No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Narrowing the Gap for Bioplastic Use in Food Packaging: An Update
Abstract
Plastic production has outgrown most other man-made materials, with more than 90% being petroleum-based and non-biodegradable. Packaging, primarily food packaging, consumes the most plastic and is the largest contributor to municipal solid waste. In addition, its dependence on crude oil feedstock makes the plastic industry unsustainable and renders plastic markets vulnerable to oil price volatility. Therefore, the development of bio-alternatives to conventional plastics is now a priority of the food packaging industry. Bioplastics are polymers that are either bio-based (fully or partially), or biodegradable, or both. This review aims to provide an insightful overview of the most recent research and development successes in bioplastic materials, focusing on food packaging applications. Bioplastics are compared to their conventional counterparts with respect to their mechanical, thermal, barrier, migration, and processability properties. The gaps between bio- and conventional plastics in food packaging are elucidated. Potential avenues for improving bioplastic properties to broaden their food packaging applications are critically examined. Furthermore, two of the most controversial topics in bioplastic alternatives, sustainability assessment and their impact on the plastic waste management system, are discussed.
... Even in the case of bioplastics, which can be defined as plastics based on renewable resources (bio-based) or biodegradable and/or compostable plastics, there may be a risk of environmental harm. They also have disadvantages, such as thermal instability, brittleness, low melt strength, high water vapour and oxygen permeability of PLA (Jama, 2017;Swetha et al., 2023) and the low water vapour barrier of starch and cellulose packaging materials due to their hydrophilic nature, etc. (Azeredo et al., 2019;Díaz-Montes & Castro-Muñoz, 2021;Zhao et al., 2020). Also, bioplastics such as PLA need to be recycled or composted due to their slow natural degradation, and these subsequent economic costs need to be taken into account (Nilsen-Nygaard et al., 2021;Zhao et al., 2020). ...
... They also have disadvantages, such as thermal instability, brittleness, low melt strength, high water vapour and oxygen permeability of PLA (Jama, 2017;Swetha et al., 2023) and the low water vapour barrier of starch and cellulose packaging materials due to their hydrophilic nature, etc. (Azeredo et al., 2019;Díaz-Montes & Castro-Muñoz, 2021;Zhao et al., 2020). Also, bioplastics such as PLA need to be recycled or composted due to their slow natural degradation, and these subsequent economic costs need to be taken into account (Nilsen-Nygaard et al., 2021;Zhao et al., 2020). In this context, the development of edible food packaging materials is one of the most advantageous means to help reduce the pressure on the environment and to promote the sustainable development of human society (Jayan et al., 2018;Reichert et al., 2020;Salwa et al., 2019). ...
Edible films or coatings as potential replacements for traditional plastic food packaging are a popular subject for research. This article provides a narrative summary of the progress of research into edible food packaging and preparation methods at three different production scales over the past 5 years. First, at the laboratory research level, commonly used coating methods include dipping, vacuum dipping, and spraying. Films are mostly made by solution casting, while 3D printing film technology and electrospinning/electrostatic spraying are emerging technologies in the field. At the pilot level, panning coating, brush coating, and fluidized bed technologies give edible food packaging a more scalable and realistic approach. On an industrial manufacturing scale, in order to improve film formation efficiency, blowing, injection, calendering, etc. are generally based on the extrusion mode. Laboratory-scale research is critical for developing materials and exploring their properties. The technology used for industrial-scale production needs to consider factors such as cost and efficiency. Each technology for making food packaging needs to be selected according to the production purposes and the currently available packaging equipment. However, commonly used edible packaging source materials are generally derived from biological macromolecules such as proteins and polysaccharides. These materials are heated and extruded in industrial production, and their performance will be inferior to that of traditional plastic packaging. In addition, high cost is also a factor that must be considered.
... The mechanical properties of LDPE, such as its high elongation at break (349%) and moderate tensile strength (9.93 MPa), set a benchmark for evaluating the performance of bioplastics [10]. Nevertheless, the mechanical strength of many bioplastics does not match up to synthetic packaging such as LDPE [4,11]. For instance, chitosan films with 30% GLY showed different mechanical properties. ...
