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Microdosing Psychedelics as Cognitive and Emotional Enhancers

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Ben D. Rifkin
Ben D. Rifkin
Ben D. Rifkin
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María Jesús Maraver at University of Granada
María Jesús Maraver
Lorenza S Colzato at Leiden University
Lorenza S Colzato
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Abstract

"Microdosing, " the use of small doses of psychedelics as cognitive, creativity, or productivity enhancers, has become a popular trend. However, scientific investigation of microdoses of psychedelics remains one of the least developed areas of psychedelic research. In this article, we review available studies of microdosing psychedelics in humans and in animal models. We suggest that microdosing may safely facilitate cognitive as well as emotional enhancement. Microdosing may derive some of its purported long-term cognition and creativity enhancing effects from the capacity of psychedelics to induce potentially beneficial persisting brain changes such as enhanced neural plasticity, enhancement of neurogenesis, or reduction of neuroinflammation. Nevertheless, despite promising results, recent findings also highlight that substantial further study and appropriate caution is warranted as researchers attempt to understand the long-term or even lifelong effects of the exposure to microdoses of psychedelic compounds on the brain and the body.
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Microdosing Psychedelics as Cognitive and Emotional Enhancers
Ben D. Rifkin
Leiden University
María J. Maraver
Leiden University and University of Lisbon
Lorenza S. Colzato
Ruhr University Bochum and Leiden University
“Microdosing,” the use of small doses of psychedelics as cognitive, creativity, or
productivity enhancers, has become a popular trend. However, scientific investigation
of microdoses of psychedelics remains one of the least developed areas of psychedelic
research. In this article, we review available studies of microdosing psychedelics in
humans and in animal models. We suggest that microdosing may safely facilitate
cognitive as well as emotional enhancement. Microdosing may derive some of its
purported long-term cognition and creativity enhancing effects from the capacity of
psychedelics to induce potentially beneficial persisting brain changes such as enhanced
neural plasticity, enhancement of neurogenesis, or reduction of neuroinflammation.
Nevertheless, despite promising results, recent findings also highlight that substantial
further study and appropriate caution is warranted as researchers attempt to understand
the long-term or even lifelong effects of the exposure to microdoses of psychedelic
compounds on the brain and the body.
Keywords: microdosing psychedelics, creativity, emotion recognition, cognitive
enhancement, collective intelligence
“Microdosing,” the semiregular administra-
tion of small, subhallucinogenic doses of psy-
chedelics to enhance performance during regu-
lar daily life, has become a popular trend that
has received substantial media coverage and
online interest during recent years (Anderson,
Petranker, Rosenbaum, et al., 2019;d’Angelo,
Savulich, & Sahakian, 2017;Glatter, 2015;
Horsley, Pálenícˇek, Kolin, & Valeš, 2018;Hu-
pli, Berning, Zhuparris, & Fadiman, 2019;
Johnstad, 2018). A microdose is considered to
be approximately one 10th to one 20th of a
standard recreational dose of a psychedelic sub-
stance, and small enough to be subperceptual
and without any significant alterations of con-
sciousness, thereby avoiding the disturbing ef-
fects of high doses of psychedelic drugs, such as
hallucinations (Fadiman, 2011;Fadiman &
Korb, 2019;Johnstad, 2018;Kuypers et al.,
2019). Generally, microdoses of psychedelics
are recommended to be administered only
“semiregularly”—not on consecutive days—
but approximately every third day, to prevent
the development of tolerance (Fadiman & Korb,
2017;Horsley et al., 2018). Several reports sug-
gest that microdoses of psychedelics can en-
hance productivity and focus (d’Angelo et al.,
2017;Johnstad, 2018), even in highly demand-
ing workplaces, as well as enhance creativity
(Fadiman & Korb, 2019;Glatter, 2015). Fur-
thermore, they have been proposed as useful for
This article was published Online First April 2, 2020.
Ben D. Rifkin, Cognitive Psychology Unit, and Leiden
Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden University;
XMaría J. Maraver, Cognitive Psychology Unit, and
Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden Univer-
sity, and Faculty of Psychology and Research Center for
Psychological Science, University of Lisbon; XLorenza
S. Colzato, Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of
Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr Univer-
sity Bochum, and Cognitive Psychology Unit, and Leiden
Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden University.
