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"Mom, You Don't Get It": A Critical Examination of Multiracial Emerging Adults' Perceptions of Parental Support
Abstract
Multiracial families are becoming increasingly common in the United States, yet there is a dearth of research examining how
parents of Multiracial youth provide support for navigating challenges associated with being mixed race in a monocentric society.
The purpose of this study was to gain a deeper understanding of the parental support strategies that Multiracial emerging adults
perceived to be helpful in their own development. Twenty Multiracial emerging adults (50% female, mean age ¼ 20.55) with
diverse Multiracial heritages were interviewed about conversations they had with their parents regarding their racial experiences
throughout their childhood. Critical supplementary analysis using constructivist grounded theory identified three themes of
parental support (i.e., connection support, discrimination support, and Multiracial identity expression support) and informed a
conceptual model demonstrating relationships between environmental context, parent characteristics, family dynamics, risks, and
identity development. Findings are discussed in terms of implications for researchers and practitioners serving Multiracial families.
... In the last decade, the population of multiracial youth has increased by 276% and is projected to further increase in the decade to come (U.S. Census Bureau, 2021). 1 Multiracial youths' racial knowledge has important implications for their life outcomes, as their understanding of race and racial identity can aid in better outcomes for their mental, physical, and emotional wellbeing, psychological adjustment, and political participation (e.g., Christophe, 2021;Fisher et al., 2014;Goodhines et al., 2020;Jackson et al., 2012;Rockquemore & Brunsma, 2007;Tabb, 2016). Recent studies have examined how parents of multiracial children can support their youths' understanding of their own ethnic-racial identities through various types of socialization practices (e.g., Atkin & Jackson, 2021;Atkin et al., 2022;Csizmadia & Atkin, 2022;LaBarrie, 2017;Lorenzo-Blanco et al., 2013). Because monoracial parents do not share the same ethnic-racial identity as their multiracial children, supporting their children to explore and accommodate various ethnic-racial identities can be challenging. ...
... Although an emerging body of literature has advanced our knowledge of how monoracial parents can support their multiracial children in understanding the ethnic-racial identities they hold (e.g., Atkin & Jackson, 2021;Csizmadia & Atkin, 2022), there is a dearth of research exploring the practices parents use to address racism and antiracism within multiracial homes. Parents' socialization practices may not only inform multiracial youths' self-understanding in terms of their identities but also serve to resist or reinforce dominant racial ideologies. ...
... Distinct from multiracial RES, Family Support of Multiracial Experiences (FSME) practices are more tailored to validating and supporting their identity-related experiences of multiracial children (Atkin & Jackson, 2021;Atkin et al., 2022;Csizmadia & Atkin, 2022); these practices are by definition unique to multiracial families. More specifically, parents that engaged in multiracial identity expression support were supportive of their children exploring some or all their ethnic-racial heritages and choosing how they wanted to identify. ...
Although an emerging body of literature has advanced our knowledge of how monoracial parents can support their multiracial children in understanding the ethnic-racial identities they hold, there is a dearth of research exploring how parents socialize their children towards antiracism. Drawing from ten interviews with monoracial parents of multiracial children, this paper illuminates how parents leverage multiracial socialization practices, as identified in previous academic research, to instill an antiracist orientation in their children. Using consensual qualitative analyses, we find that although all parents had a vested interest in the wellbeing and identity development of their multiracial children, parents qualitatively differed in their ability and willingness to instill an antiracist orientation in their children. Specifically, parents in our sample exhibited five approaches to multiracial socialization, ranging from those that reinforced dominant racial ideologies to those that explicitly aimed to prepare youth to become antiracist activists. We also describe how monoracial parents’ lived experiences are implicated in their engagement in multiracial socialization practices, especially those that better position them to prepare their children to engage in antiracism. Our findings illuminate how monoracial parents may engage in a repertoire of strategies in order to foster antiracism in multiracial children, molding the next generation of “antiracist disruptors.”
... However, there have been discussions about combining the Hispanic origin question and adding a Middle Eastern or North African (MENA) category due to these groups' unique racialized experiences (Wang, 2018). Given this and other trends in census-type categorizations globally, we consider Hispanic, or Latiné 1 , and MENA as racial groups as well, supported by research suggesting that Multiracial individuals identify these as racial groups (Atkin & Jackson, 2021;Miyawaki, 2016). ...
... Multiracial individuals are those who have biological parents from two or more of the different racial categories described above (i.e., parents may be Multiracial themselves). We capitalize Multiracial to acknowledge it as a group with distinctly racialized experiences and give legitimacy to the group as being on par with other racial groups (Atkin & Jackson, 2021;Franco & Carter, 2019). While not all Multiracial individuals choose to identify with this term, it is a meaningful identity for many. ...
... For example, monoracial parents may not be familiar with monoracism, which can involve exclusion from racial groups Multiracial youth are part of, or denial of their identity from others (Johnston & Nadal, 2010). Moreover, studies find that Multiracial youth report receiving messages from parents and grandparents that invalidate their experiences, such as invalidating multiraciality by pushing them to identify with a singular group, or invalidating their experiences of discrimination as a member of a monoracial group their parent is not a member of ( (Atkin & Jackson, 2021;Jackson et al., 2020)). We also note that identity socialization is not typically its own category in the monoracial literature, but due to the complexity of Multiracial identity, the multiple options to choose from, and fluidity of how Multiracial individuals identify, scholars identify it as an important aspect of socialization for family to emphasize in dedicated discussion. ...
The current manuscript provides a critical review of family communication in multiethnic-racial and interfaith families. The review specifically focuses on differences related to religious and ethnic-racial identity, given that both are salient aspects of self-concept tied to psychosocial well-being, exist in a sociocultural environment characterized by racialized structures and systems of privilege, have been problematized through a deficit approach, and have implications for how to constructively address religious and ethnic-racial differences outside of the family. We begin by defining the three core concepts: (a) interfaith, (b) multiethnic-racial, and (c) family. We then discuss our methodology for selecting and reviewing empirical research and provide a synthesis of findings for each family type. We specifically address how interfaith then multiethnic-racial families communicate to address socialization and identity development, integrate differences, and combat bias. We conclude with a critical summary, arguing that interfaith and multiethnic-racial families are more accurately characterized through their strengths rather than difficulties. We point to limitations of current work, namely that research is largely based on Western perspectives on race/ethnicity and Ibrahimic religious traditions, that children and adolescent perspectives are relatively absent, and that the research tends to primarily focus on communication between couples or in parent-child relationships rather than extended family networks. Trajectories for future research include a focus on the manner in which communication surrounding identity and difference impacts self-concept and psychosocial well-being as well as contextualizing experiences of multiethnic-racial and interfaith families within the sociocultural environment. Our articulated conceptual landscape and synthesis of the research shed light on these complex relationships and encourage ongoing scholarship on these relatively understudied family forms.
