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Interdependence Analysis and the 3+1Cs in the Coach–Athlete Relationship
Abstract
Social psychology in sport has grown impressively in the last decade, but no single text has addressed all the important topics in the field—until now. Through the contributions of an international group of established scholars and creative young minds, Social Psychology in Sport offers readers a global perspective, a broad base of knowledge, and the latest thinking on topics such as social relationships, communication, coach leadership, team cohesion, motivation and motivational climate, audience effects, and morality.
Through the applicable nature of the research, Social Psychology in Sport will fuel more research interest, ensuring that the recent growth in the field continues well into the future. As such, this text should be of great interest to students in upper-undergraduate and graduate courses and to researchers interested in the psychosocial aspects of sport. It is an ideal book for social psychology of sport and physical activity courses as well as courses in the psychology of coaching, sport psychology, and sport sociology.
... Das Workshop-Programm adressiert im Leistungssport tätige Trainer_innen und umfasst einen 3-stündigen Auftakt-und drei sich anschließende 4-stündige Intensiv-Workshops. Die theoretische Grundlage bildeten das 3+1 C Modell sowie das COMPASS Modell (Jowett & Lavallee, 2007;Rhind & Jowett, 2010), während das DOSB-Kompetenzmodell (Sygusch et al., 2020a, b) als didaktische Grundlage genutzt wurde. Neben den konzeptionellen Überlegungen werden speziell auch Hinweise zur Durchführung als Erfahrungswerte sowie als Ergebnis der qualitativen Evaluation der ersten Implementierung reflektiert. ...
... The workshop program is designed for coaches working in high-performance sports and includes a 3-hour kick-off workshop followed by three subsequent 4-hour intensive workshops. The theoretical foundation is based on the 3+1 C Model and the COMPASS Model (Jowett & Lavallee, 2007;Rhind & Jowett, 2010), while the DOSB Competence Model (Sygusch et al., 2020a, b) was used as a didactic basis. Beyond conceptual considerations, the implementation provides insights into incorporate experiences and qualitative evaluation results. ...
... Hierbei wird der Kommunikation eine entscheidende Rolle zur Bewertung der Trainer_in-Athlet_in-Beziehung zugeschrieben. So gilt eine Trai-ner_in-Athlet_in-Beziehung insbesondere dann als positiv, wenn eine beidseitig offene Kommunikation möglich ist, welche mit gegenseitigem Respekt, Vertrauen und daraus resultierender Motivation assoziiert ist und leistungsorientierte Voraussetzungen schafft (Choi, Jeong & Kim, 2020;Jowett & Lavallee, 2007). Zudem ist eine solche Trainer_in-Athlet_in-Beziehung mit einer Reihe von weiteren positiven Konsequenzen assoziiert. ...
Zusammenfassung: Eine starke und positive Trainer_in-Athlet_in-Beziehung wird als wesentlich für sportliche Leistung erachtet und ist mit positiven Begleiterscheinungen wie erhöhter Zufriedenheit, Wohlbefinden und Motivation von Trainer_innen und Athlet_innen assoziiert ( Jowett, 2017 ). Der vorliegende Beitrag beschreibt die theoriegeleitete Konzeption eines zweiteiligen Workshop-Programms, das inhaltlich die Trainer_in-Athlet_in-Beziehung und deren Kommunikation fokussiert. Das Workshop-Programm adressiert im Leistungssport tätige Trainer_innen und umfasst einen 3-stündigen Auftakt- und drei sich anschließende 4-stündige Intensiv-Workshops. Die theoretische Grundlage bildeten das 3+1 C Modell sowie das COMPASS Modell ( Jowett & Lavallee, 2007 ; Rhind & Jowett, 2010 ), während das DOSB-Kompetenzmodell ( Sygusch et al., 2020a , b ) als didaktische Grundlage genutzt wurde. Neben den konzeptionellen Überlegungen werden speziell auch Hinweise zur Durchführung als Erfahrungswerte sowie als Ergebnis der qualitativen Evaluation der ersten Implementierung reflektiert. Letztere zeigen, dass neben dem (sportartübergreifenden) fachlichen Austausch die praxisnahen Übungen sowie die Möglichkeit zur Reflexion positiv bewertet wurden. Gleichzeitig wurde der Wunsch nach stärkerer Individualisierung geäußert.
... Each of these quotes illustrate that the coach-athlete relationship may, at its best, satisfy, comfort, motivate or energize both coaches and athletes through very diverse interactions, making the coach-athlete relationship perhaps the most important dyadic relationship in sport (e.g., Côté & Gilbert, 2009;Lyle & Cushion, 2016). Jowett (2007) defined the coach-athlete relationship as "the situation in which coaches' and athletes' feelings, thoughts and behaviours are mutually and causally interconnected" and captured the dyadic nature of this relationship in the 3Cs framework in which commitment, closeness, and complementarity are essential (Jowett & Lavallee, 2007). Coaches and athletes do not stand on their own. ...
... The APIM is a dyadic model in which actor and partner effects can be estimated simultaneously on outcomes measured in both coaches and athletes. The advantages of using the APIM were already emphasized several times in sport psychology research (e.g., Gaudreau et al., 2020;Jowett, 2007Jowett, , 2017Jowett & Poczwardowski, 2007;Jowett & Shanmugam, 2016;Poczwardowski et al., 2002, Poczwardowski et al., 2006. Despite these pleas for the use of a more complete dyadic perspective, the approaches used in previous literature still largely ignore actor or partner effects and/or the bidirectional nature of the coach-athlete relationship. ...
Research has repeatedly shown the importance of the relationship between a coach and an athlete. Despite these findings, we argue that the approaches used in previous research fail to sufficiently consider the dyadic and bidirectional nature of the coach-athlete relationship. Although the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM) was already proposed as a useful methodology for investigating and understanding the coach-athlete relationship, its potential has been underexploited in sport psychology. We discuss the possibly misleading conclusions that can be drawn from studies with an individual rather than a dyadic perspective and we propose to closely examine the dyadic pattern that can be inferred from the APIM, rather than making a priori assumptions about it. Practical implementations of the APIM in user-friendly apps are envisaged, as are relevant extensions of the APIM that allow to answer more advanced research questions by using more complex designs.
... A 3+1 C modell (Jowett 2007) a kölcsönös függőséget emeli ki az edző-sportoló kapcsolatban hangsúlyozva azt, hogy a megfelelő kötelék kialakulásához a két félnek kedvelnie, tisztelnie kell egymást, meg kell bízniuk a másikban (closeness), a közös munka és a kitűzött célok iránt elkötelezetteknek kell lenniük (commitment), és ezek megvalósulásához együtt kell működniük (complementarity), továbbá az előző három összetevőt hasonlóképpen kell értékelniük (co-orientation). ...