... These features are particularly advantageous in food packaging, where preserving product quality and extending shelf life are crucial [3]. As a result, there is a growing demand for innovative solutions in food packaging that effectively balance functionality with environmental sustainability [4]. ...
The exploration of natural resources in bioplastics has advanced the development of bio-based materials. Utilizing the casting, chitosan (CH)-based films were manufactured with different glycerol (GLY) percentages (from 0 to 50% w/w of CH) and anthocyanin-enriched fractions (from 0 to 5% of w/w CH) of acidified ethanol extract of Callistemon citrinus flowers (CCE). Callistemon citrinus is an ornamental plant known for its bioactive compounds endowed with health benefits. The hydrocolloid films showed promising mechanical properties. The 30% GLY + 5% CCE film achieved an elongation at break of 57.4%, comparable to the 50% GLY film while possessing enhanced tensile strength and Young’s modulus. The CCE, rich in antioxidants, acted as a plasticizer, improving films’ flexibility and manageability. The films exhibit hydrophilic characteristics with moisture content and uptake values reflecting their water-absorbing capacity, while films with 30% GLY and 5% CCE exhibit enhanced hydrophobicity. In addition, CCE characterization reveals significant polyphenol content (734.45 mg GAE/g), highlighting its antioxidant capacity. Moreover, CCE supplies remarkable antioxidant properties to the films. These findings suggest the potential of these bioplastics for industrial applications as a sustainable solution to traditional plastics and in reducing environmental impact while preventing oxidative reactions in packaged products.
... The food packaging market is expected to grow by approximately USD 79,41 billion by 2027 [2]. The need to minimize food waste, increased demand for pre-cooked food, growing urban population [2,3], increased exports and the sale of food products on e-commerce platforms are constant market trends [2]. Therefore, durable primary packaging is necessary to maintain the quality and freshness of the product during shipping [2]. ...
... Most used biodegradable polymers obtained from natural sources are: acid polylactide (PLA), polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), polybutylene succinate (PBS) and thermoplastic starch (TPS) blends, among others. These polymers have been used in the food industry for the development of bags, films, coffee capsules, bottles, cups, bricks, bowls, trays, packaging, jars, etc [3]. ...
The Pressurized Soaking Impregnation Method combines the main advantages of supercritical solvent impregnation and the soaking casting technique. This work studied the impregnation of poly(3-hydroxy-butyrate-co3-hydroxy-valerate) (PHB-HV) sheets with mango leaf extracts using this method for its future use as active packaging. The influence of temperature (35–55 ºC), pressure (10, 20–30 MPa), and depressurization rate (0.1–5 MPa/min) on the impregnation loads, antioxidant capacities, and mechanical properties of the impregnated samples were evaluated. In addition, the morphological characteristics, colour characterization, and release of active compounds in a food simulant of the PHB-HV samples impregnated at 30 MPa were analysed. The results showed higher impregnation loads (7.66 % wt.) at 30 MPa, 55 ºC, and a slow depressurization rate (0.1 MPa/min). However, the impregnation of antioxidant compounds did not show the expected behaviour, reaching values lower than 3 %. In addition, the samples that were impregnated at 30 MPa showed colour differences that were perceptible to the human eye. A non-homogeneous distribution of impregnation, cracks, and pores on the surface were also observed. The release study in the D1 food simulant showed good agreement with the Peleg model and a quasi-Fickian diffusion behaviour according to the Korsmeyer-Peppas model. The contact time study in the impregnation at 30 MPa, 35 ºC and 0.1 MPa/min revealed a slight increase in antioxidant capacity after six hours. Furthermore, samples with a more homogeneous colour distribution were obtained.
... Its entire lifecycle (manufacturing, utilization, and disposal) contributes just under 2 billion tonnes of carbon emissions yearly (Waste and Resources Action Programme, 2024). In addition to this, around 42% of all petrochemical-based plastics used end up in landfills, and barely a 10th is recycled (Zhao et al., 2020;Lin et al., 2023). In global economic powers like the United States and China, around 60%-85% of plastic waste generated in municipalities is sent to landfills (Lin et al., 2023). ...
