Attention and Motor Skill Learning
Abstract
Attention and Motor Skill Learning explores how a person's focus of attention affects motor performance and, in particular, the learning of motor skills. It synthesizes the knowledge coming from recent research examining the effects of attentional focus on motor performance and learning, and it provides practical implications for both instructional and rehabilitative settings.
Attention and Motor Skill Learning challenges traditional views that the method of learning a motor skill involves focusing attention on each part of the skill and internalizing proper execution. Instead, author Gabriele Wulf argues that the learning of new motor skills suffers when attentional focus is on the coordination of movements. When attention is directed to the desired movement effect, however, performance levels rise. Not only is a higher level of performance often achieved faster with an external rather than an internal attention focus, but the skill is retained better. The advantages of external focus apply to a variety of skills and skill levels and may be used while instructing athletes, children, and those with physical impairments as well as in any setting in which effective and efficient training of motor skills is a concern.
Attention and Motor Skill Learning not only presents the latest research on attentional focus, but it also offers practical solutions for bypassing or at least shortening the first “conscious” stage of learning. Instructors may then use these suggestions to provide their students or patients with a faster and more effective way to develop and perform motor skills.to develop and perform motor skills.
This text turns research into application by
- detailing how a person's attentional focus changes with age and type of task and in later stages of learning, allowing readers to apply the information to a variety of ages and settings;
- providing specific instructional examples and challenges in “Practical Applications” sections that may be used in everyday teaching scenarios; and
- including comparison tables and offering suggestions for differentiating instructions regarding internal and external foci of attention.
To help teachers understand how the wording of their instruction can facilitate the learning process, Attention and Motor Skill Learning shares insights from athletes, musicians, and speech therapists on their thinking as they perform or teach selected skills in each chapter's “Attentional Insights” section. The “Future Directions” sections at the end of each chapter highlight potential research studies that challenge readers to use and further develop the methods and practices in the book. Other useful features include case studies and chapter-opening scenarios that present motor-learning problems and demonstrate the role of attentional focus in solving them.
... Numerous studies have supported the positive impact of an external compared to an internal focus of attention on motor skill acquisition [6][7][8][9]]. An external focus has been shown to accelerate the learning process, allowing learners to reach a higher skill level more quickly [10], as their movement patterns align with those typically observed in more advanced stages of learning [7]. ...
... , using a dynamic balance task (stabilometer), found that the external focus concluded fewer balance errors compared to an internal focus [22]. Highlighting these results, Wulf (2007) also showed the superiority of an external focus in a balanced skill on surfaces of varying stability [10]. However, contradictory results indicate that the external focus instructions might not be appropriate for tasks that aim to achieve the proper movement technique, as in the case of complex gymnastics routines [16]. ...
... , using a dynamic balance task (stabilometer), found that the external focus concluded fewer balance errors compared to an internal focus [22]. Highlighting these results, Wulf (2007) also showed the superiority of an external focus in a balanced skill on surfaces of varying stability [10]. However, contradictory results indicate that the external focus instructions might not be appropriate for tasks that aim to achieve the proper movement technique, as in the case of complex gymnastics routines [16]. ...
Objectives: This study aimed to investigate the effects of external (EXT) versus internal (INT) focus of attention on acquiring and transferring simple and complex motor skills in novice female volleyball players. Methods: Fifty-seven participants were assigned to one of the three groups: The external focus (EXT), the internal focus (INT), and the control group (CON). Over a 6-week intervention, participants practiced a simple skill (volleyball passing) and a complex skill (overhead tennis serve). Pre-tests, post-tests, and transfer tests (conducted two weeks later) assessed movement form and accuracy. Results: The results showed a statistically significant interaction among focus methods, skill complexity, and testing periods for movement form and performance outcome. The EXT group showed higher movement form and performance outcome improvements during the simple skill (passing) compared to the INT and CON groups. For the complex skill (serving), the EXT group outperformed the INT and CON groups regarding movement outcome; however, no differences in movement form were observed between the EXT and INT groups. Post hoc Tukey tests indicated that the EXT group scored higher than the INT and CON groups in the post-test and transfer test for the simple skill, with movement form improving from 1.68 ± 0.48 to 2.32 ± 0.58. In the complex skill, the EXT group’s movement outcome improved from 11.32 ± 6.83 to 44.47 ± 16.57. Conclusions: External focus significantly enhances movement form and outcome in simple tasks and performance outcomes in more complex skills among novice athletes.
... It was Dr Gabriella Wulf who first noticed the consequences of changing focus of attention whilst she was learning to windsurf. When she focused externally on moving the board to turn, she found that her movements were more effective compared to when she focused her attention internally towards moving her feet to make the turn (Wulf, 2007). In the first scientific study of this nature, Wulf et al. (1998) tested this phenomenon in two different tasks: (1) a skisimulator task where participants were instructed to focus on the slalom motion of either their feet (internal focus) or the ski-simulator wheels (external focus), and (2) a balance board task where participants had to focus on keeping either their feet level (internal focus) or the board level (external focus). ...
... The benefits of an external attentional focus are now well established within academic research circles (see Chua et al., 2021;Gottwald et al., 2023;and Wulf, 2007;2013), with positive outcomes including movement accuracy, movement efficiency, strength, power, and movement form (for a review, see Wulf, 2013). Similarly, the attentional focus phenomenon has been tested in many domains, including sport (for reviews, see Wulf, 2007;2013), strength and conditioning (see , clinical rehabilitation settings (see Park et al., 2015), and the military (e.g., Amini & Vaezmousavi, 2020). ...
... The benefits of an external attentional focus are now well established within academic research circles (see Chua et al., 2021;Gottwald et al., 2023;and Wulf, 2007;2013), with positive outcomes including movement accuracy, movement efficiency, strength, power, and movement form (for a review, see Wulf, 2013). Similarly, the attentional focus phenomenon has been tested in many domains, including sport (for reviews, see Wulf, 2007;2013), strength and conditioning (see , clinical rehabilitation settings (see Park et al., 2015), and the military (e.g., Amini & Vaezmousavi, 2020). ...
... In the experiments, instructing learners to focus on the wheels of a ski simulator (Experiment 1) or the markers on a balance platform (Experiment 2) led to improved motor learning compared to focusing on one's feet. Dozens of studies have since replicated these initial findings (see Wulf, 2007Wulf, , 2013, for reviews). ...
... Previous reviews have argued that research shows benefits of an external focus in four main areas: (a) effectiveness at accuracy and balance tasks; (b) efficiency in electromyographic activity, force production, speed, and endurance tasks; (c) promoting automaticity; and (d) enhancing movement form (Chua et al., 2021;Wulf, 2007Wulf, , 2013Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2016). A leading explanation for the mechanism causing these benefits is goal-action coupling, a process proposed in Wulf and Lewthwaite's (2016) OPTIMAL theory involving a shift at the neural level that simultaneously directs action toward success and stifles deleterious self-focused cognition. ...