A sporttudomány területén alkalmazott technológiai eszközök objektív módon adnak lehetőséget integrált teljesítményprofilok kialakításhoz. GPS és LPS monitorozó rendszerekkel a modern labdajátékosok sportteljesítmény-visszajelzéseinek spektruma kiszélesedett. A munkaterhelés meghatározása – a közel azonos mozgáskarakterisztikájú sportágak esetében (kézilabda, kosárlabda és labdarúgás) – a sportpályán mért külső terhelési változók összességéből is kalku- lálható, és ezáltal válik optimalizálhatóvá. Az utánpótlás-sportolók fejlődésének szisztematikus nyomon követése kiemelt feladat a későbbi sportági beválás érdekében. A tanulmány célja a GPS- és LPS-rendszerek külső terhelési változóival kapcsolatos legfontosabb kutatások áttekintése.
This study explores the potential associations between the evolution of coach-athlete relationship quality (in terms of closeness, commitment, and complementarity) and the athletes’ individual injury rate over a sport season. 203 young French handball players (Mage = 15.38, 47.3% women) involved in intensive training centers completed a French version of the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire at the beginning, middle, and end of the season. The athlete follow-up allowed their individual injury rate over the season to be captured. Both variable and person-centered approaches were used to explore the temporal associations between these variables. A linear growth model and a multiple regression analysis indicated that the evolution of coach-athlete relationship quality was negatively related to athletes’ individual injury rate over the season. In addition, latent class growth analyses and ANOVA revealed inter-individual differences in the evolution of this association, indicating that athletes who perceived a deterioration in the relationship with their coach were more often injured during the season. This study is the first to highlight a temporal association between coach-athlete relationship quality and athletes’ individual injury rate over time, and thus provides stimulating perspectives for future research.
Interpersonal relationships between athletes and their parents and coaches is an important factor in the success of youth sport programmes. Despite growing evidence in the parent-coach stress literature, there remains a lack of research which investigates parent-coach relationships. Therefore, a three-part research series was conducted to better understand how these relationships function within the parent-athlete-coach (PAC) triad in youth tennis. Study one employed a collective case study design and utilised pre-interview tasks, semi-structured interviews and conversational threads to collect data from nine PAC triads in three developmental stages. Study two surveyed 284 tennis parents to examine how the responsiveness and quality of parent-coach relationships mediated the association between four behavioural characteristics and parents' basic psychological needs satisfaction (BPNS) in the PAC triad. Finally, a five-phase action research study with three PAC triads was conducted to investigate how parent-coach relationships can be improved. Collectively, the findings highlighted the importance of specific parent-coach relationship qualities and behaviours within the functioning of the triad and stakeholders' experiences in youth tennis. Recommendations for practice are provided in relation to these findings.
Narcissism has emerged as a highly relevant personality trait in sporting contexts, as its competitive environment offers individuals numerous opportunities to pursue personal glory. However, little is known about narcissism in the context of the coach–athlete relationship, and the extent to which similarity in narcissism across coaches and athletes can influence relationship quality. This study sought to explore how similarity in narcissism affects a coach’s perception of their coach–athlete relationship. Data from semistructured interviews with 30 national and international coaches were analyzed using thematic analysis within a critical realist approach. Coaches were purposefully sampled based on their Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire and Dark Triad Dirty Dozen narcissism scores from Stanford et al. (2024). Four groups were then established: similar in trait narcissism/high relationship quality, similar in trait narcissism/low relationship quality, dissimilar in trait narcissism/high relationship quality and dissimilar in trait narcissism/low relationship quality, prior to any interviews. Using Wiltshire and Ronkainen’s (2021) three-level framework of analysis, 70 experiential, 18 inferential, and five dispositional themes were generated. The dispositional themes were perceived relationship perfection, high (perceived) self-awareness, breeding behaviors, relationship power, and relationship elasticity. This study offers an insight into the experiences of similarity in narcissism and the subsequent influence on the quality of the coach–athlete relationship.
A tanulmány célja az edző-sportoló kapcsolat vizsgálata az utánpótlás-válogatott játékosok és a nem válogatott kézilabdázók (N = 82) összehasonlításában. A kutatást az indokolta, hogy az utánpótlás-korosztályokból a felnőtt korosztályba történő átmenet nem zökke nőmentes, sok buktatóval jár, ezért fontos a sikeres felkészítés érdekében a sportszakmai tényezők mellet a pedagógiai és az érzelmi tényezőket is átfogóbban vizsgálni. Központi alakja ennek a munkának az edző, ezért az edző-sportoló kapcsolat feltérképezése is kulcs fontosságú. A sportolók véleményét a CART-Q-kérdőív (Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire, Jowett és Ntoumanis, 2004) segítségével értékeltük. A CART-Q-kérdőív kérdései az edző-sportoló kapcsolat három meghatározó jellemzőjét vizsgálják: „közel ség”, „elköteleződés”, „kiegészítés”. Az eredmények jelentős különbségeket mutatnak a válogatott játékosok és a nem válogatott kézilabdázók között. Legnagyobb különbséget az „elköteleződés” alskálában fedeztünk fel a két csoport között. A válogatott, bevált sportolók úgy érzik, sikerült szorosabb kapcsolatot kialakítaniuk edzőjükkel, és nagyobb elkötelezettséget mutattak edzőjük és a sportág iránt. Úgy gondolják, edzőjükkel kar öltve ígéretes sportkarrier elé néznek. Megvizsgáltuk továbbá a fiúk és a lányok közötti különbséget is. A két nem közti különbséget az „edzői viselkedés/kiegészítés” és a „közel ség” alskálákon figyeltük meg. Elmondható, hogy a lányok érzelmi szempontból sokkal közelebb állnak az edzőjükhöz, vagyis kedvelik az edzőjüket, megbíznak benne, tisztelik és nagyra értékelik edzőjük napi munkáját. A vizsgálat eredményei alapján ajánlott, hogy tovább kutassuk és fejlesszük az edzők pedagógiai kompetenciáit.
Introduction
The coach-athlete relationship is not merely a by-product of the coaching process but serves as its foundation. Coaches today must align their approaches with the characteristics (character, strengths, and growth areas) of a new generation of athletes, commonly referred to as Generation Z (Gen Z). Born between 1995 and 2012, Gen Z's grew up in a digital age, which shaped their character and behaviour. The purpose of the study was to explore coach-athlete relationships, the characteristics of Gen Z athletes that influence this relationship, and the process of building healthy coach-athlete relationships, from the perspectives of coaches.
Methods
The study used a qualitative methodology to elicit the perspectives of 11 male rugby union coaches (M ± SD age: 42.09 ± 7.56 years; with 12.83 ± 3.48 years of coaching experience), through semi-structured individual online interviews. We developed the interview script from Jowett's Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q). The interviews were analysed using Merriam and Tisdell's six-step process.
