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Have Workers Really Flown the Coop?
Abstract
Abstract: Whilst workplace mobility (i.e. working from a variety of locations) has become an area of study in its own right, and has increasingly gained media attention, little is know about how prevalent or novel it is. In this paper we use census place-of-work data to obtain insights into the prevalence and growth of this phenomenon in Canada's ten largest CMAs. These data do not capture all dimensions of workplace mobility, but are the best currently available to assess it population-wide. We show that workplace mobility has increased modestly since 1996, and that it is particularly prevalent in sectors such as construction and amongst less qualified workers. Knowledge workers, to the extent they are mobile, tend to work from home. These results do not capture fine-grained mobility within the working day (which may indeed be increasing), but demonstrate that these finer grained mobilities have not fundamentally impacted the types of workplace that jobs are attached to.
THIS IS THE FINAL AUTHORS' VERSION
Construction is an important employer in all developed countries, which bolsters the local and global economy. The construction industry is responsible for creating structure that improve productivity and quality of life not only in Canada but also in other developed and developing countries. Although considerable research exists on important facets of the industry (including education, skills and training; precarious work; migration and labour mobility; gender, working-time and work-life balance), few studies look at how the labour force has changed over time. In this paper we model the factors that predict participation in the Canadian construction industry in 1986 and 2016, and document the changes between these two points in time. We find broad similarities between the sociodemographic characteristics of workers in 1986 and 2016, and large changes in the source regions of these workers. We also find different geographical mobility patterns between 1986 and 2016, and discuss the implications of these changes for both the industry itself, and the workers and families that derive their livelihoods from construction work.
A growing number of American workers are no longer employed in ‘jobs’ with a long-term connection with a company but are hired for ‘gigs’ under ‘flexible’ arrangements as ‘independent contractors’ or ‘consultants,’ working only to complete a particular task or for defined time and with no more connection with their employer than there might be between a consumer and a particular brand of soap or potato chips. While the rise of this ‘gig’ economy is praised by some as a response to the wishes ofa more entrepreneurial generation, it is more likely that it is driven by the concerns ofbusinesses to lower wages and benefit costs during business down-turns while also reducing their vulnerability to unfair dismissal lawsuits. The rise ofgig labor calls for new initiatives in social policy because it shifts more ofthe burden ofeconomic risk onto workers even while removing gig workers from many ofthe employment-bound New-Deal-era social insurance programs.
It is often suggested that work is changing rapidly and that working in a fixed place, such as an office, is a thing of the past for a growing number of workers. By piecing together a variety of UK surveys of both employers and workers, this article shows that while work is being detached from conventional places of work, it is happening at a much slower rate than some claims suggest. The article also discusses the consequences these changes have for how and what individuals learn at work, and in particular, how individuals cope with working in a number of contrasting locations.
Purpose – Generic use of the term “knowledge worker” has resulted in a generic approach to designing office environments for this group. The purpose of this paper is to probe the mobility patterns and motivations of knowledge workers in order to provide a classification of different types of knowledge worker. Design/methodology/approach – The study was undertaken using a range of qualitative research methods including semi-structured interviews with 20 knowledge workers representing different levels of mobility and experience, ethnographic studies in a media company, real estate business and a public relations firm, and a user workshop. A novel drawing exercise was introduced to elicit responses during the interview process. Findings – Four knowledge worker “character types” emerged from the research: the Anchor and the Connector, who are mainly office-based, and the Gatherer and the Navigator, who work more widely afield. Research limitations/implications – This is a small study revealing characteristics particular to the participating individuals and organisations. However, it has wider implications in that the more complex set of requirements revealed by the project requires a more responsive and service-led approach to office design for knowledge workers and the development of new protocols of use within office space. Originality/value – The originality/value lies in giving designers and facilities managers an insight into the different needs of knowledge workers, who are commonly treated as a homogeneous group. The typologies are an active tool for better brief-making in design for creative facilities.