... They enhance food shelf life and prevent spoilage, reducing food waste and associated environmental impacts. Additionally, plant-based biofilms help prevent the proliferation of microplastics and reduce landfill burdens due to their compostable nature (Zhao et al., 2020). In contrast, the majority of petrochemical-based plastics end up in landfills and litter in the environment, where they persist for hundreds of years, exacerbating waste management issues and contributing to environmental degradation (Lin et al., 2023;Trinh et al., 2023). ...
Plant-based materials and edible films have emerged as promising alternatives to conventional packaging materials, offering sustainable and environmentally friendly solutions. This mini-review highlights the significance of plant-based materials derived from polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids, showcasing their renewable and biodegradable nature. The properties of edible films, including mechanical strength, barrier properties, optical characteristics, thermal stability, and shelf-life extension, are explored, showcasing their suitability for food packaging and other applications. Moreover, the application of 3D printing technology allows for customized designs and complex geometries, paving the way for personalized nutrition. Functionalization strategies, such as active and intelligent packaging, incorporation of bioactive compounds, and antimicrobial properties, are also discussed, offering additional functionalities and benefits. Challenges and future directions are identified, emphasizing the importance of sustainability, scalability, regulation, and performance optimization. The potential impact of plant-based materials and edible films is highlighted, ranging from reducing reliance on fossil fuels to mitigating plastic waste and promoting a circular economy. In conclusion, plant-based materials and edible films hold great potential in revolutionizing the packaging industry, offering sustainable alternatives to conventional materials. Embracing these innovations will contribute to reducing plastic waste, promoting a circular economy, and creating a sustainable and resilient planet.
... More than 30 % of plastic generated worldwide is used for packaging (Luijsterburg et al., 2014). These resources are produced from non-renewable petroleum-based polymers, which linger in the environment for several years (Zhao et al., 2020). Consequently, they accumulate in landfills or water resources, thus having a devastating impact on the environment and causing increased global warming and pollution (Baena-Moreno et al., 2020). ...
There is an emerging trend towards the utilization of biobased polymer formulation for massive applications like food packaging due to environmental concerns. Polylactic acid (PLA), a significant biopolymer, has faced limitations in industrial applications due to its brittleness and poor ductility. To overcome these drawbacks, bio-friendly oils have been employed as plasticizers, to ameliorate overall attributes and expand their use as a potential flexible packaging material. In this work, Safflower oil (SFO) was successfully epoxidized (ESFO) using an in-situ Prilezhaev reaction. 1 H NMR and FTIR analysis indicated that the optimal conditions were a temperature of 70 • C and a residence time of 30 min, resulting in a remarkable maximum selectivity of 96 %. Further, SFO and ESFO modified PLA films were obtained by melt blending and cast film extrusion. The effect of oils on structural, mechanical and thermal properties of PLA was examined. Morphological analysis revealed a smoother surface along with improved thermal stability, moisture barrier, and hydrophobicity for PLA-ESFO (5 phr) films. Additionally, tensile properties emphasized the significant improvement in ductile properties for both the oils, particularly marked in 5 phr ESFO-based films, where 21 folds improved than neat PLA without compromising tensile strength and modulus. Therefore, epoxidized safflower oil exerted plasticization, encouraging the likelihood of PLA as a biodegradable packaging material.
... In this context, cellulose-based natural fibers are promising candidates and have occupied a substantial place in the field of material research because of their availability, sustainability, carbon dioxide neutrality emissions, inexpensive price, and good specific strength properties [4,5]. Although the application of bioplastics is not as widespread as conventional plastics due to low mechanical properties [6], bioplastics have an important role in packaging applications (about 60%), followed by applications in the textile, automotive, and construction industries [7][8][9]. Lignocellulose-derived bioplastics also have an essential role in biomedical applications due to their non-toxicity and biocompatibility [10]. ...
... Secondly, the development of novel materials is accompanied with learning effects. Failure to account for these results in higher estimates for prices, larger estimated environmental impacts, etc. results in LCA to likely skew the results in favor of longtime established products that no longer are subjected to these effects [52,64]. ...
