastics, particularly those with marine origins, may provide a more sustainable solution to the problem of microplastic and nanoplastic contamination.
Chapter
Increases in world population and a persistent need for plastics and plastic items are to blame for an ongoing rise in plastic production, trash creation and the ensuing ecological damage. The worldwide ecosystem is becoming more and more at risk from new pollutants like microfibres. One of the most popular research areas in environmental science seems to have been microfibre litter. Yet, there is disagreement on the environmental as well as ecological implications of the term “microfibre”. It is extremely difficult to find and implement strategies to limit the intake of microfibres due to the intricacy of the microfibre release processes and the elements involved. There is an urgent need for a thorough strategy that considers options at several levels. Toxic chemical elements may seep into food, beverages and water as a result of prolonged use and exposure of plastics and plastic items to high temperatures. Public health risks can result from the airborne emission of harmful compounds caused by the careless disposal of plastics on land and open-air burning. So, this chapter seeks to discuss a broad overview of the origins, modes of transmission, adverse effects of microfibres, regulatory and remediate approaches to handle these pollutants, ecology and accurate control strategies that are feasible for treatment of microfibre contamination. The final section will highlight the significant responsibilities for business, governments and investors in driving action on this problem.
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Microplastic fibers account for approximately 40–90% of the total amount of microplastics in water environments and sediments. Synthetic textiles are susceptible to aging as a result of prolonged exposure to moist heat, high-temperature drying, and abrasion, resulting in the release of microplastic fibers. However, studies on the effects of environmental conditions on the release of microplastic fibers remains limited. Herein, the influence of wet heat, high-temperature drying, and abrasion on the release of microplastic fibers from six different synthetic textiles was studied. The results demonstrate that the average release of microplastic fibers after undergoing abrasion, wet-heat treatment, and drying was found to be 3.7–10.5 times, 6.5–7.7 times, and 8.4–14.6 times higher, respectively, in comparison to standard washing procedures. The number of3523-8172 microplastic fibers for per gram of acrylic fabric was after undergoing various treatments. Additionally, the quantity of microplastic fibers released from polyester fabric during the first wash was 5.15–37.6 times greater than those released during the fifth wash. This study provides valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying the release of microplastic fibers from synthetic textiles, as well as the influence of aging on such releases. This provides a solid foundation for the development of measures to mitigate the release of these pollutants into the environment.
Article
The release of microplastic fibers (MPFs) during washing is the main source of microplastic pollution in water environment. Mechanical action is the principle factor affecting the release of MPFs during washing. In order to better understand the effect of washing mechanical action on the release of MPFs, a washing simulation device was designed to study the effects of abrasion action, hydrodynamic flow action and beating action on the release of MPFs. The results show that there is a certain amount of floating MPF in the fabric due to the production process. The floating MPFs can be released in large quantities even though the mechanical action is weak, accounting for about 28% of the total MPF release. In addition, the release of secondary MPFs increases with the mechanical action. The increase of the abrasion times between fabric and fabric has the most significant effect on the release of MPFs. Compared with 60 abrasion times, the number of MPFs increased by about 16% and the average length decreased by 40% when abrasion was 5000 times. This study enhances the understanding of how mechanical action during washing affects the release of MPFs. This emphasizes the impact of floating MPFs, as well as the need to optimize the washing process to reduce the emission of MPFs.
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The growing awareness of environmental issues and the pursuit of sustainable materials have sparked a substantial surge in research focused on biodegradable materials, including fibers. Within a spectrum of fabrication techniques, melt-spinning has emerged as an eco-friendly and scalable method for making fibers from biodegradable plastics (preferably bio-based), intended for various applications. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the advancements in the realm of melt-spun biodegradable fibers. It delves into global concerns related to micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) and introduces the concept of biodegradable fibers. The literature review on melt-spun biodegradable monofilaments and multifilaments unveils a diverse range of polymers and copolymers that have been subjected to testing and characterization for their processing capabilities and the performance of the resultant fibers, particularly from mechanical, thermal, and biodegradation perspectives. The paper discusses the impact of different factors such as polymer structure, processing parameters, and environmental conditions on the ultimate properties, encompassing spinnability, mechanical and thermal performance, and biodegradation, with schematic correlations provided. Additionally, the manuscript touches upon applications in sectors such as clothing, technical textiles, agriculture, biomedical applications, and environmental remediation. It also spotlights the challenges encountered in the commercialization of these fibers, addresses potential solutions, and outlines future prospects. Finally, by shedding light on the latest developments, challenges, and opportunities in the field, this review endeavors to stimulate further innovation and adoption of biodegradable fibers. It seeks to unlock their potential and contribute to the realization of a more environmentally conscious society.