Many organisations have changed to new ways of working, steered or followed up by design interventions and sharing of activity related workplaces. Expectations have been high. Innovative offices should lead to more efficient use of space and other facilities; greater job satisfaction; the projection of a positive image to clients; an improved performance of the organisation and its staff; and reduced costs. Have innovations in the working environment fulfilled these high expectations? Are the new offices really more efficient and more pleasant to work in? Or will constant changing of the workplace reduce satisfaction and productivity? What are the ‘pros’ and ‘cons’ of teleworking? Are the extra costs of nice ergonomic furniture, high-tech information and communication technology (ICT) and image-boosting gadgets counterbalanced by the expected profits in higher productivity and more efficient use of space? Evaluative research results show a mixed picture. Besides the considerable satisfaction with the attractive design and the improved opportunities to interact, there are many complaints about problems in concentrating on work. Psychological mechanisms, such as the need for status, privacy and individual territory, do not necessarily hinder ‘flexi-working’, but only when the new situation provides considerable added value. Teleworking offers more freedom of choice, but there are attendant risks.
Purpose
This paper aims to establish if office occupiers, who adopt different work patterns, can be segmented based on differences of perceived productivity with regards to the physical environment and the behavioural environment.
Design/methodology/approach
Components of office productivity were used in an office productivity model with categorical data enabling a unique opportunity to undertake an analysis of office occupiers by work process type.
Findings
The four distinct evaluative components used were comfort, office layout, interaction and distraction. The components were subsequently used for more detailed statistical analysis. This study establishes that statistical differences exist between the work styles under investigation.
Research limitations/implications
This research establishes that to truly appreciate office productivity there is a need to further understand the way that people work in offices and their specific requirements. The matching of office occupier need with space provision can only be achieved if the office occupier is involved in the creation of the office solution.
Originality/value
This study demonstrates that there is a need to consider how the office environment matches the work patterns of the office occupiers. This understanding of how the office works could be considered as establishing the office landscape or “officescape”.
It has been shown that the potential for environmental, and financial improvements through the increased substitution of in-person meetings by virtual communication is considerable. However, it has also been shown that this potential is not automatically realized by investing in the technology that can enable virtual meetings. This paper describes two case studies that explored the factors that influenced communication and meeting behavior. A number of drivers and barriers for virtual meetings are identified, and, in addition, measures are proposed to improve the utilization of virtual tools for business communication.
This article examines an unanticipated consequence of adopting flexible working practices - that of work intensification. Based on a study of professional workers and in line with other studies, we present evidence showing that flexible workers record higher levels of job satisfaction and organizational commitment than their nonflexible counterparts. However, we also report evidence of work intensification being experienced by both those who work reduced hours and those who work remotely. We identify three means by which this intensification occurs - imposed intensification, enabled intensification and intensification as an act of reciprocation or exchange. We argue that the apparent paradox of high job satisfaction and organizational commitment, alongside work intensification can be explained by employees trading flexibility for effort. Using social exchange theory we propose that employees respond to the ability to work flexibly by exerting additional effort, in order to return benefit to their employer
Mobile work has been found to offer the benefits of flexibility and empowerment to employees as well as improved savings, productivity, and employee retention to organizations. Nevertheless, challenges and risks associated with mobile work can erode acceptance and continuance of mobile work. Drawing upon the theoretical work on information system (IS) continuance and using data collected from 238 knowledge mobile workers, this study develops and validates a model of mobile work continuance. Our findings suggest: (1) the expectation-confirmation framework provides strong theoretical support for explaining mobile work continuance, and (2) outcome construct and experiential constructs affect knowledge workers’ mobile work continuance intention.