Increased biodegradability, in other words reduced environmental recalcitrance, has the potential to be an important asset in the battle against plastics pollution. It can partially mitigate global plastic leakages into the environment, which is next to their impact on climate change the biggest concern regarding plastics use. Biodegradation should be regarded as an optimal safety net in many applications and should often not be the targeted waste management option for biodegradable plastics. Biodegradability should not preclude reuse or proper recyclability, which are impactful means to reduce the carbon intensity of plastics lifecycles. Despite the added advantages, the market penetration of biodegradable plastics is only very slowly growing. Moreover, policy recommends its use only in limited applications, driven by sometimes-higher cost and limited recyclability. In this article, we posit that arguments against widespread application of biodegradable plastics are largely driven by misperceptions arising from intrinsic limitations of contemporary sustainability assessments and offer an alternative viewpoint that could compensate for this. In general, sustainability assessments fail to properly assess learning curves, often do not take littering potential into account, and are rather conservative with respect to background systems. Hence, recyclability– or better: circularity– judgements often do not resolve the paradoxical situation in which increased market shares lead to easier and more profitable recycling schemes and vice versa. Judging disruptive innovations by incorporating thermodynamics-inspired, less data-intensive, state-based methods, based on, e.g., statistical entropy analysis, into the decision support framework could allow to forecast packaging markets with performant materials that are intrinsically circular, having reduced environmental recalcitrance.
... They are fossil-based plastics. Replacing fossil-based plastics with biodegradable bio-based plastics, especially for single-use plastic packaging, can reduce greenhouse gas emissions, plastic waste pollution, and the carbon footprint [1][2][3][4][5]. Poly(L-lactide) (PLLA) has attracted much attention because of its biorenewability, biocompatibility, biodegradability, biocompostability, and the ease of melt processing it [6][7][8][9][10][11]. ...
The more flexible and faster biodegradation rate of poly(L-lactide)-b-poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(L-lactide) (PLLA-PEG-PLLA) triblock copolymer makes it a promising bioplastic compared to PLLA. However, finding effective additives for this triblock copolymer remains a research challenge for their wider applications. This work involved the melt-blending of a cerium lactate (Ce-LA) antibacterial agent with a triblock copolymer. The thermal properties, crystalline structures, mechanical properties, and phase morphology of the PLLA-PEG-PLLA/Ce-LA composites were examined. With 0.5 wt% Ce-LA, the composite exhibited the best crystallization properties. The crystallinity of the composite contained 0.5 wt% Ce-LA increased from 11.8 to 15.9%, and the half-time of crystallization decreased from 3.37 to 1.28 min at 120 °C, compared with the pure triblock copolymer. The incorporation of Ce-LA did not result in any changes to the crystalline structure of the triblock copolymer matrix. The best improvement in thermal stability and tensile properties of the composites was achieved with the addition of 1.5 wt% Ce-LA. When compared to the pure triblock copolymer, the temperature at maximum decomposition rate of PLLA blocks shifted from 310 °C to 327 °C, the tensile strength increased from 14.3 MPa to 19.5 MPa, and the Young’s modulus increased from 204 MPa to 312 MPa. This study concludes that the incorporation of Ce-LA enhanced the crystallizability, thermal stability, and mechanical properties of PLLA-PEG-PLLA, indicating that Ce-LA could serve as a versatile additive to the PLLA-PEG-PLLA bioplastic.
... Foam material is a basic industry closely related to social and economic development, widely used in packaging, energy storage (Zhao et al. 2020), transportation (Cao et al. 2018), construction (Baetens et al. 2011) and other fields. The massive use of commercially available plastic foam materials such as polyurethane and polystyrene has caused serious environmental hazards -"white pollution." ...
Large-scale use of petroleum-based plastic foams has caused serious environmental problems. Biodegradable and renewable plant resources have become ideal alternative materials. However, the inherent low mechanical strength and flammability of plant-based foams have prevented their widespread use. In this paper, pulp foams (PUPs) were prepared by cross-linking pulp fibers with ammonium polyphosphate (APP) in a novel and simple method. The resulting foam exhibits ultralow density (12.4 mg cm⁻³), good mechanical properties, high flame retardancy, and recyclable, degradable performance. In the compression experiment, the compressive strength of PUP (15%) foam increased by 175% at 80% strain. Besides, PUP (15%) retains its woven structure well after vertical and horizontal combustion tests. It is expected that this work will provide new insights into the production of flame-retardant foams, which have a high potential to replace flammable and non-degradable petroleum-based foams.