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Microfiber from textiles is one of the new anthropogenic pollutants which attracted a wide range of researchers. Domestic laundry, being the most common cause of microfiber release from textiles, is widely studied. Studies exhibit a broad range of quantities of microfibers owing to the distinct quantification methodologies employed due to their convenience and resource availability. Out of several such estimation processes, reporting microfiber quantity in numbers or mass (mg or g) is quite common with respect to the unit area or weight of the textile used. However, results reported by different literature vary significantly. Hence, this study aims to analyze the microfiber release from knitted polyester fabric using count- and mass-based methods. Four different fabrics were used for this study with three different counting processes from literature along with direct weight difference estimation. The results of the direct counting method showed that the average microfiber release of selected fabrics is 13.28–33.16 microfibers per sq.cm, whereas, the direct weight estimation showed an average weight of 0.0664 ± 0.0289 mg/sq.cm. The subsequent conversion showed a release of 887.89 ± 633.49 microfibers/sq.cm of the fabric. Further, the microfiber mass was also estimated using the number of microfiber count and found that a sq.cm of fabric releases up to 0.0010–0.0024 mg of microfibers. While comparing the results, the weight-based estimation showed a significantly higher microfiber release (41.3–42.9 times) than the direct counting method. The deposition of surfactants in detergents, contaminants from the water, atmospheric contaminants, and finishes released from the fabric can be the sources of additional weights noted in the direct mass estimation. As the weight-based method is quite simple and the fastest way to quantify the microfibers, future studies must focus on this area to reduce the error percentage in quantification.
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Microfibers released from textile materials are receiving greater attention due to their severe adverse effects on the environment. Although mitigation strategies have been developed for laundering, researchers uphold that it is crucial to start mitigating at the source. In that aspect, this research aims to analyze the cutting and sewing methods of knitted fabrics and their impact on the microfiber release of garments during laundry. The results of the study have confirmed that cutting and sewing methods have a significant impact on the microfiber release of a garment. The analysis of different cutting methods showed that laser and ultrasonic cutting methods reduce the microfiber release up to 20 times compared to the conventional scissor-cut edges. While comparing the different stitch types, the overlock stitch type showed reduced shedding than the other stitch types (flatlock stitch and single needle lockstitch). Our results showed that the use of more needles increases the microfiber emission among different stitch variations of the same stitch type. For instance, a 45.27 % increase in microfiber emission was reported with the 4-thread overlock stitch (2 needles) than with the 3-thread stitch (1 needle). Regarding seam type, the proposed edge finishing seam (EFb) was effective in reducing 93 % of microfiber release as the edges are completely covered. When the effect of stitch density is considered, in the case of single needle lockstitch and flatlock stitch, the microfiber release is reduced with increased stitch density. However, a different trend was noted in overlock, which needed detailed exploration in the future. The results confirmed that a proper selection of stitch, stitch density, and seam type would reduce the microfiber release from a garment by up to 64.6 %.
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Plastic has been identified as an emerging contaminant in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Uncertainties remain concerning the amounts present in the environment and the main responsible sources. In this study, the emissions of macro- and microplastics have been mapped for seven polymers in Switzerland. The modeling is based on a complete analysis of the flows from production and use to end-of-life using probabilistic material flow analysis. We estimate that 94 ± 34 g/capita/year of low-density polyethylene, 98 ± 50 g/cap/a of high-density polyethylene, 126 ± 43 g/cap/a of polypropylene, 24 ± 13 g/cap/a of polystyrene, 16 ± 12 g/cap/a of expanded polystyrene, 65 ± 36 g/cap/a of polyvinyl chloride, and 200 ± 120 g/cap/a of polyethylene terephthalate enter the Swiss environment. All polymers combined, 540 ± 140 and 73 ± 14 g/cap/a are emitted into soil as macroplastics and microplastics, respectively, and 13.3 ± 4.9 and 1.8 ± 1.1 g/cap/a are emitted into freshwater as macroplastics and microplastics, respectively. The leading emission pathway is littering for both terrestrial and aquatic environments. Construction, agriculture, and pre- and postconsumer processes cause important emissions of microplastics into soils, and postconsumer processes, textiles, and personal care products release most of the microplastics into waters. Because mass flows into soils are predicted to be 40 times larger than those into waters, more attention should be placed on this compartment. Our work also highlights the importance of referring to specific polymers instead of just “plastics”.
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Microplastic pollution caused by washing processes of synthetic textiles has recently been assessed as the main source of primary microplastics in the oceans. Therefore, understanding the effective contribution of the washing process of synthetic clothes to this environmental problem, is of great importance. In this study, wash trials at real scale were performed on commercial clothes by using a household washing machine in order to gain reliable data about the release of microplastics, and to identify possible influences of textile characteristics on the release. The wastewater was collected and filtered through subsequent filters with decreasing porosity, and the amount and dimensions of microfibres were determined. Microfibre release was analysed in relation to the nature and characteristics of the washed clothes. Results showed that microfibres released during washing range from 124 to 308 mg for kg of washed fabric depending from the type of washed garment that corresponds to a number of microfibres ranging from 640,000 to 1,500,000. Some textile characteristics, such as the type of fibres constituting the yarns and their twist, influenced the release of microfibres during washing. A great amount of microfibres of cellulosic nature was also released during washing of clothes made with a blend of polyester/cellulose. Finally the most abundant fraction of microfibres shed was retained by filters with pore size of 60 µm, presenting an average length of 360–660 μm and an average diameter of 12–16 μm, indicating dimensions that could pass through wastewater treatment plants and pose a threat for marine organisms.