Evidence has ostensibly been accumulating over the past 2 decades suggesting that an external focus on the intended movement effect (e.g., on the golf club during a swing) is superior to an internal focus on body movements (e.g., on your arms during a swing) for skill acquisition. Seven previous meta-studies have all reported evidence of external focus superiority. The most comprehensive of these concluded that an external focus enhances motor skill retention, transfer, and performance and leads to reduced eletromyographic activity during performance and that more distal external foci are superior to proximal external foci for performance. Here, we reanalyzed these data using robust Bayesian meta-analyses that included several plausible models of publication bias. We found moderate to strong evidence of publication bias for all analyses. After correcting for publication bias, estimated mean effects were negligible: g = 0.01 (performance), g = 0.15 (retention), g = 0.09 (transfer), g = 0.06 (electromyography), and g = −0.01 (distance effect). Bayes factors indicated data favored the null for each analysis, ranging from BF01 = 1.3 (retention) to 5.75 (performance). We found clear evidence of heterogeneity in each analysis, suggesting the impact of attentional focus depends on yet unknown contextual factors. Our results contradict the existing consensus that an external focus is always more effective than an internal focus. Instead, focus of attention appears to have a variety of effects that we cannot account for, and, on average, those effects are small to nil. These results parallel previous metascience suggesting publication bias has obfuscated the motor learning literature.
... Motor skill is the ability of a person to generate singular or multiple movements performed with a high degree of precision and accuracy; additionally, it involves the coordinated motion of various joints, nerves and limbs of the body to achieve a desired action (Srimathveeravalli & Thenkurussi, 2005). According to Nazarenko (2015), the effectiveness of complex motor actions is determined by the kinesiological potential and human motor activity characterized by coordinative areas: agility, accuracy, balance, flexibility, mobility, etc. Improved motor skills are desirable outcomes from exercise interventions for a number of practical (Wulf, 2007), applied (Wulf et al., 2010), and even clinical purposes (Tallent et al., 2021). Those wishing to become more proficient at sport-specific activities or those simply wishing to improve their quality of life will benefit from improved motor skills, for instance high motor skills beyond 180 million members has led to a market increase in specialized fitness centers (León-Quismondo et al., 2020). ...
... Fitness centers/gyms had to adapt their offer of sports services in demand of this remarkable increase in participants, as a result, several fitness trends have been created (Thompson, 2019). For those seeking to partake in structured exercise, especially in order to make improvements in motor function, selecting the appropriate program can be difficult due to the variety of programs (Wulf, 2007). ...
... Indeed, verbal instructions have been reported to have a major impact on movement and posture control, highlighting their importance in improving movement execution and suggesting the existence of an influence of the mind on the body (1,2). Particularly, it has been (3)(4)(5)(6), suggested that verbal instructions could induce a focus on execution task accelerating the learning process so that an advanced level of performance is achieved sooner (7). This information becomes relevant in the sports context, highlighting the importance of verbal instructions in improving performance. ...
... In fact, in nearly every training situation that involves learning motor skills, athletes are instructed to follow the correct movement pattern or technique. According to the "constrained action hypothesis" proposed by Wulf (7,8), instructions appear to direct the attention towards correct movements, triggering an automatic mode of motor control guided by unconscious processes (operating at an automatic level) and achieving the desired outcome. Moreover, when comparing conditions with instructions to those without them, the muscular activity for the identical performance outcomes is significantly diminished, both in the muscles of agonists and antagonists (9). ...
Introduction: The drop vertical jump (DVJ) is extensively utilized for conditioning and evaluating physical performance, as well as reducing the likelihood of injury by enhancing joint stability through the coactivation of muscles acting on the joint. The execution of DVJ can be controlled by verbal instructions and evaluated by the vertical ground reaction force (vGRF)-time profile.
Methods: Our hypothesis was that varying verbal instructions could have an impact on the DVJ's parameter, thereby optimizing vertical performance and minimizing the impact during landing in young female volleyball players. Sixteen female volleyball players volunteered to participate in this study (age: 21.3 ± 2.6 years; stature: 1.66 ± 0.1 m; body mass: 62.0 ± 8.1 kg and BMI: 22.2 ± 1.8). They executed DVJs following verbal instructions ranging from “jump as high as possible” (1A), “jump as quickly as possible” (2A), “jump as high as possible and during the landing attempt to dampen the impact at ground contact” (1B), and “jump as high as quickly as possible and during the landing attempt to damp the impact at ground contact” (2B). The reactive strength index (RSI), vGRF (1st and 2nd peaks), and flight time (FT) were evaluated.
Results: The verbal instructions 1A improved the FT and the first peak of the vGRF (P < 0.05), whereas 2A the RSI (P < 0.05). On the contrary, “the damping” required in the 1B, and 2B verbal instruction reduced the 2nd peak of vGRF (P < 0.05), without altering the task required during the jump (P < 0.05).
Discussion: The instructions provided for the final landing (the second peak of vGRF) have the potential to enhance safety by reducing the peak of vGRF without affecting the performance required during the jump. When designing DVJ training, coaches or kinesiologists must consider the use of verbal instructions to induce specific adaptation over time.
Clinical relevance: The present study supports the use of specific verbal instructions to reduce impact forces in landing and injury risk.
... Both represent such a kind of instruction that alters one's attention without any reference to the body, leading to less conscious control processing [17]. Therefore, available research results suggest that these instructions elicit similar benefits in motor performance over an IF [18]. Apart from the use of alternatives, EF itself may be distinguished between a proximal EF where attention is directed to aspects close to the body, or a distal EF with attention directed farther away from the body. ...
... As analogies minimize the potential for disrupting movement action through conscious processing, they enable learners to draw inferences about concepts with minimal conscious effort. Such instructions result in switching the performer's attention from their movements to the movement goal, promoting a more automatic control process [18,[51][52][53]. This is crucial for sports where there is no equipment or objects to focus on, and the participants tend to shift their attention to the body. ...
The body of evidence has shown that the external focus of attention (EF) rather than the internal focus of attention (IF) enhances motor skill learning and performance. Within racket sports which require a high level of motor control, anticipation skills, and mental preparedness, effectively directing attention is essential to elicit improvements in athletic performance. The present review aimed to evaluate the scientific evidence concerning the effects of attentional focus instructions on motor learning and performance in racket sports. We systematically reviewed the literature according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The study was registered with the Open Science Framework (osf.io/m4zat). Four electronic databases (Web of Science, Scopus, MEDLINE, and SPORTDiscus) were searched for original research publications. Inclusion criteria were: peer-reviewed journals; healthy and free from injury participants; attentional focus literature specific to the external or internal focus; attentional focus related to motor learning or motor performance; studies included at least one comparator (e.g., different attentional focus group, or control groups with neutral or no specific instruction); publications in which task(s) or skill(s) related to one of the racket sports (tennis, table tennis, badminton, squash, or padel). The initial search yielded 2005 studies. Finally, 9 studies were included in the quantitative analysis. Overall, the results indicated that EF benefits the learning and performance of racket sport skills, compared to IF and over control conditions. The findings suggest that coaches and practitioners should consider the adoption of EF to optimize racket skills performance, particularly in novice or low-skilled athletes.
... In the experiments, instructing learners to focus on the wheels of a ski simulator (Experiment 1) or the markers on a balance platform (Experiment 2) led to improved motor learning compared to focusing on one's feet. Dozens of studies have since replicated these initial findings (for reviews see Wulf, 2013Wulf, , 2007. ...