Graphical Abstract
... Additionally, PLA films exhibit superior UV light barrier qualities compared to low-density polyethylene and can be recycled or burned, in addition to being biodegradable. 113,114 Table 3 presents the properties of PLA and other common polymers that are used in food packaging and other applications. ...
The growing demand for antibacterial materials, particularly for biomedical and packaging applications, has prompted significant interest in biodegradable alternatives to traditional plastics. Among these, poly(lactic acid) (PLA) is a biocompatible and biodegradable polymer that is increasingly being recognized as a promising matrix material for the development of functional nanocomposites. Notably, the incorporation of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles into PLA matrices enhances their antibacterial functionality, providing effective solutions against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. However, challenges persist in manufacturing PLA/ZnO nanocomposites, including achieving uniform nanoparticle dispersion, ensuring interfacial compatibility, and addressing scalability issues for industrial applications. Moreover, ongoing scientific debates regarding the exact antibacterial mechanisms of ZnO, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, physical disruption of bacterial membranes, and zinc ion release, complicate the efforts to optimize these materials. This review summarizes the current state of research on PLA/ZnO nanocomposites, exploring both the manufacturing challenges and the scientific discussions regarding their antibacterial mechanisms. Consequently, by identifying unresolved questions and consolidating existing knowledge, this review provides valuable insights for researchers and engineers seeking to advance the development of effective antibacterial materials, ultimately contributing to solutions to global health and environmental challenges.
... In the present day, non-renewable resources, and fuels, such as petroleum, are primarily used for the manufacture of plastic materials and packaging. Most packaging materials are derived from petroleum fuel, which is non-renewable and harmful to the environment [1]. Because of this, non-biodegradable plastics are used and produced, which poses environmental concerns and complicates the process. ...
Recent years have seen the proliferation of fused deposition modeling (FDM) as a means of manufacturing biodegradable products, for different applications such as rigid packaging, agricultural and biomedical. Blends of Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) and polylactic acid (PLA) have been investigated to ascertain their prospective applications through FDM. This paper includes three parameters that affect the build process: layer height, nozzle temperature, and flow rate. 3D printed PLA/PHA can be characterized mechanically, and process parameters can be optimized to maximize design functionality. The experimental setup utilized a Taguchi L9 design, and TOSPIS was employed to optimize the output results. Using TOPSIS analysis, 0.2 mm layer thickness, 195 °C nozzle temperature, and 100 % flow rate were found to be the most optimal initiation parameters. The Taguchi analysis was used to analyze the output responses, and it was found that layer height had the greatest influence on mechanical properties, followed by flow rate and nozzle temperature. The percentage elongation at break has been improved significantly by adding PHA i.e., 170 % compared to PLA (5–10 %). This paper presents a framework for in-depth mechanical characterization of PLA-PHA 3D-printed parts, along with methods for optimizing process parameters to achieve optimal performance, as well as tools for modeling output responses using GA-ANN with an accuracy of 95 %.
... 65 These additives can improve mechanical strength, flexibility, processability, and biodegradability of bioplastics. 25,66,67 Additionally, they can provide functionalities such as antimicrobial properties and barrier performance. 64 By judiciously incorporating additives, it offers the ability to fine-tune the properties of bioplastics, expanding their range of applications and making them more competitive in diverse industries. ...
The mounting global concern over the environmental consequences of petroleum-based plastics has prompted significant research into sustainable alternatives, with bioplastics emerging as a forerunning solution. This systematic review elucidates the multifaceted synthesis processes of bioplastics, which are derived from renewable sources such as plant starches, cellulose, and waste materials. The synthesis encompasses stages from raw material selection, pre-treatment, to the incorporation of various additives, with the aim to achieve specific properties in the resultant bioplastics. A substantial focus of this review lies in comprehensively understanding the role of additives, which serve as the pivotal agents in tailoring the mechanical and thermal characteristics of bioplastics. Additives, including cross-linking agents, plasticizers, fillers, compatibilizers, and reinforcement agents, are critically examined for their influence on attributes such as tensile strength, flexibility, thermal stability, and biodegradability. Factors such as intermolecular interactions, hydrogen bonding, and moisture content, play a determining role towards the resultant properties. The prospects for bioplastics are rapidly expanding, signalling a transformative shift in various applications ranging from eco-friendly packaging to advanced biomedical devices. This article serves as a comprehensive guide to both researchers and industry stakeholders, providing deep insights into the synthesis of bioplastics and the transformative role additives play in their functional properties.