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Microplastics are emerging as a steadily increasing environmental threat. Wastewater treatment plants efficiently remove microplastics from sewage, trapping the particles in the sludge and preventing their entrance into aquatic environments. Treatment plants are essentially taking the microplastics out of the waste water and concentrating them in the sludge, however. It has become common practice to use this sludge on agricultural soils as a fertilizer. The aim of the current research was to evaluate the microplastic contamination of soils by this practice, assessing the implications of successive sludge applications by looking at the total count of microplastic particles in soil samples. Thirty-one agricultural fields with different sludge application records and similar edaphoclimatic conditions were evaluated. Field records of sludge application covered a ten year period. For all fields, historical disposal events used the same amount of sludge (40 ton ha ⁻¹ dry weight). Extraction of microplastics was done by flotation and particles were then counted and classified with the help of a microscope. Seven sludge samples were collected in the fields that underwent sludge applications during the study period. Soils where 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 applications of sludge had been performed had a median of 1.1, 1.6, 1.7, 2.3, and 3.5 particles g ⁻¹ dry soil, respectively. There were statistical differences in the microplastic contents related to the number of applications that a field had undergone (1, 2, 3 < 4, 5). Microplastic content in sludge ranged from 18 to 41 particles g ⁻¹ , with a median of 34 particles g ⁻¹ . The majority of the observed microplastics were fibers (90% in sludge, and 97% in soil). Our results indicate that microplastic counts increase over time where successive sludge applications are performed. Microplastics observed in soil samples stress the relevance of sludge as a driver of soil microplastic contamination.
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The topic of shedding of micro-sized polymeric particles, so called microplastics, from textiles has been covered by an increasing number of studies over the past years. However, the methods with which the shedding of microplastics from textiles has been measured so far has shown a large variation. Consequently, the results regarding the amount of shed particles also vary, from 120 to 728,289 particles from similar garments in recent studies. This article presents research enabling for identification of whether the shedding of microplastics from different types of fabric was dependent on construction parameters. As none of the methods in the existing literature could be used for evaluating shedding of microplastics from textiles, a method was developed for this purpose. The resulting final method is described in this paper as well as the work with minimizing the error sources and consequently the standard deviation of the results through selection of material samples, equipment and procedure for sample preparation, washing, filtering the washing water and analyzing the shed microplastics. Comparing the environmental load of different garments, or identifying improvement possibilities in garment construction are two examples of how the method can be utilized.
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Microplastics are highly bioavailable to marine organisms, either through direct ingestion, or indirectly by trophic transfer from contaminated prey. The latter has been observed for low-trophic level organisms in laboratory conditions, yet empirical evidence in high trophic-level taxa is lacking. In natura studies face difficulties when dealing with contamination and differentiating between directly and indirectly ingested microplastics. The ethical constraints of subjecting large organisms, such as marine mammals, to laboratory investigations hinder the resolution of these limitations. Here, these issues were resolved by analysing sub-samples of scat from captive grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) and whole digestive tracts of the wild-caught Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus) they are fed upon. An enzymatic digestion protocol was employed to remove excess organic material and facilitate visual detection of synthetic particles without damaging them. Polymer type was confirmed using Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Extensive contamination control measures were implemented throughout. Approximately half of scat subsamples (48%; n ¼ 15) and a third of fish (32%; n ¼ 10) contained 1e4 microplastics. Particles were mainly black, clear, red and blue in colour. Mean lengths were 1.5 mm and 2 mm in scats and fish respectively. Ethylene propylene was the most frequently detected polymer type in both. Our findings suggest trophic transfer represents an indirect, yet potentially major, pathway of microplastic ingestion for any species whose feeding ecology involves the consumption of whole prey, including humans.
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Microplastics in the environment are a subject of intense research as they pose a potential threat to marine organisms. Plastic fibers from textiles have been indicated as a major source of this type of contaminant, entering the oceans via wastewater and diverse non-point sources. Their presence is also documented in terrestrial samples. In this study, the amount of microfibers shedding from synthetic textiles was measured for three materials (acrylic, nylon, polyester), knit using different gauges and techniques. All textiles were found to shed, but polyester fleece fabrics shed the greatest amounts, averaging 7360 fibers/m⁻²/L⁻¹ in one wash, compared with polyester fabrics which shed 87 fibers/m⁻²/L⁻¹. We found that loose textile constructions shed more, as did worn fabrics, and high twist yarns are to be preferred for shed reduction. Since fiber from clothing is a potentially important source of microplastics, we suggest that smarter textile construction, prewashing and vacuum exhaustion at production sites, and use of more efficient filters in household washing machines could help mitigate this problem.
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Microplastics are widely spread in the environment, which along with still increasing production have aroused concern of their impacts on environmental health. The objective of this study is to quantify the number and mass of two most common textile fibers discharged from sequential machine washings to sewers. The number and mass of microfibers released from polyester and cotton textiles in the first wash varied in the range 2.1 × 10(5) to 1.3 × 10(7) and 0.12 to 0.33% w/w, respectively. Amounts of released microfibers showed a decreasing trend in sequential washes. The annual emission of polyester and cotton microfibers from household washing machines was estimated to be 154,000 (1.0 × 10(14)) and 411,000 kg (4.9 × 10(14)) in Finland (population 5.5 × 10(6)). Due to the high emission values and sorption capacities, the polyester and cotton microfibers may play an important role in the transport and fate of chemical pollutants in the aquatic environment.