... The concept of familism has been consistently found to be associated with high levels of acceptance, intimacy, closeness, and warmth in young people's relationships with their parents and siblings (e.g., Baham, 2009;Killoren et al., 2015;Streit et al., 2018;Updegraff et al., 2018;Padilla et al., 2020). Indeed, studies have found that young people who have similar cultural values and beliefs, ethnic backgrounds, and religious beliefs to their family members report higher family cohesion, support, and closeness in their relationships with their parents and siblings (e.g., Tanaka, 2016;Hwang et al., 2019;Sheu, 2019;Atkin and Jackson, 2020). In a qualitative study, Atkin and Jackson (2020) found that parents with different ethnic characteristics to their young adult children were perceived by their children as being unable to understand the discrimination that they had experienced, as they could not relate to their experiences. ...
... Indeed, studies have found that young people who have similar cultural values and beliefs, ethnic backgrounds, and religious beliefs to their family members report higher family cohesion, support, and closeness in their relationships with their parents and siblings (e.g., Tanaka, 2016;Hwang et al., 2019;Sheu, 2019;Atkin and Jackson, 2020). In a qualitative study, Atkin and Jackson (2020) found that parents with different ethnic characteristics to their young adult children were perceived by their children as being unable to understand the discrimination that they had experienced, as they could not relate to their experiences. This negatively affected the perceived quality of the support provided by their parents, especially if it involved them giving advice about how to handle discrimination (Atkin and Jackson, 2020). ...
... In a qualitative study, Atkin and Jackson (2020) found that parents with different ethnic characteristics to their young adult children were perceived by their children as being unable to understand the discrimination that they had experienced, as they could not relate to their experiences. This negatively affected the perceived quality of the support provided by their parents, especially if it involved them giving advice about how to handle discrimination (Atkin and Jackson, 2020). However, knowing that their parent was making an effort to support them, even if their advice was not very helpful, was nonetheless perceived as important (Atkin and Jackson, 2020). ...
The transition to adulthood is typically marked by changes in relationships with family members, peers, and romantic partners. Despite this, the family often maintains a prominent role in young adults’ lives. A scoping review was conducted to identify the factors that influence families’ ability or capacity to provide young people with emotional support during the transition to adulthood, and to understand the gaps in this research area. Title and abstract searches were conducted from January 2007 to February 2021 in multiple databases, including PsycINFO, MEDLINE, and Sociological Abstracts. Fifteen semi-structured interviews were also conducted with stakeholders (professionals from relevant sectors/working within this field). In total, 277 articles were eligible for inclusion in the review. Following data extraction, 19 factors were identified. Factors with the most research (more than 20 articles) included: family proximity or co-residence; mental health; sex or gender differences; and family communication. Factors with less research included: societal context; young person’s sexual orientation or gender identity; social networks; and adverse life events. Gaps in the research area were also identified, including methodological issues (e.g., lack of mixed methods and longitudinal study designs), a disproportionate focus on the parent–child relationship, and a lack of contextually situated research. Our findings indicate that future research in this area could benefit from taking an intersectional, multi-method approach, with a focus on the whole family and diverse samples.
... Likewise, affirming communication such as supportive communication from parents affect the construction of shared family identity in multiethnic-racial families (Soliz et. al., 2009) especially given that this support can play a crucial role in ME-R individuals' ability to cope with experiences of discrimination (Cardwell & Soliz, 2019;Cardwell et al., 2020) and to express their ethnic-racial identity the way that feels most comfortable for them (Atkin & Jackson, 2020). ...
As the population of individuals from different ethnic and/or racial backgrounds in North America continues to grow, scholars have turned their attention to the unique benefits and challenges that characterize multiethnic-racial experiences and how these experiences are related to well-being. This scholarship forwards comprehensive findings about parental socialization of multiethnic-racial identity, such as how parents teach their children about race and ethnicity. However, the mosaic of communication that facilitates the cultivation of secure multiethnic-racial identity within multiethnic-racial families is still ripe for exploration. In the current study, we build on previous scholarship to continue investigations of the connection between malleable identity (i.e., the extent to which multiethnic-racial individuals shift between their multiple ethnic-racial identities) and psychosocial well-being. Further, we investigate the role of parental identity accommodation (i.e., the manner in which parents recognize and affirm a child’s multiethnic-racial) as a crucial parental socialization practice within these families also connected to well-being. Based on surveys from multiethnic-racial adults (N = 254), findings suggest that the association between malleable identity and dimensions of psychosocial wellbeing (i.e., self-esteem, life satisfaction, satisfaction with physical appearance, secure ethnic-racial identity) is relatively small. However, parental identity accommodation emerged as a significant predictor of these psychosocial outcomes. Interactions between malleable identity and parental identity accommodation in predicting the outcomes were also explored with no significant moderation effects. Implications, limitations, and opportunities for future research are discussed.
... Other important interpersonal experiences include how multiracial youth are socialized to understand race and racism, often from parents with different racial backgrounds. Using a qualitative approach, Atkin and Jackson (2020) identified three unique themes of multiracial parental support, including connection support, discrimination support, and multiracial identity expression support. In addition, the Multiracial Youth Socialization Scale (Atkin et al., 2021) showed that certain types of socialization messages (e.g., navigating multiple heritages, multiracial identity, race-conscious, and diversity appreciation) were positively associated with racial-ethnic identity, while other messages (e.g., negative, colorblind, silent) were negatively related. ...
This chapter applies critical multiracial theory to advance the conceptualization and measurement of multiracial experiences and identity in developmental science. We aim to illustrate the complexity in how multiracials navigate, negotiate, and challenge (mono)racism and white supremacy in the United States. First, we investigate the historic exclusion and invisibility of multiracials in developmental science, as well as how multiracials complicate traditional understandings of racism, racial formation, and racial identity. Next, we review past and present approaches taken to study the theory and measurement of multiracial experiences and identity. In addition, we introduce a new Model of Multiracial Racialization that situates multiracial racialization experiences (including racial identity, racial identification, and racial category) within six ecological levels: (1) Individual Characteristics; (2) Interpersonal Experiences; (3) Contextual Factors; (4) Social, Economic, and Political Environments; (5) Systems of Oppression; and (6) Time. Finally, we offer specific examples of research topics and questions that attend to each level of our model with the hope of stimulating future research and advancing our developmental science understanding of multiraciality.KeywordsMultiracial Racial identity Multiracial racialization Racial formation Critical race theory
... Those families who engaged in negative socialization encouraged their child to avoid or mistrust racial groups, even those racial groups that comprise the child's ancestry (Harris et al., 2013). For example, one sample of Multiracial emerging adults recalled feeling disconnected from their parents in their childhood because of a lack of communication surrounding race, identity, and discrimination (Atkin & Jackson, 2021). In contrast, some Multiracial families intentionally try to expose their child to diversity by living in a Multiracial community in order to fill socialization gaps that parents themselves may not be able to do (O'Donoghue, 2005;Snyder, 2012). ...