Findings
The analysis yielded six super themes (and 17 themes). 1. Coach perspectives on coaching Gen Z players (developmental facilitators and debilitators, Covid-19's effect on development). 2. Closeness between coaches and athletes [loving and caring, getting closer, trusting, (not) respecting some players]. 3. Commitment (personally and towards the team, sacrifices). 4. Complementarity (goal setting, collectively working towards common goals). 5. Co-orientation (communicating, reciprocal relationship views). 6. Developing the coach-athlete relationship (approaches thereto, practical steps).
Discussion
Various facets of the coach-athlete relationship are interlinked and shaped by the characteristics and behaviours of this generation of athletes. Practical recommendations are offered on how to cultivate the coach-athlete relationship on emotional, cognitive, and behavioural levels.
This study explores the relationship between the quality of coach-athlete relationships, transformational leadership style, and team resilience in elite football players. The coach-athlete relationship is an essential factor affecting many performance-related properties of athletes, such as mental health, psychological needs, motivation, and resilience. The study examines how the quality of coach-athlete relationships explains the team resilience feature through transformational leadership. The research group includes 210 elite players from the Super League, First League, Second League, and Third Leagues of the Turkish Football Federation (TFF) in the 2020–2021 football season. The study used descriptive and relational models to explore the current state of the dependent and independent variables and examine their relationships. The findings revealed insights into the mediating role of the coach’s transformational leadership qualities, highlighting how the quality of coach-athlete relationships impacts team resilience.
Sport plays a crucial role in the health and wellbeing of young people. While positive outcomes from sports participation are often assumed, studies show that these depend significantly on coaches’ attitudes and behaviors, which shape the sporting environment and influence participants’ experiences and outcomes. This study provides a systematic review with meta-analysis of various coach education program interventions (CEPIs), aiming to answer the question: How do CEPIs impact coaching effectiveness compared to standard coaching practices without such programs? Analyzing a total of 45 studies ( N = 180,658), this systematic review is divided into a narrative section followed by a meta-analysis. Positive effects of CEPIs were observed in 78% of the studies, seen in coaches’ knowledge gain, attitude shifts, and behavioral changes, as well as in athletes’ physical and psychological outcomes, both within and outside of sport. Overall, a significant moderate to large effect of CEPIs on coaching effectiveness ( g = 0.47, k = 264, 95% CI [0.36, 0.59]) was noted. Specifically, a large overall effect on coach outcomes ( g = 0.73, k = 71, 95% CI [0.47, 1.00]) and a moderate to large overall effect on athlete outcomes ( g = 0.38, k = 193, 95% CI [0.28, 0.47]) were observed. These findings generally support the positive impact of CEPIs on coaching effectiveness across the reviewed studies. However, the effects varied in magnitude, scalability, and sustainability for coaches and athletes. The discussion focuses on insights derived from CEPIs and future improvement strategies.
The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences of six elite Chinese tennis players and their perspectives of coaching effectiveness within their sport. We collected data using two approaches: semi-structured interviews and player documents (e.g., detailed biographies, competition experience, and performance statistics). Data were analyzed using a reflexive thematic analysis to identify the coaches’ knowledge and behaviors that elite Chinese players considered to be effective and ineffective within the training and competitive landscape. We constructed two overarching themes to represent elite tennis player's perceptions regarding coaching effectiveness: (1) perceived coaching roles (i.e., the coach as a planner, teacher, and strategist), and (2) coaching as a social phenomenon (i.e., interpersonal styles and networks, effective and ineffective behaviors). Theoretically, this study aligns with the 3 + 1Cs model of the coach–athlete relationship and enriches the literature on coaching effectiveness in elite tennis. Practically, this study underscores the value of coaching knowledge and behaviors in shaping player's competitive performance and sociopsychological abilities and identifies recommendations for coaches and players to develop harmonious and meaningful relationships within the elite tennis context.
Objectives
The role of a coach in enhancing athletes’ performance and achieving success is well-documented across numerous studies. However, the strategies employed by Chinese coaches in developing world champion gymnasts remain under explored.
Methods
This research involved a single case study focusing on a coach from the Chinese National Men’s Gymnastics Team, credited with nurturing eight world champion gymnasts.
Results
The inductive content analysis leads to that 6 subthemes, “international perspective and collaborative ability,” “ability to control and regulate training loads,” “identifying athletes’ needs and transforming them into motivation,” “goal setting aligned with athletes’ abilities,” “adopting authoritative democratic coaching style,” and “establishing hierarchical-style friendship”, and 3 themes, “training management and planning,” “motivation and goal setting,” and “interpersonal communication” are manifested. An overarching theme “the successful experience of gymnastics world champion coach,” is derived from the analysis.
Conclusion
This research bridges the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application, offering valuable insights into the successful experiences of gymnastics world champion coaches. The findings have the potential to influence coaching methodologies globally, fostering the development of resilient, motivated, and high-performing athletes. Future research should focus on sport-specific studies, longitudinal analyses, and cross-cultural comparisons to further advance the field of sports coaching and validate the effectiveness of these innovative coaching strategies.
The aim of this study is to determine the impact of selected attributes, such as the length of coaching experience and the continuity of leading a single club in the Euroleague (EL), on achieved results, specifically on placement in the EL finals (Top 8). For the purposes of this non-experimental observation, selected parameters of 23 coaches (53.2 ± 7.5 years old) who led teams in the Euroleague during the 2017/2018 and 2018/2019 seasons were analyzed. The participation of coaches in leading clubs was analyzed up to the start of the 2017/2018 season (for the 2017/2018 season) and the 2018/2019 season (for the 2018/2019 season), and it is presented as their "unique professional experience" related to the competition in question. The observed variables pertain to the length of coaching experience with previous clubs and the current club, as well as the success in leading those clubs. The obtained results show that the length of experience alone does not play a significant role in success in this competition, but the continuity of leading a particular club is highly correlated with the same success. Both variables related to the length of experience with the current club, the number of seasons, and the number of matches with the current club, indicated significant differences between the two groups of coaches (p = 0.004 for the 2017/18 season and p = 0.011 for the 2018/19 season). Regarding success, it has been shown that significant influence on the placement of teams in the Top 8 phase of the EL in the observed seasons is the success in variables related to the current club (number of wins in the EL with the current club, number of losses in the EL with the current club, win-loss ratio in the EL with the current club), all showing high statistical significance in both the 2017/18 and 2018/19 seasons. The conclusion is that the length of coaching experience is important, but the continuity of leading a single club is an even more important factor in the success of clubs in the EL. The results of this research can assist in the selection of coaches for clubs competing in the EL.