... However, current trends in the food and plastic industry aim at substituting fossil-based plastics with bioplastics, i.e. if they are either biobased (linked to its origin), biodegradable (related to its end-of-life) or possess both attributes (Byun and Kim, 2014). While bioplastics offer potential benefits from the environmental and resource-efficiency point of view, they do not always exhibit the same properties as traditional packaging systems, compromising food products shelf life and posing challenges in their manufacture (Zhao et al., 2020). In this context, active packaging systems based on the deliberate incorporation of active ingredients into the packaging material to provide additional functions, such as antioxidant or antimicrobial capacity, is positioned as a successful strategy to enhance the performance and increase the functionalities of bioplastics (Westlake et al., 2023). ...
A new active packaging composed of poly(e-caprolactone) (PCL) and thermoplastic gliadin proteins incorporating green tea extract (GTE) was developed through compounding and film-extrusion process. Firstly, commercial green tea extract was analyzed, revealing that GTE primarily comprised epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), which conferred potent antioxidant activity determined by the DPPH assay, along with moderate antibacterial activity. The incorporation of 5 wt% of GTE in the extruded films increased thermal stability and Young's Modulus, and reduced oxygen and water vapor permeability with respect to control PCL/TPG film. Migration studies showed that the release of GTE depended on the type of food simulant, with higher levels observed in an oil-in-water emulsion simulant compared to a non-acidic aqueous food simulant, while no migration of GTE components was detected in dry foodstuffs simulant. Consequently, the antioxidant capacity derived from migrated GTE components were considerably higher in 50 % ethanol than in 10 % ethanol. Furthermore, PCL/ TPG-GTE film exhibited antibacterial activity against Gram negative E. coli and Gram positive S. aureus in vitro when tested following the JIS Z2801 standard. The GTE addition also improved walnuts stability, resulting in a reduction and delay of fat peroxidation. Hence, the novel active system developed in this work can constitute a sustainable alternative to improve quality and safety of packaged products.
... Emerging technologies like nanotechnology enhance barrier properties and enable thinner, more sustainable packaging [29][30][31]. Advanced recycling methods like pyrolysis and chemical depolymerization also help close the material life cycle by converting flexible plastics into reusable monomers [32][33][34]. ...
The circular economy and sustainable development are crucial in addressing environmental pollution from solid waste, especially plastics. Plastic waste has sparked significant social concerns, driving a redesign of products in the flexible packaging industry. This study focuses on redesigning flexible plastic packaging to improve recyclability and accelerate degradability while maintaining essential mechanical and barrier properties for food applications. The goal is to create sustainable packaging that reduces material usage, ensures recyclability, and promotes faster degradation at the product's end of life. The study compared the redesigned packaging's mechanical, physical, and barrier properties with existing products. Results showed that switching from a trilaminate to a bilaminate structure, as in laminated coils and Doypack packaging, reduced material thickness without compromising performance. Oxygen permeability was maintained at 35.38 cc/m²·day, and moisture permeability at 0.56 mg/m²·day for laminated coils. These changes reduced raw material consumption by 26.48% for laminated coils and 12.68% for Doypack packaging. Additionally, a degradable solution combining cellulose paper with a high-barrier polymer reduces plastic adhesives and solvents by 50%, reducing water usage. This research provides a practical approach to more sustainable flexible packaging in the food industry, achieving material reductions without sacrificing performance. The findings can be directly applied to promote sustainable packaging solutions within circular economy initiatives.
... Apart from the more frequent use of personal protective equipment, perishable and takeaway food should be wrapped in plastics during lockdowns and home quarantines, which leads to increased amounts of single-use plastics (Mallick et al., 2021). >90 % of plastic is petroleum-based and non-biodegradable (Zhao et al., 2020), suggesting a pathway for enhancing the environmental sustainability of plastic production. ...