Most research has investigated Multiracial and Multicultural populations as separate topics, despite demographic and experiential overlap between these. This Element bridges that divide by reviewing and comparing Multiracial and Multicultural research to date-their origins, theoretical and methodological development, and key findings in identity negotiation, socialization, and discrimination-to identify points of synthesis and differentiation to guide future research. It highlights challenges researchers face when studying these populations because such research topics necessitate that one moves beyond previous frameworks and theories to grapple with identity as flexible, malleable, and influenced both by internal factors and external perceptions. The areas of overlap and difference are meaningful and illustrate the social constructive nature of race and culture, which is always in flux and being re-defined.
... Research suggests that parent-child relationships in Multiracial families can be supported by racial socialization-the ways that parents and children talk about the meaning and significance of race (Atkin & Jackson, 2020;Hughes et al., 2006;Wilt, 2011). For instance, Soliz et al. (2009) found that Biracial/Multiracial people felt closer to their parents if they openly talked about race and racial differences with them. ...
Racial socialization—parent–child communication about race—may promote cohesion and relational satisfaction in Multiracial Black–White families, where parents and children have unique racial experiences. However, little is known about how racial socialization is actually practiced in Multiracial families. The current paper addresses this gap by synthesizing the existing qualitative literature on racial socialization in Multiracial Black–White families. Seventeen articles were identified using three electronic databases and appraised based on a critical review form for qualitative investigations. We then used meta‐ethnographic methods and two theoretical frameworks to explore patterns of racial socialization, which included messages about (1) Monoracial Black experiences, (2) the irrelevance of race (e.g., color‐evasiveness), and (3) Multiracial experiences. The findings illuminate the intricacies of parental racial socialization in Multiracial Black–White families. The implications for family theory and practice are discussed.
Despite a dramatic increase in Asian-White biracial individuals in the US, there is still a lack of research on this population. Using phenomenology, the purpose of this study was to delve into the lived experiences of Asian-White interracial couples and their experiences raising their biracial children. A total of 10 couples participated, and they reported on their perception of their children’s racial/ethnic identity, their children’s understanding of race, the types of racial and cultural socialization practices in which they engaged, cultural differences within their family, and differential treatment based on their children’s appearance.
The growth of the bi/multiracial American population has inspired a corresponding surge in scholarship on this historically understudied racial group. Simultaneously, a much-needed mainstream discussion has emerged about the unearned, often invisible privileges of being white in American society. In this article, I enrich the literature in both areas by elucidating how some bi/multiracial Americans benefit from, yet also pay a price for, whiteness and white privilege through the narratives of 30 participants from a variety of racially mixed backgrounds, all of whom have white ancestry. First, I explore how some participants experience traditional white privilege through their white-appearing features. Second, I examine an almost invisible iteration of white privilege that participants acquired through their white parent, irrespective of my respondents’ skin color. Third, I illuminate the price of appearing white (and light) for bi/multiracials in ways that are similar to but also different from monoracism. This article analyzes the paradoxical manifestation of white privilege in a growing cohort of Americans: bi/multiracials with white ancestry.
The purpose of this study was to develop a measure of familial support of Multiracial individuals’ unique racial experiences to advance the field’s understanding of how familial processes influence Multiracial development. A sample of 422 Multiracial college students (77.7% female, M age = 20.05) from three different regions of the United States completed the survey. Exploratory factor analysis results suggested a two-factor measure. Multiracial Conscious Support, a 15-item subscale, represented support strategies unique to Multiracial individuals’ experiences of discrimination and identity exploration. The second 7-item subscale, Multiple Heritage Validation, represented validation of membership in multiple racial groups. The factor structure was supported by confirmatory factor analysis findings with a separate sample. Support was found for the reliability and validity of each subscale. This study provides evidence validating the first measure of familial support of Multiracial experiences, highlighting two themes of support addressing unique experiences of being Multiracial, and validating multiple racial group memberships.
Socialization is a bidirectional cognitive, developmental, and social process through which individuals communicate and learn beliefs, values, social norms, and behaviors that allow them to appropriately participate in society. Although socialization is a life-long process, it is developmentally important for children and adolescents to become competent, responsible, engaged, and productive members of society. What adults do to socialize youth around race and ethnicity can be especially important in diverse societies where social inequities exist. This process is commonly referred to as racial and ethnic socialization. In this chapter, the authors review the literature on racial and ethnic socialization in families and other significant social contexts, across three critical stages of human development: early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence. The authors conclude with methodological considerations and recommendations for future research, discuss implications for practice, and provide resources for families, educators, and practitioners.
Objectives:
Little is understood about how Multiracial individuals are socialized around race and ethnicity, and how these socialization messages are related to ethnic-racial identity development.
Method:
This study utilizes a person-centered framework with a diverse sample of 286 Multiracial college students to examine the patterns of ethnic-racial socialization messages individuals received from their primary caregiver.
Results:
A latent profile analysis of caregivers' socialization messages produced a four-profile solution: Typical Messages (socialization messages with average frequency), Minority Messages (frequent cultural socialization and preparation for bias geared toward minority group membership), High Mistrust (frequent promotion of mistrust messages), and Low Frequency (all socialization messages at low frequency). Overall, profile differences were evident with respect to ethnic-racial identity endorsement, where participants in the Minority Messages profile endorsed the greatest levels of ethnic/racial exploration. In addition, individuals in the Minority Messages profile also endorsed higher levels of ethnic/racial identity resolution and affirmation than the High Mistrust and Low Frequency Messages profile. Individuals in the High Mistrust profile endorsed greater levels of identity conflict than the Minority Messages profile.
Conclusions:
The current study provides evidence that the pattern of socialization messages Multiracial participants received growing up impact their ethnic-racial identity endorsement. Results highlight the need for continued quantitative and person-centered work when studying socialization and identity in Multiracials. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
Obtaining parental consent for youth to participate in research is a standard requirement in the United States. However, the assumption that involving parents is the best way to protect youth research participants is untenable for some populations. This study draws on interviews with 19 LGBTQ+ mixed-race participants to examine lay views of parental consent requirements for LGBTQ+ youth research participants. Qualitative data analysis found concerns about potentially outing LGBTQ+ youth to intolerant parents. Interviewees also asserted that adolescents aged 16 and older are competent enough and should have the autonomy to consent themselves. Finally, interviewees raised several methodological concerns regarding the biased research that may result from parental consent requirements. We agree with others that U.S. Institutional Review Boards should end uncritical requirements for parental consent for older adolescents and should routinize the use and study of alternative protective measures.