Our primary objectives in this study were to translate and provide psychometric support for the Coach Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q) Portuguese version, assess its invariance across sex, and explore its nomological validity in relation to enjoyment. Our sample participants were 470 athletes (226 females, 244 males) aged between 16 to 39 years from various individual and team sports. We found that the translated Portuguese version of the CART-Q exhibited satisfactory test-retest reliability and can serve as a reliable tool for evaluating the core constructs of the coach-athlete relationship – closeness, commitment, and complementarity. Moreover, this instrument showed evidence of nomological validity through significant positive correlations between its underlying factors and athletes' enjoyment with their sport. The proposed model for explaining item variance was also found to be invariant between male and female respondents. We recommend further use of this instrument in research and practical applications.
RESUMO O objetivo deste estudo foi revisar sistematicamente a contribuição da família e da escola no desenvolvimento de habilidades para a vida (HV) no contexto de formação esportiva. As buscas foram conduzidas em sete bases de dados e por meio da pesquisa de referências. Foram seguidas as descrições do Prisma, identificando 51 estudos. Os resultados demonstraram uma predominância de investigações no Canadá e nos Estados Unidos. Os autores dos estudos têm utilizado diferentes instrumentos, variáveis e modelos teóricos para verificar a contribuição da escola e/ou da família no desenvolvimento de habilidades para a vida. Conclui-se que o envolvimento escolar e o familiar no esporte podem contribuir com a aquisição, refinamento e transferência de características que podem ser aplicadas na vida dos indivíduos. Por fim, existe a necessidade de construir instrumentos quantitativos específicos que avaliem em conjunto a contribuição da escola e da família neste processo. Palavras-chave: revisão sistemática; habilidades para a vida; esporte; família; escola.
Introduction: Social and contextual factors play an important role for elite athletes’ mental health. In the present study, we examined how young elite athletes’ coach-athlete relationship appraisals are associated with and longitudinally predict general and athlete-specific burnout symptoms and whether mental toughness moderates the association between the coach-athlete relationship and burnout symptoms. Methods: In this prospective study, data were collected twice within a 6 to 10-month interval. The sample consisted of 295 athletes attending Swiss Olympic Partner Schools (186 boys, 109 girls), with a mean age of 16.73±1.38 years. The following instruments were applied: Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q), Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ), Shirom-Melamed Burnout Measure (SMBM), and Mental Toughness Questionnaire (MTQ). Cross-lagged panel analyses were performed to examine reciprocal relationships across time. Interaction effects were tested via hierarchical regression analyses. Results: Cross-sectionally, athletes who perceived their coach-athlete relationship as negative reported more general and athlete-specific burnout symptoms. Burnout symptoms were relatively stable across time, which made it difficult to explain further variance via coach-athlete relationship appraisals in the prospective analyses. While higher mental toughness scores were associated with fewer burnout symptoms in the cross-sectional analyses, higher mental toughness did not moderate the association between the coach-athlete relationship and burnout symptoms. Conclusion: The coach-athlete relationship plays an important role in athletes’ mental health. Therefore, coaches need the ability to develop effective relationships with their athletes, including thoughtful and respectful communication about issues specific to sport and life generally.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the attachment orientations of coaches within the competitive and elite youth coaching community with the aim of understanding their possible impact on the coach-youth athlete relationship. 107 participants were recruited (level 2 or higher qualified UK based youth coaches) across multiple sports. Data was collected using the Experience in Close Relationships – Relationship Structure questionnaire (ECR-RS) to determine participants’ attachment orientation. Results found that 51% of youth coaches presented as securely attached, while 13% presented as dismissive, 25% as preoccupied, and 11% as fearful-avoidant. This suggests that a large proportion of the coaching community have the potential to struggle with their emotional regulation under emotional stress. Research within sports psychology suggests that to improve an athlete’s wellbeing and to help create positive coach-athlete relationships coaches need to demonstrate secure attachment behaviours (secure base, safe haven, and close proximity). This paper highlights the disparity between these two positions – the expectation of ideal coaching affective behaviour and the innate capability of coaches to deliver such behaviours. This understanding suggests that any intervention aimed at strengthening the affective element within the coach-youth athlete relationship needs to consider the attachment nature of the coaching community.
The Paralympic Olympic Games initiated within the framework of the Paralympic movement is not well known by the society. Understanding the psychological characteristics of para-athletes and revealing their social position will contribute to coaches, managers and all sports professionals working with these athletes. Based on this idea, in this study, the concept of Paralympics is defined, the history of the Paralympic Olympic Games and statistical information in these games are included, and the psychosocial characteristics of athletes who operate in sports environments as para-athletes are discussed. A narrative based literature review was preferred as a methodology in the study. As a result of the research, it has been seen that para sports have progressed rapidly over the years since the first day of its emergence in the historical process. When the psychological characteristics of para athletes are examined, it is understood that para athletes do sports for reasons such as performing well and winning, looking normal, adapting to injury, defending themselves, fighting against marginalization and encouraging the disabled sports movement. It has been stated that para-athletes who are emotionally stable, have cognitive flexibility and mental endurance, are self-confident, can manage stress and control their emotions are more successful in sports. It has been stated that social support is important for para-athletes when they start sports, but an overprotective structure may negatively affect the psychosocial development of para-athletes. In addition, coaches' communication and leadership skills are important for para-athletes to be successful in sports and persistence in sports.
The profession of coaching is an important task as they are always together and guiding individuals who do sports at amateur and professional level. A coach is a person who requires expertise and follows the developments in his field. Emotional labor is; It expresses the feelings and thoughts that an individual feels at work. The aim of this research is to examine the emotional labor of the trainers working in the Provincial Directorate of Youth and Sports in terms of various variables and to determine whether there are significant differences between them. The sample of this research, in which descriptive scanning model was used, consisted of trainers working in Erzurum Provincial Directorate of Youth and Sports. "Personal Information Form" created by the researcher and Emotional Labor Scale (DES) developed by Basım and Bengibaş (2012) were used to collect data in the research. SPSS 21.0 package program was used in the analysis of the data, and the significance value was accepted as 0.05. In the evaluation of the data, number, percentage, mean and standard deviation were applied as descriptive statistical methods. As a result of the analysis, it was determined that the data were not normally distributed and Mann Whitney U-test was used for pairwise comparisons and Kruskal Wallis H-test was used for more than two comparisons. According to the findings of our research, although there is no statistically significant difference in the comparison made according to some demographic variables, it can be said that men spend more emotional labor than women. Likewise, although there is no statistically significant difference between single participants and married people, it can be said that single participants spend more emotional labor.