Correspondence concerning this article should be ad-
dressed to Lorenza S. Colzato, who is now at Cognitive
Neurophysiology, Department of Child and Adolescent
Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, TU Dresden, Germany
Schubertstrasse 42, D-01309 Dresden, Germany. E-mail:
lorenza.colzato@uniklinikum-dresden.de
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Psychology of Consciousness:
Theory, Research, and Practice
© 2020 American Psychological Association 2020, Vol. 7, No. 3, 316–329
ISSN: 2326-5523 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/cns0000213
316
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... Though some studies have reached conclusions that support the idea that psychedelics can, in minor doses, improve creativity and cognitive performance, this is far from certain. Micro-dosing of psychedelics is one of the "least developed areas of psychedelic research" with proper focus only being granted in the last three years (Liokaftos, 2021;Rifkin et al., 2020). Furthermore, studies such as the one conducted by Imperial College London's Centre for Psychedelic Research, found that placebos worked equally well as micro-doses of LSD for improving energy, motivation and creativity, casting further doubt with the suggestion that the trend might simply be fuelled by the placebo effect (Szigeti et al., 2021). ...
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... kognitivní funkce či emotivitu. 97,[99][100][101] Užívá se několikanásobně nižší dávka, než je dávka potřebná k vyvolání psychedelického stavu (tj. subhalucinogenní dávka). ...
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... (Koben, 2014) In other words, this LSD user experienced altered perception and not necessarily hallucination. While the degree and form of this effect would depend obviously on the dose, this view of altered perception is reinforced by the current trend in "microdosing" (Rifkin, Maraver, & Colzato, 2020). A microdose is less than 20 mcg, or roughly one-tenth of the recreational LSD dose. ...
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Microdosing psychedelics: More questions than answers? An overview and suggestions for future research
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  • J PSYCHOPHARMACOL
Background In the past few years, the issue of ‘microdosing’ psychedelics has been openly discussed in the public arena where claims have been made about their positive effect on mood state and cognitive processes such as concentration. However, there are very few scientific studies that have specifically addressed this issue, and there is no agreed scientific consensus on what microdosing is. Aim This critique paper is designed to address questions that need to be answered by future scientific studies and to offer guidelines for these studies. Approach Owing to its proximity for a possible approval in clinical use and short-lasting pharmacokinetics, our focus is predominantly on psilocybin. Psilocybin is allegedly, next to lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), one of the two most frequently used psychedelics to microdose. Where relevant and available, data for other psychedelic drugs are also mentioned. Conclusion It is concluded that while most anecdotal reports focus on the positive experiences with microdosing, future research should also focus on potential risks of (multiple) administrations of a psychedelic in low doses. To that end, (pre)clinical studies including biological (e.g. heart rate, receptor turnover and occupancy) as well as cognitive (e.g. memory, attention) parameters have to be conducted and will shed light on the potential negative consequences microdosing could have.
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Background: Microdosing psychedelics is the practice of consuming very low, sub-hallucinogenic doses of a psychedelic substance, such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) or psilocybin-containing mushrooms. According to media reports, microdosing has grown in popularity, yet the scientific literature contains minimal research on this practice. There has been limited reporting on adverse events associated with microdosing, and the experiences of microdosers in community samples have not been categorized. Methods: In the present study we develop a codebook of Microdosing Benefits and Challenges (MDBC) based on the qualitative reports of a real-world sample of 278 microdosers. Results: We describe novel findings, both in terms of beneficial outcomes, such as improved mood (26.6%) and focus (14.8%), and in terms of challenging outcomes, such as physiological discomfort (18.0%) and increased anxiety (6.7%). We also show parallels between benefits and drawbacks and discuss the implications of these results. We probe for substance-dependent differences, finding that psilocybin-only users report the benefits of microdosing were more important than other users report. Conclusions: These mixed-methods results help summarize and frame the experiences reported by an active microdosing community as high-potential avenues for future scientific research. The MDBC taxonomy reported here informs future research, leveraging participant reports to distill the highest-potential intervention targets so research funding can be efficiently allocated. Microdosing research complements the full-dose literature as clinical treatments are developed and neuropharmacological mechanisms are sought. This framework aims to inform researchers and clinicians as experimental microdosing research begins in earnest in the years to come. Keywords: psychedelic, microdosing, LSD, psilocybin, grounded theory, mood, depression, anxiety, self-efficacy, open science
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A single inhalation of vapor from dried toad secretion containing 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) in a naturalistic setting is related to sustained enhancement of satisfaction with life, mindfulness-related capacities, and a decrement of psychopathological symptoms
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Background 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (hereinafter referred to as 5-MeO-DMT) is a psychedelic substance found in the secretion from the parotoid glands of the Bufo alvarius toad. Inhalation of vapor from toad secretion containing 5-MeO-DMT has become popular in naturalistic settings as a treatment of mental health problems or as a means for spiritual exploration. However, knowledge of the effects of 5-MeO-DMT in humans is limited. Aims The first objective of this study was to assess sub-acute and long-term effects of inhaling vapor from dried toad secretion containing 5-MeO-DMT on affect and cognition. The second objective was to assess whether any changes were associated with the psychedelic experience. Methods Assessments at baseline, within 24 h and 4 weeks following intake, were made in 42 individuals who inhaled vapor from dried toad secretion at several European locations. Results Relative to baseline, ratings of satisfaction with life and convergent thinking significantly increased right after intake and were maintained at follow-up 4 weeks later. Ratings of mindfulness also increased over time and reached statistical significance at 4 weeks. Ratings of depression, anxiety, and stress decreased after the session, and reached significance at 4 weeks. Participants that experienced high levels of ego dissolution or oceanic boundlessness during the session displayed higher ratings of satisfaction with life and lower ratings of depression and stress. Conclusion A single inhalation of vapor from dried toad secretion containing 5-MeO-DMT produces sub-acute and long-term changes in affect and cognition in volunteers. These results warrant exploratory research into therapeutic applications of 5-MeO-DMT.