What are you? But you don t sound black! Aw, mixed-race babies are so cute!These microaggressions can deeply affect an individual s basic development, identity, sense of security, and belonging. Rather than having the best of both worlds, research suggests that multiracial people and families experience similar or higher rates of racism, bullying, separation, suicide, and divorce than their single-race-identified peers. Multiracial people and families don t face these challenges because they are multiracial, but because dominant constructions of race, rooted in white supremacy, privilege single-race identities. It is this foundation of monocentrism that perpetuates the continued pathologizing and exotifying of people and families of mixed-race heritage. Furthermore, pervasive but misguided claims of colorblindness often distort the salience of race and racism in our society for all people of color. This reinforces and enables the kind of racism and discrimination that many multiracial families and people experience, often leaving them to battle their oppression and discrimination alone. In this book, Jackson and Samuels draw from their own research and direct practice with multiracial individuals and families, and also a rich interdisciplinary science and theory base, to share their model of multiracial cultural attunement. Core to this model are the four foundational principles of critical multiraciality, multidimensionality and intersectionality, social constructivism, and social justice. Throughout, the authors demonstrate how to collaboratively nurture clients emerging identities, identify struggles and opportunities, and deeply engage clients strengths and resiliencies. Readers are challenged to embrace this model as a guide to go beyond the comfort zone of their own racialized experiences to disrupt the stigma and systems of racism and monoracism that can inhibit the well-being of multiracial people and families. With case studies, skill-building resources, tool kits, and interactive exercises, this book can help you leverage the strengths and resilience of multiracial people and families and pave the way to your own personal growth and professional responsibility to enact socially just practices.
Grounded theory is a commonly used research methodology. There are three primary approaches to grounded theory in nursing research: those espoused by Glaser, Strauss and Corbin, and Charmaz. All three approaches use similar procedures, yet there are important differences among them, which implies that researchers need to make careful choices when using grounded theory. Researchers new to grounded theory need to find the most appropriate approach that fits their research field, topic, and researcher position. In this article, we compare the three grounded theory approaches. Choices of a grounded theory approach will depend on the researcher’s understanding of the philosophical underpinnings of all three approaches. Practical aspects of grounded theory approaches should match the information processing styles and analytical abilities of the researcher and the intended use of the theory. We illustrate key aspects of decision making about which method to select by drawing upon the first author’s experiences in his doctoral research.
Saturation has attained widespread acceptance as a methodological principle in qualitative research. It is commonly taken to indicate that, on the basis of the data that have been collected or analysed hitherto, further data collection and/or analysis are unnecessary. However, there appears to be uncertainty as to how saturation should be conceptualized, and inconsistencies in its use. In this paper, we look to clarify the nature, purposes and uses of saturation, and in doing so add to theoretical debate on the role of saturation across different methodologies. We identify four distinct approaches to saturation, which differ in terms of the extent to which an inductive or a deductive logic is adopted, and the relative emphasis on data collection, data analysis, and theorizing. We explore the purposes saturation might serve in relation to these different approaches, and the implications for how and when saturation will be sought. In examining these issues, we highlight the uncertain logic underlying saturation—as essentially a predictive statement about the unobserved based on the observed, a judgement that, we argue, results in equivocation, and may in part explain the confusion surrounding its use. We conclude that saturation should be operationalized in a way that is consistent with the research question(s), and the theoretical position and analytic framework adopted, but also that there should be some limit to its scope, so as not to risk saturation losing its coherence and potency if its conceptualization and uses are stretched too widely.
Objectives:
Racial identity invalidation, others' denial of an individual's racial identity, is a salient racial stressor with harmful effects on the mental health and well-being of Multiracial individuals. The purpose of this study was to create a psychometrically sound measure to assess racial identity invalidation for use with Multiracial individuals (N = 497).
Method:
The present sample was mostly female (75%) with a mean age of 26.52 years (SD = 9.60). The most common racial backgrounds represented were Asian/White (33.4%) and Black/White (23.7%). Participants completed several online measures via Qualtrics.
Results:
Exploratory factor analyses revealed 3 racial identity invalidation factors: behavior invalidation, phenotype invalidation, and identity incongruent discrimination. A confirmatory factor analysis provided support for the initial factor structure. Alternative model testing indicated that the bifactor model was superior to the 3-factor model. Thus, a total score and/or 3 subscale scores can be used when administering this instrument. Support was found for the reliability and validity of the total scale and subscales. In line with the minority stress theory, challenges with racial identity mediated relationships between racial identity invalidation and mental health and well-being outcomes.
Conclusions:
The findings highlight the different dimensions of racial identity invalidation and indicate their negative associations with connectedness and psychological well-being. (PsycINFO Database Record
Many social science studies are based on coded in-depth semistructured interview transcripts. But researchers rarely report or discuss coding reliability in this work. Nor is there much literature on the subject for this type of data. This article presents a procedure for developing coding schemes for such data. It involves standardizing the units of text on which coders work and then improving the coding scheme’s discriminant capability (i.e., reducing coding errors) to an acceptable point as indicated by measures of either intercoder reliability or intercoder agreement. This approach is especially useful for situations where a single knowledgeable coder will code all the transcripts once the coding scheme has been established. This approach can also be used with other types of qualitative data and in other circumstances.
The aim of this study was to explore homophobic bullying in Portugal, including its forms, prevalence, and consequences, and to verify whether parental and social support moderated the effects of homophobic bullying for victims. An online questionnaire was completed by 211 female and male students, aged 12 to 20 years. Results showed that psychological violence prevailed, male students were more often victims than female students were, and lesbian, gay, and bisexual adolescents were victims more often than their heterosexual peers were. The emotional impact on victims was higher when social support was low, including suicidal ideation and school difficulties. Furthermore, a main effect of parental support was found for emotional and behavioral distress indices experienced by adolescents.
Many social science studies are based on coded in-depth semistructured interview transcripts. But researchers rarely report or discuss coding reliability in this work. Nor is there much literature on the subject for this type of data. This article presents a procedure for developing coding schemes for such data. It involves standardizing the units of text on which coders work and then improving the coding scheme's discriminant capability (i.e., reducing coding errors) to an acceptable point as indicated by measures of either intercoder reliability or intercoder agreement. This approach is especially useful for situations where a single knowledgeable coder will code all the transcripts once the coding scheme has been established. This approach can also be used with other types of qualitative data and in other circumstances.
CriticalRaceTheory(CRT)revolutionizedhowweinvestigateraceineducation.Centralizingcounter-
stories from people of color becomes essential for decentralizing white normative discourse—a pro-
cesswerefertoasrealitieswithintheBlackimagination.Yet,fewstudiesexaminehowwhitesrespond
to centering the Black imagination, especially since their white imagination goes unrecognized. We
propose utilizing Critical Whiteness Studies (CWS) to support CRT to aid in deconstructing the
dimensions of white imaginations. Our findings describe how the white imagination operates inside
the minds of white teacher candidates, namely through their (a) emotional disinvestment, (b) lack of
critical understanding of race, (c) resurgence of white guilt, and (d) recycling of hegemonic whiteness,
all of which negatively impact their role in anti-racist teaching in urban schools.