The purpose of this research was to describe and interpret the processes of developing the coach-athlete relationship in a women's university sports team across one competitive season. Data were generated from observations of 19 team practices and 11 games, and two individual interviews with the coach and three athletes. Participants' unique perspectives of developing the coach-athlete relationship were examined through the use of Jowett's (2007) 3+1Cs model. Findings highlight the ambiguous and often contradicting ways that participants understood and interpreted the processes of their coach-athlete relationship, due in part by the performance and social agendas at play. This research makes a contribution to knowledge about the processes of the coach-athlete relationship in a team environment and application of the 3+1 Cs model by primarily attending to its processes rather than outcomes. In doing so, we showed some of the complexities in these processes and the challenges this offers to coaches and athletes.
Background:
The Teacher-Student relationship (TSR) is instrumental for young children and adolescents' socio-emotional development and wellbeing as well as academic engagement and progress.
Aims:
The primary aim of this study was to test the psychometric properties, including reliability and factorial, convergent, and predictive validity, of the Teacher-Student Relationship Quality Questionnaire (TSRQ-Q) with two samples of students.
Sample(s):
Participants were 294 students from secondary schools in the East Midlands and the East of England. Participants were separated into two samples; those who completed the TSRQ-Q with their physical education teacher in mind (n = 150 students) and those who completed it with their mathematics teacher in mind (n = 144 students).
Method:
A multi-section questionnaire comprised of the TSRQ-Q and other validated measures was completed on one occasion by students in both samples to assess their perceptions of the quality of the TSR, positive and negative affect, intrinsic motivation, physical self-concept, enjoyment, and perceived competence.
Results:
In both samples, the TSRQ-Q demonstrated good internal consistency, factorial, convergent, and predictive validity. The quality of the TSR had both direct and indirect effects through positive affect on student outcomes in mathematics and physical education.
Conclusions:
The TSRQ-Q is a valid measure for assessing students' perceptions of the quality of the relationship with their teacher. The conceptual and practical significance of this unique relationship was reflected by its dual pathway effect on a range of student outcomes and via influencing students' positive affect in the classroom.
The study is aimed to explore the relationship between coach-athlete relationship, precompetitive coping and affective states,satisfaction and attainment of achievement goals. A sample of567 French athletes (Mage= 22.10;SD= 5.66; 377 men and 190women) involved in 75 training groups participated in the studyand completed a series of self-report measures in a temporaldesign with three measure points. Results of multilevel analysesrevealed that the coach-athlete dyad (level 2; between-personlevel of analysis or training groups) and task-oriented coping(level 1; within person level of analysis or individuals) significantlypredicted goal attainment (level 1). Moreover, the results of theSobel test revealed that task-oriented coping (level 1) marginallymediated the relationship between coach-athlete dyad (level 2)and sport satisfaction (level 1). Besides, the coach-athlete dyad(level 1) and Intensity of positive affect (PA) mediated therelationship between coach-athlete dyad and goal attainment.Finally, the coach-athlete dyad (level 1) and Intensity of PAmediated the relationship between coach-athlete dyad andsatisfaction (level 1). In conclusion, the display of Coach-Athleterelationship strategies may enhance higher levels ofprecompetitive task-oriented coping, intensity of PA, goalattainment and satisfaction. Subsequently, coaches andpractitioners should focus their training on enhancing coach-athlete relationship as a crucial part of training in order toperform in competitions.
Relationships between athletes and coaches are essential to understanding organized, competitive sports. In U.S. intercollegiate athletics, coaches affect the lives of athletes in myriad ways, including athletic performance, academic performance, professional development, and emotional development. The current study utilized person-environment fit, an organizational theory concerned with compatibility between individuals and organizations, to examine the coach-athlete relationship in Division II intercollegiate athletics. Using a survey design, the researchers collected data from 257 NCAA Division II college athletes. Representing the focal variable, person-environment fit was assessed at four levels: between athlete and coach, athlete and teammates, athlete and role(s), and athlete and team culture. A series of hierarchical multiple regression analyses reported that perceived fit with coaches has a unique and important impact on college athlete satisfaction. These results highlight the need for coaches to cultivate and sustain positive relationships with athletes, and for administrators to support coaches in those efforts.
Trener in njegova ravnanja imajo velik vpliv na otroke v najbolj občutljivih obdobjih njihovega razvoja. Od trenerskih vedenj je v veliki meri odvisna kakovost otrokovega razvoja na telesnem, kognitivnem, socialnem, psihološkem in emocionalnem področju. Namen naše raziskave je bil opredeliti lik slovenskega trenerja mladih športnikov z vidika značajskih lastnosti ter učinkovitih trenerskih vedenj, ki otrokom omogočajo uživanje v varnem ukvarjanju s športno dejavnostjo. V vzorec smo vključili osem atletskih trenerjev, ki se ukvarjajo z otroško vadbo, in jih intervjuvali z uporabo polstrukturiranega intervjuja preko Zooma. Trenerji so odgovarjali na štiri sklope vprašanj. Vsa so se nanašala na skupino atletov, starih od 9 do 11 let. Vsebino intervjujev smo dobesedno prepisali in jo obdelali s kvalitativno vsebinsko analizo. Misli smo najprej odprto kodirali, nato pa smo sorodne združili v kategorije in jih opisali. Potrdili smo velik pomen trenerjevega značaja in lastnosti, kot so prijaznost, iskrenost, toplina itd. Trenerjev značaj je po mnenju slovenskih atletskih trenerjev tudi ključni dejavnik kakovosti odnosa trener-športnik. Čeprav je atletika individualni šport, trenerji prepoznavajo velik pomen skupine, sklepanja prijateljstev, medsebojne pomoči in vzajemnega spoštovanja. Kljub temu da ima trener predvsem v obdobju otrokovega razvoja zelo pomembno vlogo, imajo velik vpliv na povezanost skupine, samozavest vadečih in njihovo motivacijo tudi vrstniki. Ker velja pri otrocih užitek za najpomembnejši motiv pri ukvarjanju s športom, je ustrezno, da trenerji poudarjajo usmerjenost k izvedbi naloge, in sicer na način, da spodbujajo lastno primerjavo, napredek, učenje ter vlaganje truda.
The importance of the role of the relationship between the coach and the individual has been emphasised in the literatures of both sports coaching and executive coaching. Two relationship models from the sport psychology and coaching psychology domains respectively that share an assumption of the centrality of the relationship to the coaching process; that have been used in research to assess associations with important outcomes; and share similarities at conceptual, operational and measurement levels were compared and contrasted. Both models highlight affective ties of closeness and bond for effective coaching outcome, and reflected potential synergies in the area of co-operation, as well as possibly diverging on their emphasis on the chronological sequence of the development of bond in relation to other aspects of the relationship. It is concluded that cross-fertilisation of ideas across psychological disciplines and future work with both models may be useful in contributing to the extant literature in their own and the other’s domain in promoting our understanding of the purposive and collaborative work of coaching and in establishing, developing and maintaining effective and successful relationships.