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Microplastics are found in marine and freshwater environments; however, their specific sources are not yet well understood. Understanding sources will be of key importance in efforts to reduce emissions into the environment. We examined the emissions of microfibers from domestic washing of a new microfiber polyester fleece textile. Analyzing released fibers collected with a 200 μm filter during 10 mild, successive washing cycles showed that emission initially decreased and then stabilized at approx. 0.0012 wt%. This value is our estimation for the long-term release of fibers during each washing. Use of detergent and softener did not significantly influence emission. Release of fibers during tumble drying was approx. 3.5 times higher than during washing. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s11356-016-7703-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Plastic debris is a growing contaminant of concern in freshwater environments, yet sources, transport, and fate remain unclear. This study characterized the quantity and morphology of floating micro- and macroplastics in 29 Great Lakes tributaries in six states under different land covers, wastewater effluent contributions, population densities, and hydrologic conditions. Tributaries were sampled three or four times each using a 333 μm mesh neuston net. Plastic particles were sorted by size, counted, and categorized as fibers/lines, pellets/beads, foams, films, and fragments. Plastics were found in all 107 samples, with a maximum concentration of 32 particles/m(3) and a median of 1.9 particles/m(3). Ninety-eight percent of sampled plastic particles were less than 4.75 mm in diameter and therefore considered microplastics. Fragments, films, foams, and pellets/beads were positively correlated with urban-related watershed attributes and were found at greater concentrations during runoff-event conditions. Fibers, the most frequently detected particle type, were not associated with urban-related watershed attributes, wastewater effluent contribution, or hydrologic condition. Results from this study add to the body of information currently available on microplastics in different environmental compartments, including unique contributions to quantify their occurrence and variability in rivers with a wide variety of different land-use characteristics while highlighting differences between surface samples from rivers compared with lakes.
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Marine debris, mostly consisting of plastic, is a global problem, negatively impacting wildlife, tourism and shipping. However, despite the durability of plastic, and the exponential increase in its production, monitoring data show limited evidence of concomitant increasing concentrations in marine habitats. There appears to be a considerable proportion of the manufactured plastic that is unaccounted for in surveys tracking the fate of environmental plastics. Even the discovery of widespread accumulation of microscopic fragments (microplastics) in oceanic gyres and shallow water sediments is unable to explain the missing fraction. Here, we show that deep-sea sediments are a likely sink for microplastics. Microplastic, in the form of fibres, was up to four orders of magnitude more abundant (per unit volume) in deep-sea sediments from the Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean than in contaminated sea-surface waters. Our results show evidence for a large and hitherto unknown repository of microplastics. The dominance of microfibres points to a previously underreported and unsampled plastic fraction. Given the vastness of the deep sea and the prevalence of microplastics at all sites we investigated, the deep-sea floor appears to provide an answer to the question-where is all the plastic?
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Wastewater treatment plants have been identified as important hubs for small particulate plastic, down to the nanometer scale, from urban areas to the environment. The reuse of sludge as fertilizer in agricultural practices can lead to accumulation of plastic in the soil. In this study, nanoplastic particles and microplastic fibers were synthesized with a passive inorganic tracer to aid in faster and more quantitative analysis using ICP-MS. Using the anerobic digestate of a pilot wastewater treatment plant spiked with metal-doped plastic, the excess sludge was dewatered, ensuring realistic associtions between sludge and plastic. The resulting sludge cake was affixed atop an unsaturated porous medium column of glass beads to assess: i) the release of particulate plastic from the sludge, and ii) the accumulation and mobilty of plastic and organic matter through the column (analogous to a soil). A total of three particulate plastic treatments were assessed, in triplicate, where the plastic and mobile organic fractions were monitored for 14 pore water volumnes. Due to size-limited transport, low deattachment from the sludge and reduced mobility through the column was found for microplastic fibers (>95% retention). However, co-transport between the mobile organic fraction and nanoplastic particles was observed, with 50% of both retained in the column. These results contribute to the understanding of the fate of particulate plastics and to assesing the associated environmental risks of particle mobility and percolation, particularly for nanoplastics.