Mixed-race or multiethnic youth are at risk for mental and physical health problems. We used data from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth 1997 to compare family characteristics of adolescents of a mixed-race or multiethnic background with those of a monoracial or monoethnic background. Mixed-race or multiethnic youth reported feeling less supported by parents and reported less satisfactory parent-adolescent relationships. Mixed-race/multiethnic youth were more like monoracial White youth in terms of being independent but were more like racial or ethnic minorities (African Americans, Hispanics) in regard to family activities. Reasons for these findings are explored. We discuss the need for future research on the experiences of mixed-race/multiethnic youth.
Sixty-one Biracial participants were assessed on measures of depression, trait anxiety, and social anxiety to ascertain if their racial identity choice impacted their scores on these psychological measures. Societal pressure to identify as monoracial was also measured to determine if the various racial identity groups perceived these pressures differently and if these pressures were related to the reported quality of psychological functioning. Results indicated that a validated Biracial identity may serve as a protective factor for anxiety and depressive symptoms, whereas Biracial individuals who consider their race to be meaningless or fluid based on situational factors reported significantly higher levels of depression and trait anxiety symptoms than other Biracial individuals. The latter group also reported the least pressure from family to identify as monoracial. Societal pressure from peers to identify as monoracial was found to predict social anxiety and fear of negative evaluation among all Biracial participants.
In this article, the author presents an overview of the qualitative research approach termed grounded theory (B. G. Glaser, 1978, 1992; B. G. Glaser & A. L. Strauss, 1967; A. L. Strauss, 1987; A. L. Strauss & J. Corbin, 1990, 1998). The author first locates the method conceptually and paradigmatically (paradigms) and then outlines the procedures for implementing it and judging its quality (praxis). The author follows with a discussion of selected issues that arise in using the approach (problems) and concludes by noting the appropriateness of grounded theory for counseling psychology research (promise). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
by focusing on the experiences of biracial, bicultural people, I will present a heuristic developmental model of biracial identity that may have applicability to all people of multiracial heritage
stages of biracial, bicultural identity development [stage 1: awareness of differentness and dissonance, stage 2: struggle for acceptance, stage 3: self-acceptance and assertion of an interracial identity] (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
An outline of a general inductive approach for qualitative data analysis is described and details provided about the assumptions and procedures used. The purposes for using an inductive approach are to (1) to condense extensive and varied raw text data into a brief, summary format; (2) to establish clear links between the research objectives and the summary findings derived from the raw data and (3) to develop of model or theory about the underlying structure of experiences or processes which are evident in the raw data. The inductive approach reflects frequently reported patterns used in qualitative data analysis. Most inductive studies report a model that has between three and eight main categories in the findings. The general inductive approach provides a convenient and efficient way of analysing qualitative data for many research purposes. The outcomes of analysis may be indistinguishable from those derived from a grounded theory approach. Many researchers are likely to find using a general inductive approach more straightforward than some of the other traditional approaches to qualitative data analysis. A general inductive approach for qualitative data analysis David R. Thomas, School of Population Health, University of Auckland, August 2003 2 A general inductive approach for qualitative data analysis There is a wide range of literature that documents the underlying assumptions and procedures associated with analysing qualitative data. Many of these are associated with specific approaches or traditions such as grounded theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990), phenomenology (e.g., van Manen, 1990), discourse analysis (e.g., Potter & Wetherall, 1994) and narrative analysis (e.g., Leiblich, 1998). However some analytic approaches are "generic" and are not labelled within one of the specific traditions of qualitative research (e.g., Ezzy, 2002; Pope, Ziebland, & Mays, 2000; Silverman, 2000). In working with researchers who adopt what has been described as a "critical realist" epistemology (Miles & Huberman, 1994) the author has found that many researchers unfamiliar with any of the traditional approaches to qualitative analysis, wish to have a straightforward set of procedures to follow without having to learn the technical language or "jargon" associated with many of the traditional approaches. Often they find existing literature on qualitative data analysis too technical to understand and use. The present paper has evolved from the need to provide researchers analysing qualitative data with a brief, non-technical set of data analysis procedures. A considerable number of authors reporting analyses of qualitative data in journal articles (where space for methodological detail is often restricted) describe a strategy that can be labelled as a "general inductive approach." This strategy is evident in much qualitative data analysis (Bryman & Burgess, 1994; Dey, 1993), often without an explicit label being given to the analysis strategy. The purpose of the present paper is to describe the key features evident in the general inductive approach and outline a set of procedures that can be used for the analysis of qualitative data. The inductive approach is a systematic procedure for analysing qualitative data where the analysis is guided by specific objectives.
There are increasing numbers of multiracial families created through marriage, adoption, birth, and a growing population of multiracial persons. Multiracials are a hidden but dominant group of transracially adopted children in both the United Kingdom and the United States. This paper introduces findings from an interpretive study of 25 transracially adopted multiracials regarding a set of experiences participants called “being raised by White people.” Three aspects of this experience are explored: (1) the centrality yet absence of racial resemblance, (2) navigating discordant parent-child racial experiences, and (3) managing societal perceptions of transracial adoption. Whereas research suggests some parents believe race is less salient for multiracial children than for Black children, this study finds participants experienced highly racialized worlds into adulthood.
This study examined relations between perceived racial discrimination, multiracial identity integration (i.e., racial distance and racial conflict), and psychological adjustment (i.e., distress symptoms, positive affect, and negative affect) of 263 multiracial adults, using an online cross-sectional survey design. As hypothesized, higher levels of perceived racial discrimination was related to lower levels of psychological adjustment (i.e., higher distress symptoms and negative affect). Also, higher levels of multiracial identity integration with low racial conflict was related to higher levels of psychological adjustment (i.e., lower distress symptoms and negative affect), whereas higher levels of multiracial identity integration with low racial distance was related to higher levels of psychological adjustment (i.e., lower negative affect). Finally, multiracial identity integration (i.e., lower racial conflict) moderated the relationship between perceived racial discrimination and psychological adjustment (i.e., negative affect) with results suggesting multiracial identity integration related to low racial conflict buffers the negative effects of perceived racial discrimination on psychological adjustment. Findings from this study are discussed in terms of future research on the psychological well-being of multiracial individuals and implications for clinical practice with multiracial adults.
According to the 2010 U.S. census, approximately 9 million individuals report multiracial identities. By the year 2050, as
many as one in five Americans could claim a multiracial background. Despite this population growth, a review of recent empirical
and theoretical literature in social work suggests a disproportionate lack of attention to issues of multiraciality. Instead,
social work practice models remain embedded in traditional societal discourses of race and culture that often exclude or marginalize
the experiences of multiracial individuals and families. This article summarizes recommendations following the domains of
awareness, knowledge, and skills in the NASW Standards for Cultural Competence in Social Work Practice to support culturally attuned social work practice with multiracial people. The authors argue that a culturally attuned practice
approach—one that is inclusive of multiraciality—is not only timely, but also consistent with the profession's ethical obligation
to provide culturally relevant services to all consumers and clients.