As the use of smartphones for work purposes increases, the term of mobile enterprise is emerging and rapidly expanding. The mobile enterprise is defined as a work environment that enables employees to perform their tasks using mobile devices without the constraints of time and space. Mobile enterprise is changing employees' way of working and ultimately affects corporate cultures and business processes as well as working environments. However, mobile enterprise, which was originally adopted to promote organizational efficiency, can intensify employees' work exhaustion. The objective of this study is to provide a better understanding of the work exhaustion in mobile enterprise environment. To that end, inducers and inhibitors of work exhaustion are adopted from previous literature to establish a research model. Mobile enterprise-stressors and organizational supports were used as inducers and inhibitors of work exhaustion, respectively. Job satisfaction was used as a consequence of work exhaustion. In order to empirically test the suggested research model, a survey targeting employees in mobile enterprises was conducted. A total of 210 valid responses were used for path analysis using partial least square (PLS) technique. As expected, we found that while mobile enterprise-stressors (inducers) were positively related to work exhaustion, organizational support (inhibitors) was negatively related to work exhaustion in mobile enterprise environment. These associations were further analyzed at the sub-dimension levels of inducers and inhibitors in order to provide practical implications for minimizing work exhaustion under the mobile enterprise environment. The results revalidated the impacts of techno-stressors and organizational support on work exhaustion in mobile enterprise environment. Some important implications for research and practice as well as directions for future study are discussed.
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to determine how the unprecedented developments in information and communications technologies now permit a variety of forms of remote working and the subsequent shifting of spatial and temporal boundaries between home, office and city. It examines the changing context within which knowledge-based work is conducted with the specific objective of understanding how the blurring of the distinction between the domains of “work” and “leisure” is influencing the notion of workplace culture. It offers a framework that organizes the key issues in a legible form.
Design/methodology/approach
– The paper draws on concepts, theories and ideas in workplace, information and communications technology and green building literature and restructures them to formulate an emerging set of key issues, trends and relationships.
Findings
– The paper identifies possible implications for both the changing nature of the workplace in current green building practice and understanding the notion of workplace within different national cultural contexts. It outlines implications for employees, employers and facilities managers.
Research limitations/implications
– The work represents an initial attempt to bridge across issues not immediately evident in several bodies of literature. While several other issues may also have bearing on the work, the findings with regards to the blurring of work and leisure have significant theoretical and practical implications.
Practical implications
– As the “workplace” now embraces a wide range of possibilities that extend beyond the domain of the “office” to the home and to a host of “hot-spots” in public venues available within the city, the broader framing has significant consequence for comfort provisioning and other services in the office buildings and facilities management.
Originality/value
– The paper’s originality derives from emphasizing the potential positive and negative consequences for employers, employees and facilities managers associated with the blurring of work and leisure.
Purpose ‐ The purpose of this paper is to propose a new framework to assess the value of a knowledge worker (KWr) in his/her organization. Design/methodology/approach ‐ The proposed framework determines the value of each KWr based on his/her contribution to organizational value-added. The framework includes two steps: the contribution of each work process to the total organizational value-added is determined using Knowledge Value Added method; and the value of each KWr is obtained based on the contribution of his/her operational knowledge to the value-added of the processes. Findings ‐ This article elaborates on how KWrs' contribution to organizational value-added can be used to assess them. A new framework is designed to serve this purpose. A case study was also carried out in a marketing department of a detergent manufacturing company to test the practical usability of the framework. The statistical analysis of the results confirms the validity of the framework. Practical implications ‐ The results of this research can be discussed in terms of two main issues. First, this study highlights the imperative role of KWrs in achieving success for organizations in today's knowledge-based economy. This research urges managers of organizations to fully recognize and measure the importance and value of KWrs and recommends that the mechanisms of human resource management (such as compensation and rewarding systems, hiring process and training and development) can be modified with respect to this value measurement. Second, an applicable framework with specific and clearly defined steps is introduced in this paper, which can be used by organizations to determine the value of KWrs based on their contribution to organizational value-added. The proposed framework has two important characteristics which previous models and frameworks failed to deliver: this new framework contains detailed items and procedures that could be easily obtained and fully understood by practitioners and researchers; and the proposed framework provides the ability to compare all types of KWrs. The results obtained by implementation of this framework give insight into the appropriate managerial approaches to reach personal and organizational goals simultaneously. Originality/value ‐ Due to the differences between knowledge work (KW) and manual work, the management of KWrs requires its own methods and techniques. In this article, a brand new framework for KWrs' value assessment is developed based on the characteristics of KW.