... Previous reviews have argued that research shows benefits of an external focus in four main areas: (a) effectiveness at accuracy and balance tasks, (b) efficiency in electromyographic activity, force production, speed, and endurance tasks, (c) promoting automaticity, and (d) enhancing movement form (Chua et al., 2021;Wulf, 2013Wulf, , 2007Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2016). A leading explanation for the mechanism causing these benefits is goal-action coupling: a process proposed in Wulf and Lewthwaite's (2016) OPTIMAL theory involving a shift at the neural level that simultaneously directs action toward success and stifles deleterious self-focused cognition. ...
... However, the type and difficulty of the motor tasks might influence the effect of attentional focus on performance [18,57]. The motor task of the reviewed studies focused mainly on posture and gait, a typical area of interest for the aging population. ...
... Thus, an external focus instruction would not be anticipated to elicit extra benefits. Unlike locomotion, when considering postural control or balancing skills that also go through natural development, the observed beneficial effect of an external focus on these tasks in our review might be a consequence of increased task complexity/difficulty [57]. Most of the previous research in the literature that demonstrated the significant effect of external focus often requires executing or learning relatively complex sports skills or uses novices with little to no experience with the particular task [18]. ...
Previous literature shows the beneficial effects of an external focus of attention on various sports skills in young adults. The objective of this systematic review is to evaluate the effects of external and internal focus of attention on motor performance in healthy older adults. The literature search was conducted in five electronic databases (PsycINFO, PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Scopus, and Web of Science). Eighteen studies that met the inclusion criteria were evaluated. Most of the motor tasks targeting older adults were related to postural control and gait. Over 60% of the included studies reported that the effect of an external focus was superior to that of an internal focus on motor performance in older adults. An external focus generally results in better motor performance than an internal focus among healthy older adults. However, the advantage of an external focus on locomotion may not be as significant as those illustrated in previous attentional focus studies. A challenging cognitive task may allow more automatic motor control than an external focus. Practitioners might provide clear instruction cues guiding performers to divert their attention away from their body and towards the movement effect for better performance, particularly in balancing tasks.
... In contrast, an internal focus directs attention to the movement of the body (e.g., flexion or extension of the elbow). Research has largely demonstrated the benefits of an external focus over and internal focus of attention when examining novice performers and learners (Wulf, 2007). The constrained action hypothesis has been used to explain the benefits of the external focus (Wulf, McNevin, & Shea, 2001). ...
... Contrary to previous literature, we did not find a benefit for an external focus of attention. Previous research has long demonstrated the benefits of adopting the external focus of attention over an internal focus (see Wulf, 2007). However, research has also suggested that expert performers use attentional focus differently than novices (Porter & Sims, 2013;Raisbeck et al., 2018;Yamada et al., 2020). ...
Research on novices suggests that an external focus improves performance over an internal focus. For experienced performers the results on attentional focus have been mixed. Recently Becker, Georges, and Aiken (2019) suggested that a holistic focus may be a useful substitute when an external focus is not appropriate. The purpose of this study was to investigate attentional focus within track and field athletes performing an underhand shot throw. 18 female athletes performed an underhand shot throw (4 kg) under three focus conditions: internal, external, and holistic. Participants also rated their adherence to each attentional focus manipulation. Repeated-measures ANOVAs with Sidak post-hoc were used to analyze both underhand shot throw distance and focus adherence. A significant main effect for condition was observed for distance (F = 6.14, p = .005). A holistic threw farther than an internal focus (p < .001) with no difference between internal and external (p = .380), or holistic and external foci (p = .312). For adherence, a significant main effect for condition was observed (F = 4.56, p = .018) with holistic focus adhering to the cue significantly more than internal focus (p < .019). The results of this study are in line with research that found a benefit for a holistic focus with novice performers (Becker et al., 2019). Mullen and Hardy (2010) also found a benefit for the golf putt, basketball shot, and long jump with skilled performers adopting a focus on the global or holistic aspect of the skill.
... Extensive research suggests that adopting an internal focus of attention, compared to an external focus of attention, is less effective for motor performance and learning (for reviews, see Wulf, 2007Wulf, , 2013). An internal focus of attention occurs when an individual directs attentional resources inward toward the control of movement or associated bodily sensations, whereas an external focus occurs when an individual allocates attentional resources toward the outcomes of the movement or the effects the movement has on the environment. ...
... When focusing internally, participants displayed isometric contractions that were less steady (~1.22% more variable) and less accurate (~9.72% less accurate) compared to when focusing externally. These findings are synonymous with a large body of literature indicating that an internal focus of attention can broadly disrupt the effectiveness of visuomotor control (Wulf, 2007(Wulf, , 2013). Changes to these task performance metrics were also reflected by differences at the muscular level. ...
Focusing internally on movement control or bodily sensations is frequently shown to disrupt the effectiveness and efficiency of motor control when compared to focusing externally on the outcome of movement. Whilst the behavioral consequences of these attentional strategies are well-documented, it is unclear how they are explained at the corticomuscular level. The aim of the present study was to investigate how attentional focus strategies affect kinetic, cortical, muscular , and corticomuscular activity during an isometric force precision task. In a repeated measures design, we measured force, EEG and EMG activity from twenty-seven participants who performed isometric contractions of the right hand whilst encouraged to adopt either an internal or external focus through a combination of instructions, secondary tasks, and self-report evaluations. Results indicated that focusing internally led to poorer force accuracy and steadiness compared to an external focus. An internal focus also increased muscle activity of the forearm flexor, increased EEG alpha activity across the parieto-occipital cortex, lowered frontal midline EEG theta activity, and lowered beta corticomus-cular coherence between the forearm flexor and contralateral motor cortex. The results of this study provide a holistic understanding of how attentional focus strategies alter corticomuscular control during an isometric force precision task, paving the way for exploring how the behavioral consequences of attentional strategies can be explained at the corticomuscular levels across a wide range of motor tasks and contexts.
... Therefore, it can be concluded that the internal focus of attention imposes a greater load on the working memory, and ultimately, it is associated with poorer performance. It can be said that adopting an external focus of attention reduces conscious interference in the processes that control movements and yields better performance and learning (Wulf 2007). These results are in line with the results of the studies conducted by Samsudin and Low (2017) and Asadi et al. (2022). ...
Purpose
The aim of the current study was to compare implicit learning methods with an emphasis on the external focus of attention on bowling skill in autistic children.
Method
Twenty children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) were selected. After the participants were randomly divided into two groups, the pretest was performed, evaluating the participants both quantitatively (score of bowling pins falling) and qualitatively (TGMD3 subscale test of underhand ball throwing). Group A was trained using the errorless learning method with the external focus of attention, while Group B was trained using the analogical learning method with the external focus of attention.
Findings
The results showed that analogical learning with the external focus of attention has significant effects (p ≤ 0.05) on both bowling and underhand ball‐throwing skills in autistic children. Errorless learning with external focus of attention, on the other hand, had a significant effect (p ≤ 0.05) on the bowling skill.
Conclusion
The results of the research showed that analogical learning with an external focus of attention can be effective in developing both bowling skill and underhand ball‐throwing skill in children with ASD; however, errorless learning with an external focus of attention was useful in developing bowling skill and failed to show a significant effect on enhancing the underhand ball‐throwing skill in children diagnosed with ASD.