This paper examines the notion of self-belief in young athletes and its role in maintaining good performance. We draw on the concept of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1990, 1997) and suggest that revisions to Bandura’s original model to improve its explanatory power, particularly in a sporting context. We believe that the addition of two interpersonal components (see Lent & Lopez, 2002) can guide the communication skills of coaches and members of their support team, such as physiotherapists. A fictitious case illustration is used as a vehicle to show how the above concepts can be used in a clinical situation where a young athlete was displaying performance anxiety which, in part, resulted from the poor communication skills of the athlete’s support team (coach and physiotherapist). We make recommendations about how the communication can be improved.
Introduction
Athlete burnout has many potential negative effects on athletes’ sporting performance and careers. Maintaining and promoting the coach–athlete relationship to meet athletes’ basic psychological needs is one way to reduce burnout. Existing studies of the correlation between coach-athlete relationships and athlete burnout have mainly focused on the coaches’ leadership style, with little attention given to relationship-maintenance strategies and the mechanism of athlete burnout from the athletes’ perspective.
Methods
Using an online survey of 256 adolescent athletes, we explore the relationship between relationship-maintenance strategies and athlete burnout, including the potential mediating effects of the coach–athlete relationship and basic psychological needs satisfaction.
Results
(1) Athletes’ relationship-maintenance strategies negatively predicted athlete burnout. (2) Besides the direct effect, we found evidence to support three mediation paths: (a) the coach–athlete relationship, (b) basic psychological needs satisfaction, and (c) both as serial mediators.
Discussion
These findings enhance understanding of the mechanism of athlete burnout, demonstrating the influence of factors beyond the coach’s role. The study also provides a theoretical basis for practical intervention by coaches, athletes, and sports organizations to reduce athlete burnout by focusing on athletes’ perspectives.
Purpose
This study investigated whether coach-athlete relationship development through sport was influenced by demographic factors, team cohesion, and motivation variables in Brazilian youth sport participants.
Methods
The research involved 301 young athletes (136 boys and 165 girls) participating in the final phase of the School Games. They were aged 14–17 years (mean: 16.03 ± 0.83 years). The survey used assessed demographic variables, the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire, the Sport Motivation Scale, and the Youth Sport Environment Questionnaire. The data were investigated with a cluster analysis, chi-squared test, and multivariate analysis of variance ( p < 0.05).
Results
The study revealed more female participants in the high coach relationship cluster ( p = 0.010), as well as a stronger association of futsal and handball with high coach-athlete relationship quality, and of basketball with low coach-athlete relationship quality ( p = 0.002). When compared with the low coach relationship cluster, youth sport participants in the high coach relationship cluster presented higher scores for social cohesion ( p = 0.001), task cohesion ( p = 0.001), and autonomous motivation regulations ( p : 0.003–0.001).
Conclusions
Such findings suggest that coaches should seek to encourage group cohesion for both task and social cohesion, thus motivating athletes to meet the demands of the sporting context.
Bu çalışmanın amacı taekwondo antrenörlerinin iletişim becerileri ile liderlik yönelimleri arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesidir. Nicel araştırma modelinin benimsendiği bu çalışmaya 71 erkek 39 kadın olmak üzere toplam 110 antrenör adayı katılmıştır. Çalışmada veri toplama aracı olarak antrenörlerin iletişim becerilerini ölçmek için geçerliliği ve güvenirliliği Korkut (1996) tarafından yapılmış olan “İletişim Becerilerini Değerlendirme Ölçeği” kullanılmıştır. Antrenörlerin liderlik yönelimlerini belirlemek için ise Bolman ve Deal (1990) tarafından geliştirilen, Türkçe uyarlama ve geçerlik güvenirliği Dereli’nin (2003) yaptığı “Liderlik Yönelim Ölçeği” ölçeği kullanılmıştır. Verilerin istatistiksel analizlerinde, bağımsız grupların karşılaştırılması için parametrik testlerden t testi ve ANOVA kullanılmıştır. İletişim Becerileri Ölçeği ile Liderlik Yönelimleri Ölçeği arasındaki ilişki için pearson korelasyon analizi yapılmıştır. Yapılan tüm analizlerde anlamlılık düzeyi 0,05 olarak alınmıştır. Sonuç olarak; cinsiyet değişkeni ile iletişim becerileri arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı fark tespit edilirken yaş aralığı, katılacağınız kademe, eğitim düzeyi, çalışma durumu ve meslek kategorilerinde istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir sonuç bulunmamaktadır. Son olarak İletişim Becerileri Ölçeği ile Liderlik Yönelimleri Ölçeği alt boyutları arasında pozitif yönde orta düzeyde anlamlı ilişki olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Sonuç olarak, Taekwondo antrenör adaylarının iletişim becerileri arttıkça liderlik davranışlarında da pozitif yönde bir artış olduğu ve kadın antrenör adaylarının iletişim becerilerinin erkek adaylara göre daha yüksek olduğu söylenebilir. Katılımcı sayısı arttırılarak farklı spor branşlarında antrenörlerin iletişim becerilerinin ve liderlik yönelimleri incelenebilir. Benzer çalışmalar yapılması önerilebilir.
Objective. The purpose of this study was to examine the temporal evolution of the quality of the coach-athlete relationship (CAR), in terms of athletes’ perceptions of commitment, closeness, and complementarity, over a 1-season period. More precisely, the intra-individual temporal dynamic of the quality of the CAR was explored in three complementary ways: (1) mean change in the whole sample, (2) inter-individual differences between athletes, and (3) intra-individual stability and/or change of CAR profiles. Method. Eighty handball players (Mage = 16.15; 78% boys) involved in intensive training centres completed a measure of the quality of the CAR across three time points (beginning, middle, and ending of the season). Data were analysed using latent class growth and latent profile transition analyses. Results. Latent class growth analyses indicated that athletes’ perceptions of closeness and complementarity linearly decrease – on average – over the season, whereas those of commitment decreases in a quadratic way (U-shape). In addition, results revealed three distinctive athletes’ trajectories for closeness and complementarity, and four for commitment, suggesting inter-individual differences in the intra-individual evolution of the perceived quality of the CAR. Finally, latent profile transition analyses highlighted the existence of four distinct CAR profiles, and revealed that most athletes displayed the same profile over the season, but some of them changed their profile over time. Conclusion. As a whole, these results highlighted the dynamic aspect of athletes’ perceived quality of the CAR, suggesting that this relationship is likely to evolve in different ways over a season in intensive training context.