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The influence of laundry washing parameters on the release of microfibres (MF) from polyester textiles was studied. These fibres are an important type of microplastic pollution. However, the factors which affect MF release during laundry, are poorly understood and more rigorous methods for quantifying this release are needed. A novel method was therefore developed using a tergotometer with eight (1000 mL) washing vessels and the CIELab colour space measure of lightness (L*). L* was related to the mass of released MFs by creating a calibration curve to quantify the amounts of MFs released from textiles during washing. This method was used to investigate the effect of water-volume, agitation, temperature, and duration of the wash on MF release. Counter-intuitively, increased water-volume, characteristic of European ‘delicate’ cycles, resulted in the greatest release of MFs. Full-scale testing was then carried out using domestic washing machines with real consumer cycles to determine the effect of cycle type on MF release. In the first wash, delicate wash cycles released 800,000 more MFs (94 mg/kg) per wash than a lower water-volume standard wash and also increased MF release in subsequent washing cycles (P < 0.05). These results indicate that a high water-volume-to-fabric ratio is the most influential factor for MF release, rather than agitation as previously thought. Therefore consumers can reduce MF release by avoiding high water-volume washes (delicate cycles), transitioning to appliances that use a lower water-volume (North American high-efficiency washing machines), and ensuring full wash loads are used.
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The increased use of synthetic textiles in the last decades, coupled with recent emphasis on the accumulation of (micro)plastic across multiple environmental compartments, has garnered interest into how microplastic fibers are released into the environment. In particular, polyester textiles washed in the home have shown to release microplastic fibers but challenges with microplastic fiber analysis, including time and difficulty of sample preparation and measurement, has limited mechanistic studies on fiber fate and transport studies. In this study, we provide a method to synthesize fibers with an embedded inorganic (In) fingerprint which can be used as a tracer for ease of analysis and show the utility of this approach to assess the affinity for heteroaggregation between microplastic fibers and other particles in a heterogeneous suspension, as well as approximate the fate of microplastic fibers in batch studies using activated sludge from a municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). Total In content in the fibers was measured to be 0.2 % by weight, which was low enough to not change fiber dynamics for fate and transport studies (e.g. density, etc.) but provided sensitive detection limits by ICP-MS. Fiber length was 510 μm ± 410 μm and 30 μm in diameter. The incorporated metal remained stable inside the polymer when suspended in water and in activated sludge, with < 0.1 % In leaching over two months. In batch experiments, the majority of fibers were associated with the sludge (> 99.9 %), with a mass balance of > 95 % recovery achieved on average across batches. Fiber removal linearly increased with contact times of up to 10 min, suggesting interactions between plastics and organic matter is a metric that should be considered closely in this and other environmental contexts for fate and transport.
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Microplastics (synthetic polymers <5 mm) have been recently recognized as a big environmental concern, as their ubiquity is an undeniable fact. Their wide variety regarding shapes, sizes, and materials turn them into an intrinsically risky pollutant capable of causing several environmental impacts. Textile microfibers (MF) are a microplastic sub-group. These are mostly shed when a normal laundry of any garment takes place. Special attention has been put onto them, as high concentrations have been found in products for human consumption as shellfish and tap water. However, as there is no consensus on the methodologies to quantify and report the results of MFs detached from textile garments, the degree of similarity between published studies is very low. Hence, the aim of this research was to evaluate the microfibers’ detachment rates of finished garments and to provide a set of comparable units to report the results. These were found to range between 175 and 560 MF/g or 30000–465000 MF/m2 of garment. In addition, there was a high correlation between the MF detachment and the textile article superficial density. Finally, our results were compared with a recent paper that estimated the annual mass flow of MFs to the oceans. This previous publication is 30 times higher when related to the mass but 40 times lower if related to the number of MFs.
Article
Microplastics have aroused increasing concern as they pose threats to aquatic species as well as human beings. They do not only contribute to accumulation of plastics in the environment, but due to absorption they can also contribute to spreading of micropollutants in the environment. Studies indicated that wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) play an important role in releasing microplastics to the environment. Therefore, effective detection of the microplastics and understanding their occurrence and fate in WWTPs are of great importance towards microplastics control. In this review, the up-to-date status on the detection, occurrence and removal of microplastics in WWTPs are comprehensively reviewed. Specifically, the different techniques used for collecting microplastics from both wastewater and sewage sludge, and their pretreatment and characterization methods are reviewed and analyzed. The key aspects regarding microplastics occurrence in WWTPs, such as concentrations, total discharges, materials, shapes and sizes are summarized and compared. Microplastics removal in different treatment stages and their retention in sewage sludge are explored. The development of potential microplastics-targeted treatment technologies is also presented. Although previous researches in microplastics have undoubtedly improved our level of understanding, it is clear that much remains to be learned about microplastics in WWTPs, as many unanswered questions and thereby concerns still remain; some of these important future research areas are outlined. The key challenges appear to be to harmonize detection methods as well as microplastics mitigation from wastewater and sewage sludge.
Article
Microplastics (MPs) are among major micro-pollutants ( \( < 5 \) mm) which can be found in water sources and air in substantial quantities, and which still are not covered by standard extraction and analysis procedures. Even though several researches have demonstrated the presence in water sources of different MP fragments, the most common type of MP in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and in the atmosphere are MP fibers. MP fibers (MFs) present in the atmosphere deriving from a number of sources can settle on the ground, but they can also float due to wind and air flows, reaching the respiratory system of humans like other pollutants. The objective of the present study is to make an evaluation of the amount of microplastic fibers that freely float in the air due to their light weight and nano-, micro-size. To quantify the presence of MPs in the air, their amount was evaluated after collecting them in two sites: an intercity terminal and a university campus.