Trial Registration
IRCT20220920056007N1.
... Trauma-informed dance educators should consider the dancer's body itself, their environment, and the attention paid to both. Focus of attention, or the ability to identify, direct, and sustain one's attention on information relevant to task accomplishment (Gose and Abraham 2021;Wulf 2007), has many implications for trauma-sensitivity. Trauma often affects how someone focuses their attention, which has implications for arousal and learning readiness. ...
... Attention encompasses mental effort, selective perception, and divided attention, essential for successful performance [22][23][24]. Additionally, attention is critical for executing skills [25]. PM Fitts and MI Posner [26] three-stage model indicates that attention demands vary at different skill development stages. ...
Background
Sporting success relies not only on athletes’ physical qualities but also involves psychological, technical, and environmental factors. Given the lack of effective tools to comprehensively measure sporting success in the Chinese context, this study aimed to validate the Chinese version of the Sport Success Scale (SSS-C).
Methods
A total of 604 adolescent basketball players, comprising 301 (49.8%) males and 303 (50.2%) females aged between 12 and 19 (M = 15.53, SD = 1.42), were recruited from secondary schools across 17 cities in Shandong Province, China, to answer the questionnaire, which measured their views on 29 items through a six-point Likert scale. The SSS was translated into Chinese language (SSS-C) using forward-backward translation techniques. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was performed using Mplus 8.0 software to assess the structural validity of SSS-C. The reliability and convergent validity were also evaluated.
Results
CFA results demonstrated an excellent fit to the hypothesized six-factor model based on the fit indices (CFI = 0.997, TLI = 0.997, RMSEA = 0.016 [90% CI: 0.005, 0.022], SRMR = 0.018). All items displayed significant factor loadings above 0.40, supporting the robustness of the model. The SSS-C exhibited high internal consistency reliability (Cronbach’s α ranged from 0.95 to 0.96; Composite Reliability ranged from 0.95 to 0.96) and strong convergent validity (Average Variance Extracted values > 0.50).
Conclusion
The SSS-C with 29 items was a valid and reliable instrument for comprehensively assessing sport success among Chinese adolescent athletes. The multidimensional approach of the SSS-C provides a new perspective for understanding the psychological factors contributing to athletes’ success, which can inform the development of targeted interventions.
... Although our primary purpose in this paper is to develop a philosophical argument against a specific version of intellectualism, our claims on skill acquisition can be also backed up by empirical studies on learning (seeZanone and Kelso, 1994;Kelso, 1995;Freeman, 2000;Shepard, 2001;Wulf, 2007, for some classic references). ...
One prominent intellectualist position in the debate on the nature of skill, famously defended by Stanley and Williamson (2001; 2017), claims that skill and knowing-how are reducible to knowledgethat. To defend this claim, Stanley and Williamson argue that skill and knowledge-that develop in a sufficiently similar way through different learning stages. In this paper we offer a novel argument to reject this version of intellectualism on methodological, descriptive, and conceptual grounds. We do so by drawing on the work of Heidegger, Dreyfus, and Ryle on skill. We first offer a descriptive account of skilful action based on the work developed by these authors, and we then move on to show that skill and knowledge-that exhibit significant differences. First, while skills cannot be imparted merely linguistically, some forms of knowledge-that can be exclusively imparted and learned verbally. Second, weshow that the temporal learning curves of skill and knowledge-that are importantly different: the former usually requires a more or less extensive training process, whereas the latter may be acquired in a relatively sudden fashion. Finally, we show that, while the structure of most forms of knowledge-that is aggregative , the structure of skilful understanding is dynamic and holistic , which entails that prior skill stages cannot be retrieved and re-enacted at will.
... The intricate connection between cognition and attention highlights the critical role of attentional processes in cognitive function (Galotti, 2015). Attention directs focus toward relevant information, influencing both motor performance and learning outcomes (Wulf, 2007(Wulf, , 2013. Moreover, cognition encompasses the thought processes that often shape learning experiences (Lee et al., 1994). ...
Research has shown that external relative to internal focus (IF) instructions may improve motor performance as well as cognitive function (e.g., attentional stability and task‐focus). The aim of the study was to examine the influence of attentional focus instructions on skill acquisition and learning of an aiming task in individuals with hearing impairments. The participants (N = 39, Mage = 17.87 ± 1.88 years) performed a bowling task with their dominant hand to knock down as many pins as possible. On day 1, they were randomly divided into three attentional focus groups; IF (focus on your throwing hand), external focus (EF) (focus on the pins), and control (no‐focus) instructions. Each participant performed 36 trials, divided into 3 blocks of 12 trials. Attentional focus instructions were given before each block, with a brief reminder provided after each 3 trials. On day 2, retention and transfer (further distance) tests were performed. Results showed that while there were no significant differences between groups in the pre‐test, the EF group outperformed both IF and control groups in retention and transfer tests. No significant difference was found between the control and IF. The findings suggest that the advantages of the external relative to the IF and no‐focus instructions may generalize to individuals with hearing impairments.
... In this regard, coaches aim to provide purposeful and appropriate verbal instructions with respect to movement techniques, which subsequently could enhance the performance and learning of a new motor skill. These verbal instructions have the potential to direct the attentional focus of performers to the important and relevant aspects of the motor task, either internally or externally (Wulf, 2007). An external focus is defined as the performer's attentional focus on movement effects or movement goals, such as elements outside the body, implements, surfaces, a target, and/or the trajectory of an object or the task goal. ...
External relative to internal focus instructions have been shown to be more effective for enhancing optimal performance across various motor tasks that do not rely on movement quality or movement form. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of an external versus an internal focus of attention on the motor performance of a gymnastic skill that requires static strength and movement form. Participants with previous experience in aerobic gymnastics were asked to perform an L-support task for 4 seconds in three attentional focus conditions: internal focus, external focus, and control, with the order counter-balanced across focus conditions. Two pieces of yellow tape (2×9 cm) were attached to the gymnasts’ feet on the inner side of the navicular bones. Two pieces of red tape (2×9 cm) were wrapped around the distal phalanx of the big toes of the right and left foot. All participants performed four trials in the external focus (focus on keeping red tape below the yellow tape), internal focus (focus on pointing your toes), and control (no-focus) conditions. The results showed that execution faults were smaller in the external focus condition compared to the internal focus and control conditions. No difference was found between the internal focus and control condition. The findings of this study indicate that the external focus is more beneficial than the internal focus and no-focus control condition for enhancing the performance of a static gymnastic skill that requires static strength and movement form.
... Several studies have repeatedly shown that an external focus of attention enhances learning so much that learners achieve higher competence in terms of not only effectiveness but also efficiency in a shorter period. The literature on this has a practical implication in that it shows an external focus to be a good thing for acquiring skills and improving performance (Wulf, 2007). Notably, studies such as the work by Wulf have shown that increasing the distance of the attentional focus can enhance the learning process in various contexts (Chua et al., 2019). ...
... The sufficient and necessary allocation of attentional resources is a key feature of expertise and performance excellence in self-paced sport skills (Abernethy et al., 2007;Wulf, 2007). Physiological recordings can tell us about preparatory cognitive and motor processes and thereby serve as markers of movement preparation when executing and learning motor skills (Cooke, 2013). ...