In the light of the increasing use of information and communication technologies (ICTs), it is important to gain a better understanding of their influence on work–life boundaries. This study examines how individuals manage their work–life boundaries by using ICTs. The findings of a qualitative study with independent contractors show that individuals actively use multiple ICT-mediated tactics to shape their temporal, spatial and psychological work–life boundaries. Furthermore, findings suggest that individuals cannot simply be classified as ‘integrators’ or ‘segmentors’, as they may have diverse preferences with regard to both the dimension (temporal, spatial or psychological) and direction (work-to-life or life-to-work) of boundary permeability. A framework that takes account of these aspects is derived based on the empirical results.
Developments in information and communication technologies permit a variety of forms of remote working. The ‘workplace’ now embraces a wide range of possibilities that extend beyond the domain of the ‘office’, reaching out to the home and to a host of public venue ‘hot-spots’ available within the city. This article examines the changing nature of the office workplace to understand the new and emerging spatial and temporal engagement of building inhabitants with their workplaces. It attempts to clarify the distinction between ‘individual’ and ‘shared’ experience of and engagement with manual and automated controls, and how these distinctions are manifest in a variety of different knowledge-based work contexts. It further illustrates how the emerging shift towards more mobile and transient workplaces requires rethinking the notions of a palpable inhabitant ownership, engagement and agency that are considered necessary to support higher degrees of satisfaction. The article concludes by presenting a framework that outlines the relationship between workplace technologies (environmental controls and information and communication technologies) and knowledge-based workers (both individual and groups) across various workplaces (home, office and city).
If you work in an office. If you go to the same place every day to work. If you do the same hours, Monday to Friday every week. Maybe you see the same faces, pick up your lunch from the same sandwich maker, drive the same route or take the same train to get there. When you’re at work, you have the same conversations about what you did at the weekend, what you read in the paper that morning or what you saw on television last night. You fill in the same forms. You answer the phone with the same name. It’s stable, yes. Predictable, yes. Inevitable, no.
With the globalisation of the economy, more people travel for business purposes, doing much of their work while on the move. Business travellers spend a lot of time at airports and are likely to want to use this time productively. Already, airports have transformed from people processors into places where you can shop, dine, drink and sleep, so why not work there? This article shows that business travellers spend a large part of their waiting time checking their e-mail, making phone calls, reading reports and working on their laptop. The question is whether they need special facilities to perform these activities. Do business travellers need a dedicated workplace with facilities ranging from colour printers and Internet access, to showers and a good cappuccino? Or just a place to sit with a network connection? This article tries to answer this question by studying the activities and needs of business travellers during their stay at an airport. It is based on a survey and in-depth interviews among Dutch business travellers.
The article reviews assumptions commonly made about a changing psychological contract at work and questions whether we have understated the changes that might alter future work behaviour. Research that has examined the adaptations to work being made by employees and the future generation of workers is highlighted. The initial experience of work in virtual organizations is considered. It is argued that we shall witness fundamental transitions in forms of work organization. Initially this will not compensate for the deterioration in the psychological contract that has been experienced by those who have lived through an era of downsizing. However, it will raise the need to develop new competencies to cope with the changes in work design. The need for more studies on numerically restricted but meaningful work populations (such as teleworkers, virtual teams, international managers, employees in small and medium-sized enterprises, small project-based forms of organization) is signalled.
Purpose
– This paper aims to examine the impact of social networking in the workplace and to assess its use as an effective business tool.
Design/methodology/approach
– The paper examines positive and negative perceptions of social networking in the workplace and provides a critical review of literature in the area. The drivers of, and barriers to, change are explored, and whether the reasons for some organisations prohibiting or restricting social networking in the workplace are well‐founded or corporate suicide. The link between social networking and organisational culture is examined, looking at whether social networking tools are capable of revitalising and reshaping the culture and brand of an organisation, which in turn can lead to better ways of working and increased levels of employee productivity and satisfaction.
Findings
– The findings indicate that the business advantages and benefits of social networking in the workplace are still very much underappreciated and undervalued. Although some organisations across the world have started to implement some of the facets of social networking technology and reap the business benefits, fear, resistance and risk are the opinions that still dominate many organisations.