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Textiles release fibres to the environment during production, use, and at end-of-life disposal. Approximately two-thirds of all textile items are now synthetic, dominated by petroleum-based organic polymers such as polyester, polyamide and acrylic. Plastic microfibres (<5 mm) and nanofibres (<100 nm) have been identified in ecosystems in all regions of the globe and have been estimated to comprise up to 35% of primary microplastics in marine environments, a major proportion of microplastics on coastal shorelines and to persist for decades in soils treated with sludge from waste water treatment plants. In this paper we present a critical review of factors affecting the release from fabrics of microfibres, and of the risks for impacts on ecological systems and potentially on human health. This review is used as a basis for exploring the potential to include a metric for microplastic pollution in tools that have been developed to quantify the environmental performance of apparel and home textiles. We conclude that the simple metric of mass or number of microfibres released combined with data on their persistence in the environment, could provide a useful interim mid-point indicator in sustainability assessment tools to support monitoring and mitigation strategies for microplastic pollution. Identified priority research areas include: (1) Standardised analytical methods for textile microfibres and nanofibres; (2) Ecotoxicological studies using environmentally realistic concentrations; (3) Studies tracking the fate of microplastics in complex food webs; and (4) Refined indicators for microfibre impacts in apparel and home textile sustainability assessment tools.
Article
In this work, a systematic study aimed at comparing the amount of microfibres released from synthetic fabrics during washing tests performed by using a household washing machine and a lab scale Gyrowash system, a laboratory simulator of a real washing machine, is reported. The obtained results allow to conclude that the washing tests performed at lab scale are an effective analytical procedure to perform a low-time/low-cost estimation of the microfibre release from synthetic fabrics. © 2018, Società Italiana di Fisica and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.
Book
Principles of Textile Finishing presents the latest information on textile finishing for industry professionals and researchers who are new to the field. As these processes are versatile and varied in their applications, the book provides information on how decisions on finishes and techniques may be made subjectively or based on experience. In addition, the book presents the desired final properties of textile materials and how they differ widely from product to product, helping finishers who face significant challenges in delivering fabrics that meet the requirements of end-users be successful. Written by an author who is an expert in the field, and who has with many years of experience in industry and academia, this book provides an accessible introduction to the principles, types, and applications of textile finishes. Provides an accessible introduction to the principles, types, and applications of textile finishes. Assists industry professionals and researchers in selecting finishes that will result in fabric properties that meet the requirements of end-users. Written by an author with years of experience in industry and academia and who is an expert in the field.
Article
A new and more alarming source of marine contamination has been recently identified in micro and nanosized plastic fragments. Microplastics are difficult to see with the naked eye and to biodegrade in marine environment, representing a problem since they can be ingested by plankton or other marine organisms, potentially entering the food web. An important source of microplastics appears to be through sewage contaminated by synthetic fibres from washing clothes. Since this phenomenon still lacks of a comprehensive analysis, the objective of this contribution was to investigate the role of washing processes of synthetic textiles on microplastic release. In particular, an analytical protocol was set up, based on the filtration of the washing water of synthetic fabrics and on the analysis of the filters by scanning electron microscopy. The quantification of the microfibre shedding from three different synthetic fabric types, woven polyester, knitted polyester, and woven polypropylene, during washing trials simulating domestic conditions, was achieved and statistically analysed. The highest release of microplastics was recorded for the wash of woven polyester and this phenomenon was correlated to the fabric characteristics. Moreover, the extent of microfibre release from woven polyester fabrics due to different detergents, washing parameters and industrial washes was evaluated. The number of microfibres released from a typical 5 kg wash load of polyester fabrics was estimated to be over 6,000,000 depending on the type of detergent used. The usage of a softener during washes reduces the number of microfibres released of more than 35%. The amount and size of the released microfibres confirm that they could not be totally retained by wastewater treatments plants, and potentially affect the aquatic environment.
Article
Microplastic fibers make up a large proportion of microplastics found in the environment, especially in urban areas. There is good reason to consider synthetic textiles a major source of microplastic fibers and it will not diminish since the use of synthetic fabrics, especially polyester, continues to increase. In this study we provide quantitative data regarding the size and mass of microplastic fibers released from synthetic (polyester) textiles during simulated home washing under controlled laboratory conditions. Consideration of fabric structure, washing conditions (use of detergents, temperature, wash duration, sequential washings) allowed us to study the propensity of fiber shedding in a mechanistic way. Thousands of individual fibers were measured (number, length) from each wash solution to provide a robust data set on which to draw conclusions. Among all the variables tested, the use of detergent appeared to affect the total mass of fibers released the most, yet the detergent composition (liquid or powder) or overdosing of detergent did not significantly influence microplastic release. Despite different release quantities due to the addition of a surfactant (approximately 0.025 and 0.1 mg fibers/g textile washed, without and with detergent, respectively), the overall microplastic fiber length profile remained similar regardless of wash condition or fabric structure, with the vast majority of fibers ranging between 100 m and 800 m in length irrespective of wash cycle number. This indicates that the fiber staple length and/or debris encapsulated inside the fabric from the yarn spinning could be directly responsible for releasing stray fibers. This study serves as a first look towards understanding the physical properties of the textile itself to better understand the mechanisms of fiber shedding in the context of microplastic fiber release into laundry wash water.
