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The Concept of
Development
DEFINITIONS, THEORIES AND CONTEMPORARY
PERSPECTIVES
BY DR. NISHAN SAKALASOORIYA
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY
UNIVERSITY OF KELANIYA
SRI LANKA
Definitions of Development
For almost every writer a different definition of
development exists
Important to first distinguish between:
a. Development as a state or
condition-static
b. Development as a process
or course of change-
dynamic
Meaning of Development-
Todaro
Development is not purely an economic
phenomenon but rather a multi-dimensional
process involving reorganization and reorientation
of entire economic AND social system
Development is process of improving the quality
of all human lives with three equally important
aspects. These are:
Todaro’s Three Objectives of
Development
1. Raising peoples’ living levels, i.e. incomes and consumption,
levels of food, medical services, education through relevant
growth processes
2. Creating conditions conducive to the growth of peoples’
self-esteem through the establishment of social, political and
economic systems and institutions which promote human
dignity and respect
3. Increasing peoples’ freedom to choose by enlarging the
range of their choice variables, e.g. varieties of goods and
services
Alternative Interpretations of Development
(Mabogunje)
Development as Economic Growth- too often commodity
output as opposed to people is emphasized-measures of
growth in GNP. Note here the persistence of a dual
economy where the export sector contains small number of
workers but draws technology as opposed to traditional
sector where most people work and is dominated by
inefficient technology
Alternative Interpretations of
Development
Development as Modernization- emphasizes process of social
change which is required to produce economic advancement;
examines changes in social, psychological and political
processes;
How to develop wealth oriented behavior and values in
individuals; profit seeking rather than subsistence and self
sufficiency
Shift from commodity to human approach with investment in
education and skill training
Alternative Interpretations of
Development
Development as Distributive Justice- view development as
improving basic needs
Interest in social justice which has raised three issues:
1.Nature of goods and services provided by governments
2. Matter of access of these public goods to different social
classes
3. How burden of development can be shared among these
classes
Target groups include small farmers, landless, urban under-
employed and unemployed
Alternative Interpretations of
Development
Development as Distributive Justice- view development as
improving basic needs
Interest in social justice which has raised three issues:
1.Nature of goods and services provided by governments
2. Matter of access of these public goods to different social
classes
3. How burden of development can be shared among these
classes
Target groups include small farmers, landless, urban under-
employed and unemployed
Marxist View of Development
Emphasizes Mode of Production - elements and activities
necessary to produce and reproduce real, material life
Capitalist (market economy) mode depends on wage labor
whose labor power produces a surplus which is accumulated
and appropriated by the employer-result is often class conflict
in capitalist societies
Neocolonial Dependence Model
Outgrowth of Marxist thinking-Dos Santos
Existence of underdevelopment due to historical
evolution of an unequal international capitalist
system of rich country-poor country relations
Sets up center (developed countries) versus
periphery (developing countries) contrast
Attempts to become self-reliant and progressive are
surpressed by this relationship
Moreover certain elites in the developing world (e.g
landlords, entrepreneurs, merchants) enjoy high
incomes, social status and political power and thus
perpetuate inequality and conformity and are
rewarded
They serve international power groups such as multi-
national firms, assistance agencies (World Bank)
and other agents
Sustainable Development
Defined as development that is likely to achieve
lasting satisfaction of human needs and
improvement of the quality of life and
encompasses:
Help for the very poorest who are left with no option
but to destroy their environment to survive
Idea of self-reliant development with natural
resource constraints
Cost effective development using different
economic criteria to the traditional –i.e.
development should not degrade environment
Important issues of health control, appropriate
technologies, food self-reliance, clean water and
shelter for all
People centered activities are necessary- human
beings are the resources in the concept
Theories of Development
1940-50s-Keynesian growth theory -process of capital of
formation is determined by savings and investment
Domestic savings are chanelled to productive investments
such as manufacturing which result –usually-in high
productivity
Growth is market driven as income levels rise, savings rises and
frees capital for alternative investment
Theories of Development
Modernization Theory -as noted previously this theory suggests
that economic dimension alone is insufficient and adds
theories on institutional and social change
Incorporates non-economic elements such as social
practices, beliefs, values and customs (McClelland, Achieving
Society)
Diffusion and speed of change is critical as is removal of
various cultural and social barriers
Backward internal structures-rather than external factors-
cause underdevelopment
Theories of Development
NeoLiberal Development Theory- grew in the 1970s and
designed to counteract impact of Keynesianism
New emphasis on supply side factors in development- private
initiatives and market led growth
Move away from demand stimulation (interest rate
manipulation), import substitution, state intervention and
centralized planning
Gradual industrialization with ‘trickle down’ of benefits to all
social classes
Theories of Development
Popular Development-what is it?