Coaches require support to successfully navigate the integration of professional, interpersonal and intrapersonal knowledge to be effective within their environment. There is a need for coaches to have access to, and utilization of, a practical tool to identify and appraise elements of their coaching delivery. There is a wealth of literature on the role of coaches, development of a coaching philosophy, and the importance of the athlete–coach relationship. However, understanding and refining this research to assist in constructing meaningful heuristics that can support coaching delivery and decision making is not a strength for all coaches. Support for coach decision making within their environment(s) is important, especially for those operating without the guidance of mentors or support coaches to provide peer feedback.
Within this paper we propose a need to better understand what is meant by a person-centred approach to coaching and in particular, to consider the intention that drives coach behaviours. Much of the extant coaching literature focuses on pedagogical models and theories of learning. Without detracting from this important body of work, we suggest that a holistic approach requires a greater focus on coaches’ inter- and intra-personal knowledge. In this paper, video stimulated recall was used to guide interviews with Alpine ski coaches, to explore their thought processes and intentions behind person-centred delivery. The findings suggest these coaches adopted other-centred intentions that are facilitated by an accurate self-assessment, a big picture perspective and a willingness to learn. Consequently, the concept of humility is proposed as a guiding principle for person-centred coaching, and a conceptual model is presented as a solution to the challenges we identify throughout the paper.
The Gold Medal Profile for Sport Psychology (GMP-SP) is a comprehensive, evidence-informed framework integrating mental performance competencies underpinning the athletic performances of Canadian athletes capable of stepping onto the Para/Olympic Podium. The GMP-SP was established to guide Mental Performance Consultants (MPCs) and National Sport Organizations (NSOs) in their design, delivery, tracking, and evaluation of mental skills programs in the Canadian high performance sport system. A Participatory Action Research approach involving a 2-year cyclical process of planning, action, reflection, and evaluation informed the collaborative work of six experienced Canadian MPCs (four men, two women). The group, whose lived experience was integral to the relevance and impact of the inquiry collectively had over 125 years of experience conducting research and consulting in high performance sport. A review of the scientific literature combined with the experts’ professional practice led to the creation of the GMP-SP, which includes 11 mental performance competencies grouped under three broad categories: (a) fundamental competencies (motivation, confidence, resilience), (b) self-regulation competencies (self-awareness, stress management, emotion, and arousal regulation, attentional control), and (c) interpersonal competencies (athlete-coach relationship, leadership, teamwork, communication). Mental health was also included as an overarching construct influencing the achievement of mental and athletic performance. The GMP-SP fulfills an important gap given the current lack of models, methods, and tools to guide the operationalization of mental performance systems in high performance sport that include both intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies.
Lay summary: The Gold Medal Profile for Sport Psychology (GMP-SP) is a framework integrating 11 mental performance competencies underpinning podium success in Canadian high performance sport, with attention to mental health. The GMP-SP is intended to guide practitioners and sport leaders in their sport psychology programming and resource allocation to support athletes in their quest for excellence.
• IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
• Mental Performance Consultants (MPCs) can use the Gold Medal Profile for Sport Psychology (GMP-SP) for the assessment, periodization, and implementation of mental skills training programs in high performance sport.
• The GMP-SP can be used to educate athletes, coaches, and staff about the importance of mental performance skills to achieve success in high performance sport. The GMP-SP uniquely highlights intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies and the interplay between mental performance and mental health.
• The analogy of gold, silver, and bronze in the GMP-SP can help practitioners, scholars, and sport leaders to plan, test, and allocate adequate resources and funding for the development of mental competencies.
Adventure sports offer an exciting area of investigation regarding pedagogical best practices. Previous research points to the evolution of adventure sports coaching with the development and implementation of the PPTT (physical, psychological, technical, and tactical) framework. However, there is a missing area of consideration within the PPTT framework: the individual participating in the adventure sport. The growth and diversification of adventure sports necessitate consideration of language and reflection between the coach and athlete, and the current paper proposes the integration of a multicultural education lens to support this process. Thus, the main purpose of the current study was to investigate the utility of the PPTT as a framework to support reflective processes and as a common language to facilitate the coach–athlete relationship.
https://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/WHDS92ERJ2FW7CW6FWK7/full?target=10.1080/1612197X.2022.2043927 ----
The Adult-Oriented Sport Coaching Survey (AOSCS; Rathwell et al., 2020) reliably assesses coaching practices tailored to Masters athletes (MAs). It recognizes the uniqueness of coaching adults (Callary et al., 2021) and has good face validity and factorial validity. We tested the construct validity of the AOSCS by determining whether adult-oriented practices were associated with criteria indicative of quality sport experiences. MAs (N = 402, M age = 55.91, SD = 10.41) completed the AOSCS, the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (Jowett & Ntoumanis, 2004), and items measuring practice-liking, sport commitment, investment, and enjoyment. We analyzed relationships using structural equation modelling, separately for overall use of AOSCS practices, and for five specific practices within the AOSCS. Overall, when MAs experienced more adult-oriented practices, they reported greater commitment (β = .79), complementarity (β = .64), and closeness (β = .63) with their coach, greater investment (β = .60) and practice-liking (β = .52) because of their coach, and greater enjoyment (β = .22) and sport commitment (β = .22). Regarding specific practices, “creating personalized programming”, “respecting preferences for effort, accountability and feedback”, and “considering individuality” were positively associated with aspects of the coach-athlete relationship. “Respecting preferences” was also related to practice-liking, and “framing learning” was related to sport investment. The findings support the specific and collective use of adult-oriented practices to strengthen coach-athlete relationships for MAs and create enhanced Masters sport experiences. The results demonstrate the criterion validity of the AOSCS, further positioning it as a coach development tool in competitive adult sport.
The aim of the present study is to examine the teacher-student relationship in physical education. In the recent period, the subject of physical education has undergone many changes, everyday physical education has been introduced, the number of hours has increased, the National Core Curriculum has changed, but the focus of research has shifted little to the field of education. In our research, we examined primary and secondary school students (N=1158) using a questionnaire which has been adapted to the subject of physical education. The questionnaire measures students along three dimensions based on the 3+1Cs model. For the whole sample, considering the values of the three scales, we obtained the highest value for the “complementarity” subscale, followed by the “closeness” dimension, while the lowest value was obtained for the “commitment” scale. Accordingly, students mainly perceived the “complementarity” role of physical education teachers in the teacher-student relationship. In practical terms, this means that a teacher-student relationship that promotes cooperativeness is typical. The teacher supports collaboration by retaining the role of leader-educator. There were no significant differences between boys and girls in the studied areas, however, there was significant difference in some questions in the scales. Typically, boys rated higher their relationship with their PE teacher. Students who engaged in regular sports, like boys, rated their relationship with their PE teacher as better than students who did not exercise regularly. The results of our research confirm that the teacher-student relationship plays an important role in the development of learning outcomes.