Article
Microplastics are an emerging contaminant of concern in aquatic ecosystems. To better understand microplastic contamination in North American surface waters, we report for the first time densities of microplastics in Lake Winnipeg, the 11th largest freshwater body in the world. Samples taken 2014 to 2016 revealed similar or significantly greater microplastic densities in Lake Winnipeg compared with those reported in the Laurentian Great Lakes. Plastics in the lake were largely of secondary origin, overwhelmingly identified as fibres. We detected significantly greater densities of microplastics in the north basin compared to the south basin of the lake in 2014, but not in 2015 or 2016. Mean lake-wide densities across all years were comparable and not statistically different. Scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy indicated that 23% of isolated particles on average were not plastic. While the ecological impact of microplastics on aquatic ecosystems is still largely unknown, our study contributes to the growing evidence that microplastic contamination is widespread even around sparsely-populated freshwater ecosystems, and provides a baseline for future study and risk assessments.
Article
Synthetic textiles can shed numerous microfibers during conventional washing, but evaluating environmental consequences as well as source-control strategies requires understanding mass releases. Polyester apparel accounts for a large proportion of the polyester market, and synthetic jackets represent the broadest range in apparel construction, allowing for potential changes in manufacturing as a mitigation measure to reduce microfiber release during laundering. Here, detergent-free washing experiments were conducted and replicated in both front- and top-load conventional home machines for five new and mechanically-aged jackets or sweaters: four from one name-brand clothing manufacturer (three majority polyester fleece, and one nylon shell with non-woven polyester insulation) and one off-brand (100% polyester fleece). Wash water was filtered to recover two size fractions (>333 μm and between 20 and 333 μm); filters were then imaged and microfiber masses were calculated. Across all treatments, the recovered microfiber mass per garment ranged from approximately 0 to 2 grams, or exceeding 0.3% of the unwashed garment mass. Microfiber masses from top-load machines were approximately 7 times those from front-load machines; garments mechanically aged via 24-hour continuous wash had increased mass release under the same wash protocol as new garments. When comparing to published wastewater treatment plant influent characterization and microfiber removal studies, washing synthetic jackets or sweaters as per this study would account for most microfibers entering the environment.
Article
Washing clothes made from synthetic materials has been identified as a potentially important source of microscopic fibres to the environment. This study examined the release of fibres from polyester, polyester-cotton blend and acrylic fabrics. These fabrics were laundered under various conditions of temperature, detergent and conditioner. Fibres from waste effluent were examined and the mass, abundance and fibre size compared between treatments. Average fibre size ranged between 11.9 and 17.7 μm in diameter, and 5.0 and 7.8 mm in length. Polyester-cotton fabric consistently shed significantly fewer fibres than either polyester or acrylic. However, fibre release varied according to wash treatment with various complex interactions. We estimate over 700,000 fibres could be released from an average 6 kg wash load of acrylic fabric. As fibres have been reported in effluent from sewage treatment plants, our data indicates fibres released by washing of clothing could be an important source of microplastics to aquatic habitats.
Article
In comparison with marine environments, the occurrence of microplastics in freshwater environments is less understood. In the present study, we investigated microplastic pollution levels during 2015 in Taihu Lake, the third largest Chinese lake located in one of the most developed areas of China. The abundance of microplastics reached 0.01 × 106–6.8 × 106 items/km2 in plankton net samples, 3.4–25.8 items/L in surface water, 11.0–234.6 items/kg dw in sediments and 0.2–12.5 items/g ww in Asian clams (Corbicula fluminea). The average abundance of microplastics was the highest in plankton net samples from the southeast area of the lake and in the sediments from the northwest area of the lake. The northwest area of the lake was the most heavily contaminated area of the lake, as indicated by chlorophyll-α and total phosphorus. The microplastics were dominated by fiber, 100–1000 μm in size and cellophane in composition. To our best knowledge, the microplastic levels measured in plankton net samples collected from Taihu Lake were the highest found in freshwater lakes worldwide. The ratio of the microplastics in clams to each sediment sample ranged from 38 to 3810 and was negatively correlated to the microplastic level in sediments. In brief, our results strongly suggest that high levels of microplastics occurred not only in water but also in organisms in Taihu Lake.