The slowing of heart rate prior to movement onset has been presented as a marker of task-related cognitive processing and linked with performance accuracy. Here we examined this event-related bradycardia and task performance as a function of task difficulty. Forty experienced golfers completed a series of golf putting conditions that manipulated task difficulty by varying target distance, target size, and surface contour. Performance was measured by the number of holed putts and finishing distance from the hole. Physiological activity was recorded throughout. Analyses confirmed that performance varied as a function of task difficulty, worsening with longer distances to target, smaller targets, and sloping paths to target. Task difficulty also impacted the cardiac response, including the rate of heart rate deceleration, change in heart rate, and heart rate at impact. These heart rate metrics were found to correlate with performance strongly, moderately, and weakly, respectively. In conclusion, heart rate deceleration in the moments preceding movement onset was affected by task difficulty. Features of this cardiac deceleration pattern were characteristic of successful performance. Our findings are discussed in terms of the role of cognitive and motor processes during the execution of complex motor skills.
... The results of the study show that TB has a positive effect on precision in the initial shot. This could be due to lower arousal (Röttger et al., 2021) and/or higher attentional focus, increasing psychomotor performance (Wulf, 2007). A possible increase in attentional focus due to TB is evident because of TB´s effect on trigger behavior (r = .52, ...
In this study, we investigated the effect of tactical breathing (breath-based stress management) on marksmanship performance in a randomized between-subjects design. The total of n = 100 participants (18% female) were all student soldiers and randomly assigned to the intervention group (tactical breathing) or the control group. In the German Armed Forces shooting simulator, participants shot ten rounds at ten meters with the P8 (Heckler and Koch). In addition, the effect of neuroticism, fear of failure, and resilience on shooting performance and the interaction of those traits with the experimental condition were examined. Overall, the total hit score showed a strong ceiling effect, so the more difficult initial hit was primarily used as a performance criterion. None of the personality traits significantly affected the initial hit, and there were no interactions between the experimental condition and the personality traits. However, there was a significant difference in initial hit between the control and experimental group, as the tactical breathing group shot an average of 1.9 points better, t(98) = 8.489, p < .001, d = 1.698. Considering the initial shot, which was more difficult due to the uncocked trigger, tactical breathing proved to be an effective method for increasing marksmanship performance.
... Professions such as firefighting (Stansfield et al., 2000), surgery (Seymour et al., 2002), aviation (Hays et al., 1992), and sport (Gray, 2017) have used this technology for its assumed benefits. Additionally, VR allows for the utilization and implementation of optimal learning principles that have been rigorously tested for numerous decades (Weiss et al., 2014;Wulf, 2007). Previous research has demonstrated that practice in VR can result in greater real-world performance improvements (e.g., positive transfer of learning) compared to traditional practice when the VR practice difficulty is adapted based on the individual's skill level (Gray, 2017). ...
Previous research has shown practice within an immersive virtual reality (VR) environment improves performance in a physical environment. Increased user motivation is one possible advantage of practicing in VR. One recent study showed that an enriched gaming environment led to higher levels of engagement, resulting
in a direct learning benefit. The purpose of this study was to compare the intrinsic motivation, engagement, and transfer of learning between VR practice and physical practice of the same motor skill. Participants (n = 61) were randomly assigned to a
physical (n = 30) or a VR practice group (n = 31) in which they performed a golf putting task. Analyses showed VR practice led to a significantly greater increase in average intrinsic motivation inventory score than physical practice. Analyses for performance showed there was a significant (p < .001) improvement in accuracy (i.e., radial error) from pre- to posttest, but the two groups did not differ. Overall, these results partially support our hypotheses suggesting that VR practice led to a greater increase in motivation compared with physical practice. Additionally, these results suggest that VR practice was similarly effective at improving accuracy compared with physical practice. Future research directions are discussed.
... Thus, verbal instructions eliciting external focus of attention can improve the RSI of the DJ, as well as CT and JH. However, it has been reported that when instructions are too complex, the attentional focus strategy is not fully effective (Wulf, 2007). Indeed, careful word choice is important because appropriate instructions can "load working memory" and promote proper processing and attention to the skill (Furley and Wood, 2015). ...
Attentional focus strategies eliciting an external focus of attention effectively enhance drop jump (DJ) performance, however, their effects vary depending on the words used for the instructions. We aimed to examine the effects of different words on DJ performance using instructions eliciting external focus to minimize contact time (CT) or maximize jump height (JH). Twenty collegiate athletes performed DJs from a 30 cm platform after receiving one of four instructions: two instructions (COND 1 and 2) about minimizing CT and two instructions (COND 3 and 4) about maximizing JH. Reactive strength index (RSI), CT, JH, relative peak vertical ground reaction force (vGRF), and leg stiffness (kvert) were compared between conditions using repeated-measures analysis of variance. There was no significant main effect of conditions on RSI, relative peak vGRF, and kvert (p > 0.05). CT was significantly shorter in COND 1 and 2 than in COND 3 (p < 0.05); JH was significantly higher in COND 3 than in COND 1 and 2 (p < 0.05), and in COND 4 than in COND 1 (p < 0.05). When using attentional focus strategies in DJ, it is necessary to use different words and purposes according to the players' tasks.
... Among the cognitive mechanisms that must be considered in motor learning, researchers have identified several factors, including the selection, redundancy, and interpretation of sensory information (Klavora, 2009); response selection (Magill & Anderson, 2017;Schmidt et al., 2019); movement programming (Wong et al., 2015); (d) feedback interpretation and orientation (Krakauer et al., 2019); and (e) direction and maintenance of attention before, during, and after the motor performance (Wulf, 2007). These mechanisms are integrated within a continuous learning process that involves multiple factors, including task characteristics and difficulty, practice conditions, and movement complexity (Lee et al., 1994). ...
Individuals with cognitive impairment may have motor learning deficits due to the high engagement of cognitive mechanisms during motor skill acquisition. We conducted a scoping review to address the quality of current research on the relationship between cognitive impairments (i.e., deficits in attention, memory, planning and executive functions) and motor learning among older adults with Alzheimer's Disease or Mild Cognitive Impairment. After screening thousands of articles, we selected 15 studies describing cognitive assessment tools, experimental designs, and the severity of cognitive impairment. Although seven studies reported that cognitive impairment impaired motor learning, most studies included a high risk of bias. We identified multiple assessment tools across these studies that make comparisons among findings difficult. Future research in this area should focus on the influence of increased practice days during motor learning acquisition and incorporate both retention and transfer tests. Cognitive assessments should target the specific cognitive skills or deficits most closely related to the motor learning process.
... IF) might disrupt the automatic processing among highly skilled individuals by enabling conscious control and causing performance impairments. In addition, part-process goals elicit step-by-step monitoring and processing of a motor skill which lead to performance decrements among experienced performers. 2 Holistic or holistic process goals might function in a similar way to an EF, 60 which avoids a focus on the specific parts of the body and promotes a greater level of automaticity and lower conscious interference during performance. ...