In 2015, the Society of Health and Physical Educators of America (SHAPE America) launched 50 Million StrongTM with goals of improving physical literacy, increasing physical activity levels, and encouraging lifelong physical activity among children by the year 2029. Not only are youth sports programs crucial to meeting 50 Million StrongTM goals, but it also requires the purposeful efforts of sport coaches, program administrators, researchers, coach educators, and coach developers. While it is encouraging that research on sport coaching topics appears to be growing, there is still much to learn about how to prepare coaches to provide quality sport experiences for their athletes. Consequently, to further this call, it is crucial to understand the current state of sports coaching research and propose future research needs in the discipline. The purpose of this paper is to identify research needs in sports coaching and coach education/development that assists in achieving the 50 Million StrongTM goals of SHAPE America. Throughout the paper, critical research questions are identified in two main areas: 1) coaches’ roles in developing physically literate athletes, and 2) developing coaches in regards to coach learning, the efficacy of coach education, and coach health and well-being. Furthermore, commensurate with other papers in the series commissioned by the SHAPE America Research Consortium, we discuss these areas within a social ecological model to understand the impact of the bi-directional interactions between environmental factors and individual behaviors.
https://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/TNXKCWNJIMJVJVRRDEJN/full?target=10.1080/02701367.2021.1976715
A great deal of research on coach-athlete interactions during competition has focused on team sports, something which does not consider the many contextual differences between team and individual sports. Diving is an individual sport where recurrent intermittent breaks between dives in competition provide athletes and coaches with opportunities to communicate and interact during an event. The purpose of this study was to understand elite divers’ perspectives of their coaches’ behaviours during competition. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and documents with six national team springboard and platform divers. A reflexive thematic analysis of the data revealed that athletes and coaches carefully developed and implemented individualised routines to deal with the pressures of competition. Athletes discussed the importance of trust and understanding with their coaches as crucial elements to facilitate performance in a high-risk sport. Athletes also found it particularly challenging when they felt their coaches were frustrated, disappointed, or giving up on them. From a practical perspective, our findings are useful for coaches and athletes in similar sports with intermittent breaks throughout the long day of competition, such as track and field, snowboarding, freestyle skiing, and weightlifting.
The present study explored the strategies used to maintain the quality of the coach-athlete relationship amongst rowers in Japan and the United Kingdom. A total of 93 athletes from Japan (N = 49) and UK (N = 44) completed the Coach Athlete Relationship Maintenance Questionnaire (CARM-Q) and the Athlete Satisfaction Questionnaire (ASQ). The results of T-tests showed that (a) university rowers in the UK were significantly more satisfied with the coach-athlete relationship than those in Japan; (b) the athletes in Japan expressed higher scores on Preventative strategies than the ones in the UK; (c) the athletes in the UK expressed higher scores on all other CARM-Q subscales with the exception of Social Networks. The results of correlation analyses revealed positive associations between the use of maintenance strategies and athlete satisfaction. These findings evidence the importance of coaches using strategies to maintain the effectiveness of their relationship with athletes as well as the importance of researchers taking cultural factors into account.
In this study, we explored the experiences of body shaming as a form of emotional abuse and the effects of these experiences. The reported findings represent a secondary analysis conducted of data gleaned from a study exploring the long-term effects of emotional abuse of 8 female National Team athletes in aesthetic sports. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with the athletes and analysed from a constructivist lens. The athletes indicated that they experienced negative verbal comments about their bodies, body monitoring, forced restrictions of food and water, public criticism of the body, and punishment when body-related standards were not met. Athletes discussed the effects of these experiences, which included normalisation, social comparison, extreme weight control methods, negative health outcomes, performance decrements, and decreased enjoyment. These findings are interpreted to suggest that the coaches’ actions to monitor and control the athletes’ weight constitute body shaming practices and that body-related shaming should be considered a form of emotional abuse.
This study retrospectively explored perceptions of coach, parent and peer motivational influences across athlete development. Four investment stage football players (M age = 18.5 years, SD = 0.6) with an average of 13 (SD = 1.4) years footballing experience, and four of their parents, were interviewed to investigate their perceptions of coach, parent and peer motivationally-relevant influence during the athletes’ sampling, specializing and investment stages of development. Abductive thematic analysis of the interview transcripts identified five categories of perceived social agent motivationally-relevant influence that were consistent amongst each social agent and across each development stage. Each social agent was perceived by participants to play a role in each of the following motivationally-relevant categories of social agent influence: relationship factors; interpersonal interactions; support for development; support for participation; and feedback and evaluation. The categories were somewhat supportive and reflective of those outlined in other models. The results describe a complex and dynamic social environment within which players develop and provide insight into how this socio-motivational environment changes as athletes develop. Identified categories of perceived motivationally-relevant social agent influence may provide a framework for future research and allow practitioners to better determine athletes' motivational needs. Sport practitioners may use the findings from the study to ensure that athletes are gaining the breadth of motivational influences described in the categories within this study. Coach education might be developed or adapted to educate coaches on the types and importance of socio-motivational influences in sport.
Lay Summary: Coaches, parents and peers were found to influence football players’ motivation in a range of ways, including the quality of their relationship with athletes, their positive and negative behaviors, the support they provided players’ development and participation in football, and the support they provided footballers to reflect on their experiences. The type of support that coaches, parents and peers provided to players changed as players progressed through different developmental stages, with coaches and peers becoming more important as athletes reached higher performance levels. Coaches and other sport practitioners might benefit from insight into the range of motivational influences that coaches, parents and peers can have in a football context in order to better develop and maintain athlete motivation.
This study aims to deepen our understanding of the relevant research on coach–athlete relationship theory, moral leadership, and team effectiveness theory, and thus explore how to maximize team performance. As such, this study adopts an input-process-output model to explore the effect of coach–athlete relationships on team effectiveness in youth football teams. Participants in this anonymous survey included 312 young athletes, aged 13–19, from professional football schools who filled in questionnaires to provide data on the coach’s moral leadership, team effectiveness, coach–athlete relationships, and trust in the coach. The results indicate that coach–athlete relationships have a significant predictive effect on the moral leadership of coaches, which in turn, has a significant positive correlation with athletes’ trust in coaches; however, coach–athlete relationships have no direct positive correlation with team effectiveness. The coaches’ moral leadership and athletes’ trust in coaches have a chain mediation effect in the impact of coach–athlete relationships on team effectiveness. This study validates the assertion that coach–athlete relationships have a substantial effect on coach leadership. It also refines the coach–athlete relationship theory, provides evidence on the dynamic mechanism in which coach–athlete relationships affect team effectiveness, and enriches team effectiveness theory.
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