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Might Microdosing Psychedelics Be Safe and Beneficial? An Initial Exploration
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Albert Hoffman suggested that low doses of LSD might be an appropriate alternative to Ritalin. Following this possibility, a systematic exploration of the effects of “microdoses,” comprising hundreds of lengthy descriptive reports, was undertaken. Based on these reports, using a psychedelic in the microdose range (10 micrograms) every three days was determined to be safe across a wide variety of individuals and conditions. Over 18 months, more than a thousand individuals from 59 countries did a daily evaluation of negative and positive emotional state using the PANAS checklist plus written reports for between one week and four months. Participant reports suggested that spaced but repeated microdoses were followed by improvements in negative moods, especially depression, and increases in positive moods. Increased energy, improved work effectiveness, and improved health habits were observed in clinical and non-clinical populations. Smaller samples described alleviation of symptoms in migraine headaches, pre-menstrual syndromes, traumatic brain injury, shingles, and other conditions not previously associated with psychedelic use.
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Chronic, Intermittent Microdoses of the Psychedelic N , N -Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) Produce Positive Effects on Mood and Anxiety in Rodents
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  • Mar 2019
Drugs capable of ameliorating symptoms of depression and anxiety while also improving cognitive function and sociability are highly desirable. Anecdotal reports have suggested that serotonergic psychedelics administered in low doses on a chronic, intermittent schedule, so-called "microdosing", might produce beneficial effects on mood, anxiety, cognition, and social interaction. Here, we test this hypothesis by subjecting male and female Sprague Dawley rats to behavioral testing following the chronic, intermittent administration of low doses of the psychedelic N, N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT). The behavioral and cellular effects of this dosing regimen were distinct from those induced following a single high dose of the drug. We found that chronic, intermittent, low doses of DMT produced an antidepressant-like phenotype and enhanced fear extinction learning without impacting working memory or social interaction. Additionally, male rats treated with DMT on this schedule gained a significant amount of body weight during the course of the study. Taken together, our results suggest that psychedelic microdosing may alleviate symptoms of mood and anxiety disorders, though the potential hazards of this practice warrant further investigation.
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Sub-Acute Effects of Psilocybin on Empathy, Creative Thinking, and Subjective Well-Being
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  • Feb 2019
Creative thinking and empathy are crucial for everyday interactions and subjective well-being. This is emphasized by studies showing a reduction in these skills in populations where social interaction and subjective well-being are significantly compromised (e.g., depression). Anecdotal reports and recent studies suggest that a single administration of psilocybin can enhance such processes and could therefore be a potential treatment. However, it has yet to be assessed whether effects outlast acute intoxication. The present study aimed to assess the sub-acute effects of psilocybin on creative thinking, empathy, and well-being. Participants attending a psilocybin retreat completed tests of creative (convergent and divergent) thinking and empathy, and the satisfaction with life scale on three occasions: before ingesting psilocybin (N = 55), the morning after (N = 50), and seven days after (N = 22). Results indicated that psilocybin enhanced divergent thinking and emotional empathy the morning after use. Enhancements in convergent thinking, valence-specific emotional empathy, and well-being persisted seven days after use. Sub-acute changes in empathy correlated with changes in well-being. The study demonstrates that a single administration of psilocybin in a social setting may be associated with sub-acute enhancement of creative thinking, empathy, and subjective well-being. Future research should test whether these effects contribute to the therapeutic effects in clinical populations.