In this article a conceptual model for the study of child development in minority populations in the United States is proposed. In support of the proposed model, this article includes (a) a delineation and critical analysis of mainstream theoretical frameworks in relation to their attention and applicability to the understanding of developmental processes in children of color and of issues at the intersection of social class, culture, ethnicity, and race, and (b) a description and evaluation of the conceptual frameworks that have guided the extant literature on minority children and families. Based on the above considerations, an integrative conceptual model of child development is presented, anchored within social stratification theory, emphasizing the importance of racism, prejudice, discrimination, oppression, and segregation on the development of minority children and families.
Emerging adulthood is proposed as a new conception of development for the period from the late teens through the twenties, with a focus on ages 18-25. A theoretical background is presented. Then evidence is provided to support the idea that emerging adulthood is a distinct period demographically, subjectively, and in terms of identity explorations. How emerging adulthood differs from adolescence and young adulthood is explained. Finally, a cultural context for the idea of emerging adulthood is outlined, and it is specified that emerging adulthood exists only in cultures that allow young people a prolonged period of independent role exploration during the late teens and twenties.
While there has been significant growth in studies of “multiracial,” or “mixed-race,” individuals, very few have investigated the experiences of the descendants of multiracial individuals—the so-called multigeneration multiracials. As interracial unions and disparate types of multiracial people continue to increase in many societies, what effect does this have on our understanding of racial categories and boundaries? How do multiracial people think about race in relation to themselves and their children? Using in-depth interviews, this book investigates how and why multiracial people racially identify and raise their children in particular ways, as well as their attitudes toward the transmission of minority ancestries to their children. Delving into parents’ concerns about racism and the strategies they use to address it with their children, the book also explores their thoughts about their children’s futures in a society in which mixing and mixed-race people are increasingly part of the mainstream.
Multiracial youth are currently the largest demographic group among individuals 18 and under in the United States (Saulny, 2011), and yet there is a dearth of research examining the development of these uniquely racialized individuals. In this article, we systematically review the qualitative and quantitative research available across disciplines regarding how caregivers engage in racial-ethnic socialization with Multiracial American youth to transmit knowledge about race, ethnicity, and culture. We also critique the use of monoracially framed theoretical models for understanding Multiracial experiences and provide directions for future research using a Critical Multiracial Theory, henceforth referred to as MultiCrit, perspective (Harris, 2016). MultiCrit situates the understanding of Multiracial experiences in the context of the racially oppressive structures that affect Multiracial realities. In light of the findings of this review, we suggest that future studies are needed to learn how racial-ethnic socialization processes look in Multiracial families with different racial makeups and diverse family structures while considering the intersectional identities of Multiracial youth and their caregivers. Furthermore, new theoretical frameworks specific to Multiracial families are necessary to move this field forward, and quantitative measures need to be developed based on qualitative studies to capture the nuances of racial-ethnic socialization messages for Multiracial youth. Suggestions for additional factors to consider in the process of racial-ethnic socialization for Multiracial families and implications of this research are provided in the discussion.
The main objectives of this multimethod exploratory study were to compare parent and college student perceptions of communication patterns, financial/emotional support, family environment, and achieved adulthood during the transition to adulthood while in college. First, focus groups including eight parent figures and 16 students were conducted to provide feedback on important topics as well as on survey instruments. Survey responses from 152 parent figures and their college-age children were then used for the exploratory survey study. Parents reported providing more financial support, more positive family interactions, and less negative family interactions compared to their college-age children. The majority of students as well as parents did not view themselves and their children as having fully completed the transition to adulthood as indicated by the majority using the “in-between” response when asked if their child (or student himself or herself) had reached adulthood. © 2019 Society for the Study of Emerging Adulthood and SAGE Publishing.
Despite the growing importance of racially mixed people and families in Britain, in demographic terms, relatively little is known about the life experiences of multiracial people at disparate stages of their lives, as most studies focus on their identifications at one point in time. In fact, we know very little about how multiracial people are influenced by the life-changing events of partnering and becoming a parent: How may multiracial people’s racial identities be shaped by the experiences of having children? To date, the extant literature has focused on how parents in interracial unions racially identify their multiracial children or how multiracial individuals identify themselves, especially in adolescence and young adulthood. However, little is known of what happens when mixed people themselves become parents or how their own sense of selves may be impacted by their second-generation mixed children and their children’s own identifications and experiences.
Although studies of the multiracial population have long identified the connection between multiraciality and exotification, much of the focus has been on the exotification of multiracial women that are part-white. Consequently, most understandings of exotification in this literature are insufficient to account for how a broader multiracial demographic is exotified and the mechanisms of exotification that are specific to mixed-race bodies. This article analyses black multiracial boys’ experiences of exotification in Northern California. Interviews with the boys revealed how interactions around their multiraciality intimately linked perceptions of their attractiveness to their mixedness. Their physical features, behaviours and dispositions were dissected according to their multiple racial backgrounds in ways that rendered them desirably hybridised. The interaction of black masculinity with their other racialised masculinities is essential to understanding the construction of the black multiracial male as desirable, pointing to the critically important yet understudied intersection of mixedness and masculinity.
Empirical studies of parental ethnic-racial socialization are constricted to single-race or monoracial youths. This has led to a monocentric conceptualization of ethnic-racial socialization, one that negates the experiences of the growing population of multiracial youths. This exploratory qualitative secondary analysis (QSA) examined messages of ethnic-racial socialization present in multiracial Mexican families. These messages were compared and contrasted to existing conceptualizations of parental ethnic-racial socialization, those more representative of single-race or monoracial youths. In addition, this study utilized an ecological model of multiracial identity development to examine how parental ethnic-racial socialization messages inform different identity types associated with the multiracial experience. Findings generated from this study extend the field of familial racial-ethnic socialization to further encompass and more accurately represent the growing population of multiracial youths and their families. Implications for future research and practice with multiracial individuals and families are discussed.
Constructivist grounded theory is useful for pursuing critical qualitative inquiry. This article introduces critical inquiry and shows its connections with pragmatism, the philosophical foundation of constructivist grounded theory. Pragmatism provides a theoretical frame for thinking about critical qualitative inquiry; constructivist grounded theory is a method of conducting it. Constructivist grounded theory broadens critical inquiry as it fosters defining emergent critical questions throughout the research process. This method also encourages interrogating the taken-for-granted methodological individualism pervading much of qualitative inquiry because it facilitates developing a deeply reflexive stance called methodological self-consciousness. In turn, this methodological self-consciousness supports researchers in interrogating their data, nascent analyses, and actions while they proceed with their projects. The article mentions several strategies for putting constructivist grounded theory into practice and concludes with ideas about where this practice could take us.