Originality/value
– The value of social networking technology in the workplace is yet to be determined. This paper addresses gaps in the current literature and demonstrates that the business benefits of social networking far outweigh the negative perceptions that are still predominant in the pre‐millennial generations. The paper highlights that social networking technology can facilitate improved workplace productivity by enhancing the communication and collaboration of employees which aids knowledge transfer and consequently makes organisations more agile. Moreover, social networking can provide enhanced levels of employee satisfaction by reducing the social isolation of teleworkers and making them feel part of organisational culture during long absences from the physical office.
In the near future work will no longer be a place, but a range of activities that can be conducted virtually anywhere and at any time. This paper gives a comprehensive view of the critical management issues that need to be considered when providing a responsive and effective human support service to underpin a wide variety of transient work patterns, undertaken at different venues and at dispersed locations. In the future, facilities management may need to move nearer to the core of an organisation’s business in order to support the “free-style” deployment of its human resources to working practices that are increasingly space and time flexible.
This article reviews the current state of the research on mobile cultures by situating it within the sociology of mobility, or mobilities. The review focuses in detail on empirical research on the social and cultural aspects of transportation. The study of transport in daily life, or the study of mobile cultures, is reviewed with a particular attention to issues of time and space, as well as the social problems and social inequalities generated by dominant patterns of mobility. It also discusses the mobility turn in sociology and the growth of a new mobility paradigm influencing important shifts in sociological theory and research methodology. It defines the field of mobilities as the study of the social aspects of movement, including the movement of people, material objects, information, and capital – both in the material and the virtual sense. Mobilities for instance may include phenomena as migration, transport, travel and tourism, wireless and portable communication technology use, the social organization of transportation and communication infrastructures, and regional and transnational flows of capital and material things.
New information and communication technologies enable the spatial reconfiguration of work opening up possibilities for work to take place across multiple locations. This paper explores the implications of hybrid workspace through a new empirical study. It argues that spatial hybridity changes the nature of work, organisation and management across domestic space, organisational space and in cyberspace.
The paper examines the spatial implications of multi-location work considering how the spaces such workers travel through and work in shape the type of tasks they conduct, how they act to create a workspace in such locations and the implications that this type of working has for how the workplace is conceptualised.
Whilst many teleworkers are increasingly working beyond home and office, these mobile teleworkers are neglected in the telework literature. This neglect is addressed through reviewing relevant literature, developing a conceptual locational framework that accounts for mobile teleworkers and the presentation of an illustrative example which links to the theme of work–life balance in the telework literature.
There are a lot of opinions about who Millennials are, what they think and value, and how they will behave as they grow older
and gain more experience in the workforce. The relatively sparse empirical research published on Millennials is confusing
at best and contradictory at worst. As noted in this article and others in this special issue, however, there are a few topics
including work attitudes, long-term health outcomes, and personality factors on which we have reasonably solid data to inform
us about current and likely future behavior of Millennials. We address the importance of context for understanding behavior
of people in different generations, a subject often missing from the discussion of generational similarities and differences.
There are implications for practitioners of what we know and for how context affects behavior. We make suggestions for how
practitioners can use the data available to inform decisions they make about working with Millennials. Finally, we discuss
the importance of new directions of research on generational differences to help both practitioners and the research community
better understand the realities of generational similarities and differences and rely less on urban myths or stereotypes.
KeywordsMillennials–Generations–Generational differences–Health–Technology–Generation gap–Leadership
Transportation activity generated by businesses has been analyzed mainly with reference to freight flows and commuting trips. The area of employee business trips has been largely ignored, even though the literature – particularly that dealing with industrial economics – has endeavored to show both the central role played by face-to-face encounters in economic contact, and the decreased need for proximity as a prerequisite to such contact taking place in the first place. This paper takes this literature, both theoretical and empirical, as its base, and then aims to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the need for business travel and the profiles of mobile workers. It also investigates how the workers involved perceive, and how companies account for such mobility.