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A systematic study of microdosing psychedelics
Article
Full-text available
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Effects of Acute and Repeated Treatment With Serotonin 5-HT2A Receptor Agonist Hallucinogens on Intracranial Self-Stimulation in Rats
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Full-text available
  • Jan 2019
The prototype 5-HT2A receptor agonist hallucinogens LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin are classified as Schedule 1 drugs of abuse by the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration. Accumulating clinical evidence has also suggested that acute or repeated “microdosing” with these drugs may have utility for treatment of some mental health disorders, including drug abuse and depression. The goal of the present study was to evaluate LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin effects on intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS), a procedure that has been used to evaluate abuse-related effects of other classes of abused drugs. Effects of repeated LSD were also examined to evaluate potential changes in its own effects on ICSS or changes in effects produced by the abused psychostimulant methamphetamine or the prodepressant kappa opioid receptor (KOR) agonist U69,593. Male Sprague–Dawley rats were implanted with microelectrodes targeting the medial forebrain bundle and trained to respond under a “frequency-rate” ICSS procedure, in which many drugs of abuse increase (or “facilitate”) ICSS. In acute dose-effect and time-course studies, evidence for abuse-related ICSS facilitation was weak and inconsistent; the predominant effect of all 3 drugs was dose- and time-dependent ICSS depression. Repeated LSD treatment failed to alter either its own ICSS depressant effects or the abuse-related effects of methamphetamine; however, repeated LSD did attenuate ICSS depression by U69,593. These results extend those of previous preclinical studies to suggest weak expression of abuse-related effects by 5-HT2A agonist hallucinogens and provide supportive evidence for therapeutic effects of repeated LSD dosing to attenuate KOR-mediated depressant effects but not abuse potential of psychostimulants.
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Acute subjective and behavioral effects of microdoses of LSD in healthy human volunteers
Article
  • Jun 2019
  • BIOL PSYCHIAT
Background: Numerous anecdotal reports suggest that repeated use of very low doses of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), known as microdosing, improves mood and cognitive function. These effects are consistent both with the known actions of LSD on serotonin receptors and with limited evidence that higher doses of LSD (100-200 μg) positively bias emotion processing. Yet, the effects of such subthreshold doses of LSD have not been tested in a controlled laboratory setting. As a first step, we examined the effects of single very low doses of LSD (0-26 μg) on mood and behavior in healthy volunteers under double-blind conditions. Methods: Healthy young adults (N = 20) attended 4 laboratory sessions during which they received 0 (placebo), 6.5, 13, or 26 μg of LSD in randomized order at 1-week intervals. During expected peak drug effect, they completed mood questionnaires and behavioral tasks assessing emotion processing and cognition. Cardiovascular measures and body temperature were also assessed. Results: LSD produced dose-related subjective effects across the 3 doses (6.5, 13, and 26 μg). At the highest dose, the drug also increased ratings of vigor and slightly decreased positivity ratings of images with positive emotional content. Other mood measures, cognition, and physiological measures were unaffected. Conclusions: Single microdoses of LSD produced orderly dose-related subjective effects in healthy volunteers. These findings indicate that a threshold dose of 13 μg of LSD might be used safely in an investigation of repeated administrations. It remains to be determined whether the drug improves mood or cognition in individuals with symptoms of depression.
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Descriptive assemblage of psychedelic microdosing: Netnographic study of Youtube™ videos and on-going research projects
Article
  • Apr 2019
Background: Despite increasing clinical and neuroscientific research, pharmacological neuroenhancement literature rarely discusses psychedelic drugs. However, psychedelic microdosing, the ingestion of sub-perceptual doses of psychedelics like psilocybin, has gained increasing public and scientific attention. Published research on the topic is scarce and systematic studies of the digital milieus surrounding psychedelic microdosing are currently non-existent. Methods: In this netnographic study, we explore psychedelic microdosing by focusing on Youtube™ and listing current research projects as a descriptive assemblage. We used the Youtube Data Tool (YDT) for data extraction from the YouTube™ platform. We selected videos that specifically focused on microdosing with a psychoactive substance and descriptively analysed the ecology of practices of the six most viewed videos focusing on definitions, dosages per substance and claimed effects. Results: Our initial data extraction, completed in 2016, resulted in total of 115 Youtube™ videos. Additional data extractions done in 2017 and 2018 showed a 290% increase of “microdosing” videos between 2016 and 2018, indicating that the phenomenon is growing, at least online. The digital milieu of microdosing in 2016 included 48 videos (41,7%) which mentioned a psychoactive substance. The six most viewed videos comprised 92% (N = 934,819) of the total view count and the ecology of practices depicted psychedelic microdosing as beneficial, but the claimed effects and dosing require critical evaluation. Contrary to how typical users of illicit drugs are often portrayed in the media and science, these videos revolved around themes like research, experiments, self-monitoring and the imperative of sharing results. As our descriptive assemblage demonstrates several psychedelic microdosing research projects are under way, potentially influencing user practices and knowledge. Conclusion: This type of online drug research can be used to gather knowledge of under-researched topics, like psychedelic microdosing. However, further digital and non-digital drug research is needed to investigate this potentially rising phenomenon.
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