Avoids ‘grand theories’ and emphasizes solutions
viewed in context of development which is part of
historical process
Context of development is constantly changing in
scale and time
Accommodates geographical and historical
diversity
Theory of little use to practitioners of development
Stresses local diversity, human creativity, process of
social change through pragmatism, flexibility and
context
Not extent of state intervention but comparative
advantages of public and private sectors and their
complementarity
Popular Development and Environment
Recognizes high “opportunity costs” associated with
irreversible environmental damage
Dealing with environmental problems requires solutions
sensitive to local social and ecological conditions
Society and nature relations are affected by variations in
class, gender and ethnicity
“Reproductive squeeze” forces peasants to intensify
production in fragile environments
Popular Development, Space and
Place
Bottom up approaches (as opposed
to top-down) to peoples’
participation are important in this view
How are various social groups and
classes affected by rural-urban, core-
periphery and other spatial
interactions?
Growing importance of
“decentralization” of decision-making
and authority from center to periphery
Popular Development and Power
How does the power structure affect development?
Examine sources of empowerment, inequality and
discrimination
Need to devise more people centered approaches which
stress empowerment and participation
Empowerment as participatory development seeks to
engender self-help and self-reliance but also effective
collective decision-making
What causes underdevelopment?
Very easy to focus on characteristics of development
For example we know that underdevelopment is usually
characterized by: low per capita incomes, low literacy and
educational attainment, lack of basic services- water and
power
But how do we EXPLAIN underdevelopment?
Some Common ‘Theories”
Old view that absence of
development caused by certain
physical environments, particular
cultural traditions and value
systems-environmental and cultural
determinism
Lack of natural resources certainly
impediment to development but
not impossible- example of Japan
Why has Japan succeeded?
Reasons for Japanese Success
Strong cooperation between government and business
Able to adapt to spatial-physical situation and acquire a
maritime prowess
Early development (Meiji restoration) of transport and
banking systems
Highly literate population
Niche development- technology driven
Other Common Explanations of
Underdevelopment
Instability and other adverse internal
situations- political factors
Some truth to this as extended periods of
turbulence are not conducive to
development- central African nations with
tribal rivalries and ethnic cleansing
Poor physical environment- lack of rainfall,
poor soils also may pose barriers to
development
Vicious Circles- Gunnar Myrdal
Complex web of interlocking vicious circles
each of which constitutes a chain of cause
and effect relationships where one
unfavorable circumstance leads to
another and produces downward spiral
High Birth Rate> Large Families>Low PCI>
Poverty> Low Output Per Worker>
Low PCI> Low Productivity> Poor
Health>Inadequate Housing
Remedy > Downward spiral not reversible
without massive aid
Remedy for Vicious Circle
Aid would stimulate growth in modern sector and
reduce size of ‘informal’ or traditional sector
Thus eliminate dualism and the major causes of
unequal distribution of wealth
Foreign aid would allow countries to increase low
levels of productivity
Another Common Explanation
Colonialism As Scapegoat
Attacking vicious circle proponents-do not explain how
these magic circles come into existence
Need to view development in historical perspective as
sequence of dynamic events-explore roots
Colonialism viewed as the cause of disintegration and
decline- how?
Colonialism as Scapegoat
Indigenous population exploited
Traditional way of life and self sufficient mode of production
have been destroyed
Forced to pay taxes and conscripted labor practices
Social differentiation increased- disintegrating force
Fatal effects on secondary (manufacturing) and tertiary
(service) sectors- import of cheap goods forced indigenous
artisans out of work
Discouraged modern industrialization
Colonialism as Scapegoat cont’d
Thus what occurred in these situations was dependent not
autonomous development
Colonial powers extracted wealth for home country-
Netherlands, France, Great Britain
International division of labor (IDL) and western dominated
trading structure was created to take advantage of colonial
authority
IDL=allocation of tasks among laborers such that each one
engages in tasks that he performs most efficiently and this
promotes worker specialization and productivity
What to Do With Development Theory
?
Several theories have been advanced have been criticized
and some also discredited—to be replaced by other
theories
Third World is very heterogeneous-dissimilar in terms of
population, resources, climates, culture , economic structure
and location
Unlikely that one theory will be powerful enough to explain
underdevelopment everywhere
What to Say About Development Theory
?
Underdevelopment must be seen as a product of an array of
complex and continuously changing interactions between:
1. Past and Present
2. Natural and Human Environments
3. External and Internal Conditions
Multitude of obstacles to development vary with place and
time
Critical to remember that the above theoretical ideas aid us in
asking pertinent questions
Thanks