Research on attentional focus has consistently shown that an external focus (EF) is superior to an internal focus (IF) for performance with novice performers or learners. When examining experienced performers, the findings have been ambiguous with various attentional focus types proving to be beneficial. Recent research suggests that coaches utilize a combination of attentional focus strategies when instructing highly skilled throwers in track and field. In addition to the traditional EF and IF, a holistic focus (HF) has been found to enhance performance similar to that of an EF. The purpose of the current study was to investigate attentional focus manipulations (i.e. IF, EF and HF) among NCAA Division I track and field athletes. Sixteen females performed a standing long jump under three attentional focus conditions in an outdoor long jump sand pit with an orange cone placed 5-m from the starting line. Participants performed three jumps under each focus condition in a counterbalanced order, nine jumps in total. Focus adherence was measured after each condition. Athletes also reported their preferred attentional focus at the conclusion of the study. A repeated-measures ANOVA was used to analyze jump distance and adherence. It was observed that a HF led to significantly longer jump distances than an IF (p < .01). No other significant differences for condition were observed for distance (p > .05). These results suggest that a HF enhanced standing long jump performance among highly skilled individuals and can be used to enhance performance.
... Attentional focus instructions can be categorised as either internal or external. Wulf (2007) describes an internal focus of attention when an individual's focus is on the action itself and an external focus of attention is when their focus is directed to the effect of their action. Using a volleyball serve as an example, a PE teacher might say, "arch your back, accelerate your shoulder, then upper arm, lower arm then hand to hit the ball" as an example of internal focus and "hit the ball as if using a whip" as an example of external focus (Winkleman, 2020). ...
... More recently, this has shown to be the case even with items not available to conscious perception (Pang & Elntib, 2021), a testament to the strength of the repetition effect on memory. Likewise, repeating motor skills has been found to improve them (Wulf, 2007). ...
More experience results in better performance, usually. In most tasks, the more chances to learn we have, the better we are at it. This does not always appear to be the case in time perception however. In the current article, we use three different methods to investigate the role of the number of standard example durations presented on performance on three timing tasks: rhythm continuation, deviance detection, and final stimulus duration judgment. In Experiments 1a and 1b, rhythms were produced with the same accuracy whether one, two, three or four examples of the critical duration were presented. In Experiment 2, participants were required to judge which of four stimuli had a different duration from the other three. This judgement did not depend on which of the four stimuli was the deviant one. In Experiments 3a and 3b, participants were just as accurate at judging the duration of a final stimulus in comparison to the prior stimuli regardless of the number of standards presented prior to the final stimulus. In summary, we never found any systematic effect of the number of standards presented on performance on any of the three timing tasks. In the discussion, we briefly relate these findings to three theories of time perception.
Bu çalışmanın amacı, Türkiye Hentbol Federasyonu (THF) liglerinde oynayan hentbolcuların imgeleme becerileri ile başarı motivasyonları aralarındaki ilişkiyi incelemektir. Çalışmanın evrenini 2022-2023 sezonunda THF liglerinde oynayan 2897 aktif lisanslı sporcu oluşturmaktadır. Bu evreni temsil etmek amacıyla seçilen örneklemde THF liglerinde oynayan 259 kadın, 291 erkek hentbolcu bulunmaktadır. Çalışmada araştırmacı tarafından oluşturulan “kişisel bilgi formu, Sporda İmgeleme Envanteri (SİE) ve son olarak Spora Özgü Başarı Motivasyonu Ölçeği (SÖBMÖ) kullanıldı. Çalışmada sporda imgeleme envanterinde lig düzeyine göre karşılaştırılmasında Bilişsel İmgeleme (Bİ) (p=0,04) ve Motivasyon Genel Ustalık (MGU) (p=0,04) alt boyutlarında anlamlı farklılık görülürken, bu farklılığın 2. Ligdeki hentbolcuların Bölgesel ligde oynayanlara göre daha yüksek Bİ ve MGU puanlara sahip olduğundan dolayı olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Çalışmada SÖBMÖ lig düzeyine göre karşılaştırılmasında, Güç gösterme güdüsüne (GGG) (p=0,03) alt boyutunda süper ligde oynayan hentbolcuların Bölgesel ligdeki hentbolculara göre daha yüksek puanlar aldıkları tespit edilmiştir. Çalışmamızda SÖBMÖ alınan puanlara ilişkin varyansın SİE %25,2’ini açıkladığı tespit edilmiştir. Sonuç olarak, hentbolcularda lig düzeyine göre imgeleme düzeyinin başarı motivasyonuna etkisi görülmüştür. Süper ligde oynayan katılımcıların güç gösterme eğiliminde olduğu, 2. Ligde oynayan katılımcıların ise bilişsel ve motivasyonel genel ustalık düzeylerinin diğer liglere göre daha yüksek oldukları tespit edilmiştir.
Öz: Bu çalışmanın amacı voleybolculara uygulanan FİFA 11 + Isınma Programı ve Geleneksel Isınma Programının voleybolcularda servis hızına ve FHT test sonuçlarına etkisinin incelenmesidir. Çalışmaya Türkiye Kadınlar Voleybol 2. Liginde oynayan 22 kadın voleybolcu katıldı; katılımcılar rastgele yöntemle FİFA 11 + Isınma Grubu (FIG) ve Geleneksel Isınma Grubu (GIG) olmak üzere iki gruba ayrılmıştır. Katılımcıların fonksiyonel hareket kalıpları Fonksiyonel Hareket Taraması (FHT) test kiti; servis hızları ise Pocket Radar Ball Coach Speed Gun (USA) marka hız ölçüm cihazıyla çalışmanın başlangıcında ve sekiz haftalık egzersizler sonrasında olmak üzere iki kez ölçülmüştür. Katılımcıların ön test ile son testleri arasındaki farkın belirlenmesinde Wilcoxon İşaretli Sıralar Testi kullanılmıştır. Yapılan istatistiksel analiz sonuçlarına göre geleneksel ısınma uygulayan GIG katılımcılarının FHT test sonuçlarına göre Öne Adımlama alt testi ve FHT toplam puanlarında son test lehine anlamlı fark belirlenmiştir. FIFA 11+ ısınma programı uygulayan FIG katılımcılarının ise servis hız ölçümlerinde ön test lehine, FHT testi sonuçlarında ise Derin Çömelme, Öne Adımlama, Gövde Stabilite Şınavı, Rotasyon Stabilitesi alt testlerinde ve FHT toplam puanlarında son test lehine anlamlı fark tespit edilmiştir. Futbol branşına yönelik olarak geliştirilen ve yaralanmaların önlenmesinde etkin bir şekilde kullanılan FIFA 11+ ısınma egzersizlerinin, voleybolcuların fonksiyonel hareket kalıplarının geliştirilmesinde ve yaralanmaların önlenmesinde de kullanılabileceği söylenebilir.
OBJECTIVE: To compare the effectiveness of injury prevention programs (IPPs) for improving high-risk knee motion patterns in the context of reducing the risk of noncontact anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury.
DESIGN: Systematic review with Bayesian network meta-analysis (NMA).
DATA SOURCES: PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature were searched until September 10 th , 2023.
ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: We included randomized controlled trials (RCTs) involving athletes without prior ACL injury. The trials had to provide data on peak knee flexion and valgus angles, obtained from two-leg drop vertical jump, single-leg drop vertical jump, or side-step cutting test.
RESULTS: The NMA synthesized data from 22 RCTs involving 878 participants, evaluating 12 different IPPs. Results of meta-analyses indicated that, in jumping tests, the external focus instructions (mean difference (MD)=26, Credible interval (CrI)=7.5 to 44, Surface Under the Cumulative Ranking curve (SUCRA)=0.94) and internal focus of attention (MD=19, CrI=0.19 to 37, SUCRA=0.81) was effective for increasing peak knee flexion, and core stability training ranked first for reducing knee valgus (MD=−4.40, CrI=−7.7 to -1.1, SUCRA=0.96). None of the IPPs revealed statistically significant effects for the cutting test.
CONCLUSION: The external focus instructions and internal focus of attention increased knee flexion, while core stability exercise reduced knee valgus in jumping tests. Intervention effects were inconsistent for cutting tests.
This chapter provides my own personal insights and opinions on how we might synthesize and interpret what is currently known, along with some of my hopes for future research.
First, I explain some seemingly common confusions about internal focus and external focus in music learning, especially during early stages with novices. I hope future research can address whether we can accomplish both implicit and explicit learning simultaneously, and provide musicians with more tangible examples of external-focus cues for early learning. I confirm and discuss my belief that, while using external-focus cues, some coordination of metacognition seems necessary and beneficial. I discuss various viewpoints on this topic alongside my own.
I briefly discuss my thoughts about automaticity and especial skills. I talk about the roles of variable and repetitive practice, especially about the extent of variation we use and the proper role of repetition tied to other best-learning techniques.
In the end, I believe everyone should embrace the concept of challenge-with-success for all learning. Our own authentic music interpretation is the most important gift we have to offer, and we create that ourselves. Finally, I note that employing all the currently known methods is not only optimal but is also a fully human and creative approach for musicians.
This chapter explains the broader considerations for human motor-skill learning. Working memory is guided by our attention. Modern research holds that focusing attention away from the actual motions we are making improves the motions themselves, and also, the end result—the music we create. External focus of attention reduces self-consciousness and directs our energy toward the task at hand. The Constrained Action Hypothesis explains that using internal focus inhibits our innate natural processes to learn and move automatically, reflexively, and efficiently. Motivation provides an accompanying release of dopamine that makes us feel good, but it also aids in motor-skill learning and memory consolidation. Positive feedback and achieving success together with challenge are crucial factors for motor-skill learning and performance in music. Complex skills, rather than simple skills, are better learned by breaking music into component parts first, reducing load. Always keep challenge at the highest possible level in practice to gain the most benefits.
Background: The predominant instructional method utilised by soccer coaches are verbal instructions that occur whilst (during) players are executing soccer-skill. However, little is known on the specificity of the information contained within. These verbal instructions can guide the learner to either the performance characteristics of a movement (internal focus) or the intended movement effects (external), with the latter known to facilitate superior motor performance, retention, and transfer. Purpose: The aims in the present study were to quantify the focus of concurrent verbal instructions utilised by professional youth soccer coaches during drill-based (i.e. isolated) practice activities, and to modulate how these instructions are delivered in coaching sessions following the engagement in a coproduced evidence-based educational workshop. Method: Systematic observation was used pre and post the workshop to quantify the nature of verbal instructions delivered by 5 male coaches (31-47 years of age with 4-24 years of coaching experience) across 34 sessions with players from 8 to 13 years of age. For instructions provided during (concurrent) action-execution, we further quantified whether these instructions were focused on motor performance characteristics (internal) or the intended movement outcome effects (external) using criteria outlined in the revised Arizona State University Observation Instrument. To facilitate behaviour change, all coaches engaged in an educational workshop led by skill acquisition specialists (SAS). The workshop was designed so that educational material related to the principles of skill acquisition, and motor control and learning, were presented using a pedagogical delivery method containing verbal information, data presented in illustrations, and videos. In addition, the results that quantified coaching behaviour during the pre-workshop systematic observation period were presented to coaches as quantitative feedback. To guide the coaches to appraise the
Several sources suggest that the behavior of supporters is as important as their number in the stadium in influencing the advantage of playing at home in team sports. Some studies indicate that Football fans display more violent behaviors than Rugby ones and we hypothesized that they contribute more importantly to the home advantage. We analyzed the performances of the teams involved in the highest level of Rugby union and Football French championships during 2019-2020 season (with fans in the stadiums) and the 2020-2021 season (without public). Results revealed that the advantage of playing at home is significant when public was present in both sports. However, when fans were not present, this advantage disappeared in Football but remained unchanged in Rugby union. So, crowd attendance is an important factor in determining Home advantage (or Away disadvantage) in Football, but not in Rugby union. These results are discussed in terms of differences in fans behavior in the two sports, and we hypothesized that the feeling of territoriality is more important in Rugby union than in Football.
The Oxford Handbook of Sport and Performance Psychology includes the latest research and applied perspectives from leaders in the field of performance psychology, presenting sport and performance psychology from myriad perspectives. It looks at individual psychological processes in performance such as attention, imagery, superior performance intelligence, motivation, anxiety, confidence, cognition, and emotion. Articles also consider the social psychological processes in performance including leadership, teamwork, coaching, relationships, moral behavior, and gender and cultural issues. The book further examines human development issues in performance, such as the development of talent and expertise, positive youth development, the role of the family, the end of involvement transitions, and both youth and masters-level sport and physical activity programs. Finally, the text looks at interventions in sport and performance psychology and counseling of performers in distress including such important issues for all performers as: appearance- and performance-enhancing drug use, injuries, managing pain, eating and weight issues, burnout, and the role of physical activity in maintaining health. The articles collected here also cover the history of sport and performance psychology; the scope and nature of the field; ethical issues in sport and performance psychology; performance psychology in the performing arts and other non-sporting fields; perfectionism and performance; the role of the performance coach and of the sport psychologist with a coach and team; supervision; and a look ahead to the future of the field.
This paper outlines a framework for strength training as a dynamical model of perceptual-motor learning. We show, with emphasis on fixed-point attractor dynamics, that strength training can be mapped to the general dynamical principles of motor learning that arise from the constraints on action, including the distribution of practice/training. The time scales of the respective dynamics of performance change (increment and decrement) in discrete strength training and motor learning tasks reveal superposition of exponential functions in fixed-point dynamics, but distinctive attractor and parameter dynamics in oscillatory limit cycle and more continuous tasks, together with unique timescales to process influences (including practice, learning, strength, fitness, fatigue, warm-up decrement). Increments and decrements of strength can be viewed within a dynamical model of change in motor performance that reflects the integration of practice and training processes at multiple levels of learning and skill development.
Abstract
Objective: In some situations, however, the goal of the skill is to correct movement mechanics, and in these specific scenario’s external focus instructions should be specific to mechanic. External focus instructions Based on Performance do not have a positive effect on motion mechanics. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of external focus instructions Based on mechanics and performance in the vertical jump movement: Examining the constrained action hypothesis.