Research continues to uncover early childhood as a crucial time when we set the stage for who we will become. In the last decade, we have also seen a sudden massive shift in America's racial makeup with the majority of the current under-5 age population being children of color. Asian and multiracial are the fastest growing self-identified groups in the United States. More than 2 million people indicated being mixed race Asian on the 2010 Census. Yet, young multiracial Asian children are vastly underrepresented in the literature on racial identity. Why? And what are these children learning about themselves in an era that tries to be ahistorical, believes the race problem has been "solved," and that mixed race people are proof of it? This book is drawn from extensive research and interviews with sixty-eight parents of multiracial children. It is the first to examine the complex task of supporting our youngest around being "two or more races" and Asian while living amongst "post-racial" ideologies.
This manuscript lays the foundation for a critical multiracial theory (MultiCrit) in education. The author uses extant literature and their own research that focused on multiraciality on the college campus to explore how CRT can move toward MultiCrit, which is well-positioned to frame multiracial students’ experiences with race in education.
Building on practice, action research, and theory, the purpose of this paper is to present a 10-step method for applying the Constant Comparative Method (CCM) of grounded theory when multiple researchers perform data analysis and meaning making. CCM is a core qualitative analysis approach for grounded theory research. Literature suggests approaches for increasing the credibility of CCM using multiple researchers and intercoder reliability (ICR), but documentation of methods for collaboration on CCM data analysis is sparse. The context for developing the10-step CCM approach was a qualitative study conducted to understand the impact of webcams on a virtual team. To develop a methodology for the study, the researchers reviewed grounded theory literature to synthesize an approach for conducting CCM with multiple researchers. Applying action research, an integration of literature and practical experience conducting the qualitative study resulted in a model for using CCM with multiple researchers performing data analysis. The method presented in this paper provides practical guidance for applying CCM collaboratively and shares the researchers’ perspectives on the value of ICR. © 2016: Joel D. Olson, Chad McAllister, Lynn D. Grinnell, Kimberly Gehrke Walters, Frank Appunn, and Nova Southeastern University.
Categorizations of multiracial individuals provide insight into the psychological mechanisms driving social stratification, but few studies have explored the interplay of cognitive and motivational underpinnings of these categorizations. In the present study, we integrated research on racial essentialism (i.e., the belief that race demarcates unobservable and immutable properties) and negativity bias (i.e., the tendency to weigh negative entities more heavily than positive entities) to explain why people might exhibit biases in the categorization of multiracial individuals. As theorized, racial essentialism, both dispositional (Study 1) and experimentally induced (Study 2), led to the categorization of Black-White multiracial individuals as Black, but only among individuals evaluating Black people more negatively than White people. These findings demonstrate how fundamental cognitive and motivational biases interact to influence the categorization of multiracial individuals.
© The Author(s) 2015.
Qualitative interviews are increasingly being utilized within the context of intervention trials. While there is emerging assistance for conducting and reporting qualitative analysis, there are limited practical resources available for researchers engaging in a group coding process and interested in ensuring adequate Intercoder Reliability (ICR); the amount of agreement between two or more coders for the codes applied to qualitative text. Assessing the reliability of the coding helps establish the credibility of qualitative findings. We discuss our experience calculating ICR in the context of a behavioural HIV prevention trial for young women in South Africa which involves multiple rounds of longitudinal qualitative data collection. We document the steps that we took to improve ICR in this study, the challenges to improving ICR, and the value of the process to qualitative data analysis. As a result, we provide guidelines for other researchers to consider as they embark on large qualitative projects.
The U.S. Census shows that the racial-ethnic makeup of over 9 million people (2.9% of the total population) who self-identified as multiracial is extremely diverse. Each multiracial subgroup has unique social and political histories that may lead to distinct societal perceptions, economic situations, and health outcomes. Despite the increasing academic and media interest in multiracial individuals, there are methodological and definitional challenges in studying the population, resulting in conflicting representations in the literature. This content and methods review of articles on multiracial populations provides a comprehensive understanding of which multiracial populations have been included in research and how they have been studied, both to recognize emerging research and to identify gaps for guiding future research on this complex but increasingly visible population. We examine 125 U.S.-based peer-reviewed journal articles published over the past 20 years (1990 to 2009) containing 133 separate studies focused on multiracial individuals, primarily from the fields of psychology, sociology, social work, education, and public health. Findings include (a) descriptive data regarding the sampling strategies, methodologies, and demographic characteristics of studies, including which multiracial subgroups are most studied, gender, age range, region of country, and socioeconomic status; (b) major thematic trends in research topics concerning multiracial populations; and (c) implications and recommendations for future studies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
We explored how mothers of biracial youth prepare their children to navigate diverse racial ecologies and experiences of racism and discrimination. A qualitative thematic analysis was used to identify racial socialization messages mothers used and emergent racial socialization approaches. Mothers of biracial youth engaged in the full range of racial socialization discussed in the literature, including cultural, minority, self-development, egalitarian, and silent racial socialization. These messages varied by the biracial heritage of the youth, such that mothers of biracial youth with Black heritage were more likely to provide self-development racial socialization messages, whereas mothers of biracial youth without Black heritage were more likely to provide silent racial socialization. On the basis of the array of racial socialization messages mothers delivered, we identified three emergent approaches: promotive, protective, and passive racial socialization.
Because leisure activities are often viewed as optional, their value to people with disabilities may not be recognized. This study explored the benefits of leisure activities for eight young people who are blind. These activities provided them with supportive relationships, a desirable identity, experiences of power and control, and experiences of social justice. They enabled the young people we studied to thrive despite adversity.
This study explored influences on racial identity of mixed race youth who identified themselves to be part of mixed African (Black) and European (White) origin. Research questions emerged following a review of the literature identifying the ways in which views of self, family, peers and society impact youth and their racial identification. Eight in-depth interviews employing the Long Interview Method were conducted, transcribed and coded to determine themes. Family influences emerged as playing a significant role in biracial identity formation. Three major themes were identified: (1) level of parental awareness and understanding of race issues; (2) impact of family structure; and (3) communication and willingness to talk about race issues. Implications for researchers and social work practitioners working with this population are discussed.