Article
Biological semiflexible polymers and filaments such as collagen, fibronectin, actin, microtubules, coiled-coil proteins, DNA, siRNA, amyloid fibrils, etc., are ubiquitous in nature. In biology, these systems have a direct relation to critical processes ranging from the movement of actin or assembly of viruses at cellular interfaces to the growth of amyloid plaques in neurodegenerative diseases. In technology and applied sciences, synthetic macromolecules or fibrous objects such as carbon nanotubes are involved in countless applications. Accessing their intrinsic properties at the single molecule level, such as their molecular conformations or intrinsic stiffness, is central to the understanding of these systems, their properties, and the design of related applications. In this Perspective we introduce FiberApp—a new tracking and analysis software based on a cascade of algorithms describing structural and topological features of objects characterized by a very high length-to-width aspect ratio, generally described as “fiber-like objects”. The program operates on images from any microscopic source (atomic force or transmission electron microscopy, optical, fluorescence, confocal, etc.), acquiring the spatial coordinates of objects by a semiautomated tracking procedure based on A* pathfinding algorithm followed by the application of active contour models and generating virtually any statistical, topological, and graphical output derivable from these coordinates. Demonstrative features of the software include statistical polymer physics analysis of fiber conformations, height, bond and pair correlation functions, mean-squared end-to-end distance and midpoint displacement, 2D order parameter, excess kurtosis, fractal exponent, height profile and its discrete Fourier transform, orientation, length, height, curvature, and kink angle distributions, providing an unprecedented structural description of filamentous synthetic and biological objects.
Article
A theoretical model has been developed to describe the kinetics of polyester fiber dissolution in alkaline solutions. The model is based on the surface reaction concept. The rate of dissolution is taken as being proportional to the surface area of fibers and to the concentration of OH- ions raised to a certain power (order of reaction: 0, 1, or 2). Integrated forms of rate laws are derived for all possible orders of dissolution reactions. According to the results, weight loss is not a simple linear function of time, as usually accepted. The kinetics of the process is characterized by the rate constant, which is, for a given system, independent of the content of OH-, fibers, and water in the system. The experiments performed with poly(ethylene terephthalate) and aqueous NaOH solution at 100°C show that the reaction is a first order process with respect to surface and hydroxyl ions. A practical application for silk-like fabric production is demonstrated. The temperature effect is considered on the basis of the activation energy. The proposed analysis of experimental data enables optimization of the tech nological process in which silk-like fabrics are produced by alkaline hydrolysis of polyester textiles.
Article
Plastic debris <1 mm (defined here as microplastic) is accumulating in marine habitats. Ingestion of microplastic provides a potential pathway for the transfer of pollutants, monomers, and plastic-additives to organisms with uncertain consequences for their health. Here, we show that microplastic contaminates the shorelines at 18 sites worldwide representing six continents from the poles to the equator, with more material in densely populated areas, but no clear relationship between the abundance of miocroplastics and the mean size-distribution of natural particulates. An important source of microplastic appears to be through sewage contaminated by fibers from washing clothes. Forensic evaluation of microplastic from sediments showed that the proportions of polyester and acrylic fibers used in clothing resembled those found in habitats that receive sewage-discharges and sewage-effluent itself. Experiments sampling wastewater from domestic washing machines demonstrated that a single garment can produce >1900 fibers per wash. This suggests that a large proportion of microplastic fibers found in the marine environment may be derived from sewage as a consequence of washing of clothes. As the human population grows and people use more synthetic textiles, contamination of habitats and animals by microplastic is likely to increase.
Article
Synthetic fabric fibers have been proposed as indicators of past spreading of wastewater sludge. Synthetic fiber detectability was examined in sludges (dewatered, pelletized, composted, alkaline-stabilized) and in soils from experimental columns and field sites applied with those sludge products. Fibers (isolated by water extraction and examined using polarized light microscopy) were detectable in sludge products and in soil columns over 5 years after application, retaining characteristics observed in the applied sludge. Concentrations mirrored (within a factor of 2) predictions based on soil dilution. Fibers were detectable in field site soils up to 15 years after application, again retaining the characteristics seen in sludge products. Concentrations correlated with residual sludge metal concentration gradients in a well-characterized field site. Fibers found along preferential flow paths and/or in horizons largely below the mixed layer suggest some potential for translocation. Synthetic fibers were shown to be rapid and semi-quantitative indicators of past sludge application.
Article
Microplastics have been recently identified as marine pollutants of significant concern due to their persistence, ubiquity and potential to act as vectors for the transfer and exposure of persistent organic pollutants to marine organisms. This study documents, for the first time, the presence and abundance of microplastics (>1.6 microm) in Singapore's coastal environment. An optimized sampling protocol for the collection and analysis of microplastics was developed, and beach sediments and seawater (surface microlayer and subsurface layer) samples were collected from nine different locations around the coastline. Low density microplastics were separated from sediments by flotation and polymer types were identified using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometry. Synthetic polymer microplastics identified in beach sediments included polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, nylon, polyvinyl alcohol and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene. Microplastics were detected in samples from four out of seven beach environments, with the greatest quantity found in sediments from two popular beaches in the eastern part of Singapore. Polyethylene, polypropylene and polystyrene microplastics were also found in the surface microlayer (50-60 microm) and subsurface layer (1m) of coastal waters. The presence of microplastics in sediments and seawater is likely due to on-going waste disposal practices from industries and recreational activities, and discharge from shipping.
Singapore's coastal marine environment
Singapore's coastal marine environment. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2006, 52, 761−767.
Atlas of Fibre Fracture and Damage to Textiles
  • J W Hearle
  • B Lomas
  • W D Cooke
Hearle, J. W.; Lomas, B.; Cooke, W. D. Atlas of Fibre Fracture and Damage to Textiles;
  • Hearle J. W.