Methods: For this purpose, 12 male professional volleyball players (average age 24.0±1.92 years; average weight 73.5±8.7 kg) voluntarily participated in this research. Subjects performed the vertical jump movement with all their strength in two external focus situations (1- performance-based external focus 2- mechanics-based external focus) on the dynamometer screen (ten jumps in each situation). During jumping, surface electromyography signals of the right abdominal muscle were recorded using an electromyography device that was simultaneous with a force plate device in terms of time.
Results: The results of the paired t-test showed that the jump height in the performance-based external focus condition was significantly higher than the mechanics-based external focus condition (P=0.0005). Also, the focus of external attention based on mechanics compared to the focus of external attention based on performance caused a significant increase in the electrical activity of the right abdominal muscle during the concentric phase (P=0.0005). However, there was no significant difference in the eccentric phase of the electrical activity of the right abdominal muscle between the centers of the two conditions (P=0.233).
Conclusion: These results indicate that performance-based external focus instructions lead to greater automaticity of movement and improved performance. But it is not useful for improving movement mechanics, and for this purpose, external focus instructions based on movement mechanics should be used.
BACKGROUND: External focus of attention (FOA) coaching instructions have been found to be effective in improving
standing long jump (SLJ) performance using verbal instructions. However, no study has compared different strategies
in delivering external FOA on SLJ performance acutely. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate responses to
external FOA strategies on SLJ.
METHODS: Eleven female field and court sport athletes (mean±SD, age: 21.91±1.98 years; mass=67.21±8.94 kg;
height=167.52±5.54 cm) performed the SLJ test under six external coaching strategies (verbal, visual, read, verbal and
visual combined and read, visual combined and control) to determine distance, take-off angle and knee valgus angle
response.
RESULTS: A repeated measures analysis of variance revealed a significant increase in SLJ distance for the verbal strategy
(167.68±15.13 cm) compared to the control (160.45±15.13 cm) (P=0.009); the verbal/visual strategy (173.09±11.47 cm)
compared to the read strategy (163.5±14.12 cm) (P=0.009) and for the verbal/visual strategy compared to the control
(P=0.001). A strong inverse relationship existed between SLJ distance and take-off angle (r=-0.71, P=0.01). For knee
valgus angle, a significant decrease was found for the read-visual (P=0.004) and visual (P=0.004) conditions compared
to the control.
CONCLUSIONS: The findings of our study suggest that different coaching strategies may be required dependent on
whether performance or injury risk reduction is the goal.
Introduction. Pain in the cervical spine affects about 22-70% of the population and the incidence of pain increases with age. Out of different types of therapies, most patients prefer a massage aimed at normalizing muscle tension and reducing pain. However, a comprehensive approach to a patient according to the Kinetic Control concept allows for the assessment of uncontrolled motion and enables the analysis of motion and its function. The assessment of motor errors as well as the re-education of muscle function is an important element in improving the range of motion and reducing pain in the cervical part of the spine. Aim. Assessment of the impact of classical massage and central stabilization exercises on the quality of life of people with cervical spine pain. Material and methods. The study covered 40 people (62,5% women, 37,5% men) aged 20 – 70 year who suffered from pain in the cervical spine. Two groups of 20 were formed. Group I was subjected to a series of classical massage, Group II performed exercises of central stabilization. The impact of both therapies was assessed by means of: the author's own survey, the VAS scale, the NDI-PL form, and the measurement of the range of motion in the cervical spine. Quality of life was assessed using a 100-degree scale. Results. VAS and NDI scores in both groups are significantly lower after treatment (p < 0,01), but it cannot be concluded that one form of therapy has had a better effect. The range of spine motion which was evaluated in the cervical segment significantly increased (p < 0,01) in both groups. It was noted that in terms of extension, central stabilization exercises proved to be more effective - the scope of extension increased on average by 1,3 units after exercises, whereas after massages only by 0,7 units (p = 0,045). Both therapies demonstrated effectiveness in the domain of general health (p = 0,54) – both massages and exercises (p = 0,01) brought patients a significant improvement. Conclusions. Both therapies are effective in fighting cervical spine pain, however, better results were obtained in the group performing central stabilization exercises. The quality of life increased significantly in both groups of patients.
Der vorliegende Beitrag gibt einen Überblick über die aktuellen Motoriktheorien. Grundlegende Verfahren der Bewegungskontrolle wie Steuerung und Regelung sowie präskriptive und emergente Ansätze werden vorgestellt und überführt in die aktuelle Theorie der internen Modelle. Im Anschluss wird erläutert, wie sich durch motorische Adaptation und durch motorisches Lernen die Kontrollmechanismen auf verschiedenen Zeitskalen verändern. Abschließend wird der Beitrag von expliziten und impliziten Prozessen auf die Motorik thematisiert.
Perception and attention are processes that are closely linked. Perceptual processes involve the reception and processing of information via sensory channels, while attentional processes prioritize certain perceptual contents by selectively amplifying some pieces of information and weakening others. Prioritized processing is essential because our (at least conscious) processing capacity is limited. In this chapter, basic theoretical models of perception and attention are outlined, and their applications in sport are explained. Moreover, relevant sport-specific research is presented along with an appraisal of whether perception and attention can be trained. A comprehensive understanding of perception and attention processes, as well as the potential ways to enhance them, is crucial, especially for sports that take place in complex environments (such as ball and team sports).
Leonie Schwertmann, Nike Lorenz, Timo Boll, Joshua Kimmich, Leon Draisaitl, Uwe Gensheimer oder Angelique Kerber gelingt es scheinbar mühelos, ungewöhnliche, aber auch technisch-taktische Bestlösungen auf dem Spielfeld zu generieren, ganz nach dem Motto: „Just do it!“ Nicht allen Sportlern, unabhängig von ihrem Leistungsniveau, gelingt es aber, optimale motorische Entscheidungshandlungen unter höchstem Zeit-, Präzisions-, Variabilitäts- Belastungs- und Gegnerdruck zu treffen. Hier stellt sich für viele Lehrer und Trainer die Aufgabe, Fehlerquellen angemessen zu analysieren, sie vergleichend zu diagnostizieren und sie abschließend effektiv durch Training zu beheben.
Movement science research indicates that an external focus of attention benefits learning as well as performing movement. Despite these findings from the field of sports, research on the effects of external focus in music pedagogy is sparse, especially in naturalistic settings. This in-depth, small-sample study investigated the effect of external focus on musical learning in terms of accuracy, self-efficacy, confidence, motivation, and engagement, as well as the qualitative performance experience. Seven conservatoire (natural trumpet) students practiced challenging, unfamiliar pieces in short practice sessions using their normal practice methods, followed by a trial using the instructions of the Audiation Practice Tool (APT). This tool was developed to enhance auditory and kinaesthetic engagement as well as detailed musical intention through vivid imagination, singing, gesturing, playing, and seeking musical variation. Use of the APT resulted in higher performance accuracy than participants’ usual practice methods, and a non-significant trend for improvement in self-efficacy and confidence compared to practice as usual. Logbook scores were inconclusive on motivation and engagement; however, exit questionnaire answers showed that most participants experienced audiation or external focus as engaging and enjoyable. Although none of the participants initially favored external focus, participants generally intended to continue using elements of the APT. This study suggests that the use of external focus could be more explicit and prominent in teaching and in practicing music.
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