This paper examines how some non-managerial/professional workers (mobile service engineers) used mobile phones for work, with a central focus on phone use during working hours. During working hours the engineers not only used their phones as work-related communication tools, but also as a tool to manage the work/non-work boundary. By examining non-managerial workers, and boundary management during work time the paper addresses a significant gap in knowledge. The data presented shows that while the boundary between work and non-work time at the start and end of the working day was clear, and that work demands rarely intruded upon non-work time, the situation with regard to working hours was quite different. Fundamentally, the way the engineers' used their mobile phones during working hours resulted in the work/non-work boundary regularly becoming blurred and unclear. A key reason why the engineers use their phones as a boundary management tool during working hours relates to the character of their work, where the engineers spent much of their working time alone, driving to client sites, and also due to the unpredictable opportunities the engineers had for face-to-face interaction with clients or colleagues.
This article features a number of enablers and barriers for the successful introduction of mobile work initiatives. ICT enabled mobile work environments are an emerging phenomenon in Europe. On basis of current theory and the empirical analysis of five selected case studies from a large European research project both facilitating factors and possible obstructions are illustrated and discussed.
In this paper we examine the spatial practices of mobile workers -- how mobile workers manage their use of technology and place. Data from interviews with highly mobile workers and 'hot-deskers' are used to explore the reciprocal relationship between practice and place: how places change work, but also how work changes places. Mobile workers often need to configure their activities to take account of the different places in which they find themselves. This can involve considerable 'juggling' of their plans, humble office equipment, and their coworkers. In turn mobile workers change places, as they appropriate different sites for their work. Specifically, technology allows for the limited reappropriation of travel and leisure sites as places for work (such as trains and cafés). Time is also an important practical concern for mobile workers. Although mobile work may be seen as relatively flexible, fixed temporal structures allow mobile workers to 'accomplish synchronicity' with others. Although this paper focuses on the specific practices of mobile workers, it also explores how 'grand social theory' can help us understand the practical details of mobile work, yet how practice cannot be simply reduced to theory.
This paper, focused primarily on UK data and debates, considers the potential significance of travel time use within past, present and future patterns of mobility. In transport scheme appraisal, savings in travel time typically represent a substantial proportion of the benefits of a scheme--benefits used to justify its often enormous financial costs. Such benefits are founded on the assumption that travel time is unproductive, wasted time in-between 'real' activities and which should be minimised. Travel demand analysis treats travel time and activity time as separate, albeit acknowledging an interdependency. The paper challenges these approaches by exploring how travel time can be, and is, being used 'productively' as activity time, and what enhancements to time use might be emerging in the 'information age'. Such undermining of the division between activities and travelling, and between activity time and travel time, may have major implications for future levels of mobility, for the modal distribution of travel, for the validity of current transport appraisal methodology and for the analysis of travelling within the information age. These issues are considered.
The Lightning-fast Workplace: How 5G Will Revolutionize Work as We Know It, HR Technologist
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How Cisco Designed the Collabourative Connected Workplace Environment
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Flexible working's unforeseen tensions
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Number of Workers Percentage of Workers Changes Between Years (Number) Changes Between Years (Percentage)
- Y Yuan
- N Archer
- C Connelly
- W Zheng
Yuan, Y., Archer, N., Connelly, C., & Zheng, W. (2010). Identifying the ideal fit between mobile work and
mobile work support. Information & Management, 47(3), 125-137. doi:10.1016/j.im.2009.12.004
Number of Workers
Percentage of Workers
Changes Between Years (Number)
Changes Between Years
(Percentage)
1996
2006
2016
1996
2006
2016
1996-2006
2006-2016
1996-2016
1996-2006
2006-2016
1996-2016
WAH
464,120
638,405
769,165
5.95%
6.61%
7.06%
174,285
130,760
305,045 37.55%
20.48%
65.73%
WOC
47,560
68,625
85,615
0.61%
0.71%
0.79%
21,065
16,990
38,055 44.29%
24.76%
80.01%
NFPOW
591,160
988,370
1,288,635
7.58%
10.23%
11.82%
397,210
300,265
697,475 67.19%
30.38% 117.98%