Essentialism is the idea that certain categories, such as "dog," "man," or "intelligence," have an underlying reality or true nature that gives objects their identity. This book argues that essentialism is an early cognitive bias. Young children's concepts reflect a deep commitment to essentialism, and this commitment leads children to look beyond the obvious in many converging ways: when learning words, generalizing knowledge to new category members, reasoning about the insides of things, contemplating the role of nature versus nurture, and constructing causal explanations. This book argues against the standard view of children as concrete or focused on the obvious, instead claiming that children have an early, powerful tendency to search for hidden, non-obvious features of things. It also disputes claims that children build up their knowledge of the world based on simple, associative learning strategies, arguing that children's concepts are embedded in rich folk theories. Parents don't explicitly teach children to essentialize; instead, during the preschool years, children spontaneously construct concepts and beliefs that reflect an essentialist bias. The book synthesizes over fifteen years of empirical research on essentialism into a unified framework and explores the broader lessons that the research imparts concerning, among other things, human concepts, children's thinking, and the ways in which language influences thought.
M. Lynne Murphy is a doctoral candidate in linguistics at the University of Illinois at Urbana, specializing in lexical semantics and syntax with occasional explorations in lexicography. She has collaborated with Alma Gottlieb on a dictionary of Beng, a Southern Mande language, to be published by Indiana University Press. Her dissertation presents a universal semantic model of antonymy and will be completed in 1993.
I received encouragement and useful comments from many DSNA members at the Eighth Annual Meeting of the Society held in Columbia, Missouri, August, 1991. I am most grateful to Alex Guest, Cheris Kramarae, and Robert Wachal for insights and references to materials on social group labeling. I also wish to thank Ladislav Zgusta, Allison Smith, and Zoann Branstine for comments on drafts of this paper.
1. I have not included a discussion of the phonetic descriptions of ethnonyms, as debates concerning the pronunciation of these terms have been less active in recent years. For discussion of the pronunciation of ethnonyms in dictionaries, see Lipski (1976) and Allen (1988). A more thorough discussion of capitalization conventions can be found in Wachal (in press).
2. Dictionaries may, to some extent, perpetuate dead theories such as the Caucasian-Mongoloid-Negroid division. While this particular theory of race became part of popular knowledge, other theories have remained in the academy, out of the reach of the standard desk dictionary. So, the public continues to use the outmoded theory, unaware of more recent and viable theories. The dictionaries, in turn, present the vocabulary of the outdated theory, since it is still in popular use, and often labels the racial categories "Anthropology," lending academic authority to the definitions. Thus, the dead theory is reified whenever a dictionary user, unfamiliar with the theory, learns of it through the authority of "the dictionary."
3. Rader (1989, 125) defines ethnonyms as labels that denote people "grouped by geography or political entity." He claims that under his definition American black is not an ethnonym, but African American is. However, since the two terms are used synonymously, it is difficult to see the relevance of this distinction. In this paper, ethnonym is used to denote a label for any group whose members are determined, wholly or in part, by their descent.
4. Arguments could be made that Negro also has distinctively American senses. Since this term has declined in popular use, such senses may be archaic, and thus lie outside the scope of this paper.
5. The AHD 1969 did not, however, distinguish the senses of South African and U.S. colored by their variant orthographies, although it does list a capitalized variant. It is unfortunate that AHD chose not to indicate the South African sense of colored in 1982, at the time when South African racial politics were coming into the American political consciousness.
6. It is odd that although its entry for Negro does not mention an uncapitalized variant, RHWCD does not capitalize the initial in negro in this usage note. The contrast between uncapitalized negro and capitalized African-American is apparent here, even in small caps. Another point of orthographical interest is the hyphen in African-American. Although the hyphen is present in many Euro-American dominated publications (e.g., Time, Gannett News Service), some African American authors pointedly do not use a hyphen (e.g., Geneva Smitherman and John Baugh). RHWCD does not mention an unhyphenated variant of its African-American, although both forms are enjoying widespread use.
The author presents demographic information about biracial persons, reviews previous models of racial identity development, discusses their shortcomings when applied to biracial persons, and then presents a new model of racial identity development focusing on the unique aspects of the experience of biracial individuals in the United States. In addition, the author presents several important counseling implications suggested by the model and discusses areas of future research and theory building.
Using an ecology model of human development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979,
1993), I frame the exploration of racial identities of 38 college students
with multiple racial heritages. I map the influence of interactions
within and between specific environments on students' decisions to
identify in one or more of five patterns of mixed race identity found
in a previous study.
The theoretical framework addresses the life course human development of diverse groups. It acknowledges that all humans are vulnerable, and that patterned and unique outcome variations emerge given perception-linked and context-based interactions between culture and ethnicity. The perspective emphasizes not only the “what” or outcomes of development but also the “how.” The theory explores the many paths for obtaining both resiliency (i.e., positive outcomes independent of significant challenge) and unproductive outcomes given structured inequalities. In providing an identity-focused cultural ecological (ICE) perspective as applied to diverse humans, the framework examines the broad patterns of coping processes and identity formation that result.
Keywords:
coping processes;
cultural diversity;
ecological contexts;
human vulnerability and resiliency;
identity formation;
social cognition and perception
Purpose: To explore the use of computer-based qualitative data analysis software packages.
Scope: The advantages and capabilities of qualitative data analysis software are described and concerns about their effects on methods are discussed.
Findings: Advantages of using qualitative data analysis software include being freed from manual and clerical tasks, saving time, being able to deal with large amounts of qualitative data, having increased flexibility, and having improved validity and auditability of qualitative research. Concerns include increasingly deterministic and rigid processes, privileging of coding, and retrieval methods; reification of data, increased pressure on researchers to focus on volume and breadth rather than on depth and meaning, time and energy spent learning to use computer packages, increased commercialism, and distraction from the real work of analysis.
Conclusions: We recommend that researchers consider the capabilities of the package, their own computer literacy and knowledge of the package, or the time required to gain these skills, and the suitability of the package for their research. The intelligence and integrity that a researcher brings to the research process must also be brought to the choice and use of tools and analytical processes. Researchers should be as critical of the methodological approaches to using qualitative data analysis software as they are about the fit between research question, methods, and research design.
Mixed-race individuals often encounter situations in which their identities are a source of tension, particularly when expressions of multiracial and biracial identity are not supported or allowed. Two studies examined the consequences of this identity denial. In Study 1, mixed-race participants reported that their biracial or multiracial identity caused tension in a variety of contexts. Study 2 focused on one often-mentioned situation: completing a demographic questionnaire in which only one racial background can be specified. Relative to mixed-race participants who were permitted to choose multiple races, those compelled to choose only one showed lower subsequent motivation and self-esteem. These studies demonstrate the negative consequences of constraining mixed-race individuals’ expression of their chosen racial identity. Policy implications for the collection of racial and ethnic demographic data are discussed.
This paper presents a general statistical methodology for the analysis of multivariate categorical data arising from observer reliability studies. The procedure essentially involves the construction of functions of the observed proportions which are directed at the extent to which the observers agree among themselves and the construction of test statistics for hypotheses involving these functions. Tests for interobserver bias are presented in terms of first-order marginal homogeneity and measures of interobserver agreement are developed as generalized kappa-type statistics. These procedures are illustrated with a clinical diagnosis example from the epidemiological literature.