Excessive production, indiscriminate consumption, and improper disposal of plastics have led to plastic pollution and its hazardous environmental effects. Various approaches to tackle the challenges of reducing the plastic footprint have been developed and applied, such as the production of alternative materials (design for recycling), the production and use of biodegradable plastic and plastics from power-to-X, and the development of recycling approaches. This study proposes an optimisation strategy based on regression to evaluate and predict plastic use and end-of-life fate in the future based on historical trends. The mathematical model is formulated and correlations based on functions of time are developed and optimised by minimising the sum of squared residuals. The plastic quantities up to the year 2050 are projected based on historical trends analysis, and for improved sustainability, projections are additionally based on intervention analyses. The results show that the global use of plastics is expected to increase from 464 Mt in 2020 up to 884 Mt in 2050, with up to 4725 Mt of plastics accumulated in stock in 2050 (from the year 2000). Compared to other available forecasts, a slightly lower level of plastic use and stock are obtained. The intervention analysis estimates a range of global plastics' consumption between 594 Mt and 1018 Mt in 2050 by taking into account its different increment rates (between −1 % and 2.65 %). In the packaging sector, the implementation of reduction targets (15 % reduction in 2040 compared to 2018) could lead to a 27.3 % decrease in plastic use in 2050 as compared to 2018, while achieving recycling targets (55 % in 2030) would recycle >75 % of plastic packaging in 2050. The partial substitution of fossil-based plastics with bioplastics (polyethylene) will require significant land area, between 0.2 × 106 km2 for obtaining switchgrass and up to around 1.0 × 106 km2 for obtaining forest residue (annual yields of 58.15 t/ha and 3.5 t/ha) in 2050. The intervention analysis shows that proactive policies can mitigate sustainability challenges, however achieving broader sustainability goals also requires reduction of footprints related to energy production and virgin plastic production, the production of bio-based plastics, and the full implementation of recycling initiatives.
... Plastic wastes are becoming unrivalled environmental issue globally and calls for urgent heedfulness. Single-use plastics with various salient properties such as low-cost, versatility, and durability end up in massive quantities of waste [1][2][3][4]. Plastics have become an almost indispensable part of modern society due to their versatility, low cost, and durability [5]. Current management methods for waste plastics are landfill or incineration, while only 10 % are recycled [6]. ...
... Packaging plays a particularly important role in the food industry, as it is necessary to protect food and is also an important carrier of information and part of the marketing strategies of companies. It is therefore not surprising that a large proportion of the packaging waste generated each year comes from this sector (Pinheiro de Souza et al. 2022;Süßbauer et al. 2022;Zhao et al. 2020). Regarding the requirements on food packaging, there are two different point of views: the producer's and retailer's as well as the consumer's perspective. ...
Plastic production continues to increase each year, yet only 9% are successfully recycled. This has impacted natural habitats and ecosystems, due to an uncontrolled amount of waste. The food industry is a major contributor to plastic waste. To counter this problem, the demand for environmentally sustainable alternatives, i.e. bio-based plastics, in the pursuit of a circular economy is increasing. As such, this problem is interconnected and at the resource nexus of particularly, food, material, waste, and ecosystem. This systematic review provides an overview of different innovations regarding materials and additives for bio-based plastics for packaging in the food industry. The paper argues that a majority of materials for bio-based plastics originate from the food industry’s value chain and utilizing these resources is essential to reduce waste and to create more value, essentially addressing the problem with a focus on the resource nexus. Moreover, the importance of developing biodegradable and recyclable plastics to reduce the environmental impact of plastic waste is also highlighted, especially in the context of single-use food packaging. These findings and conclusions cumulated into a framework to differentiate the various materials and classify them regarding their biodegradability properties, origin (plant- or animal-based industry by-products and raw materials) and end-of-life scenarios. This contributes to the academic literature and practice by categorizing different kinds of materials, which might be labelled environmentally sustainable, particularly biodegradable, but which might not always be the case and critically discussing implications of this.
... They underline systematization of curriculum that comprises up-to-date technologies, methodologies and projects related to work-life to meet the demand of students who are able to achieve job success in volatile software engineering environment. At the same time, [6] pointed out a relevant feature of a competency-based curriculum design, becoming crucial for the industry stakeholders to act as core determiners for learning outcomes and program content [7]. Their research showed what a great result can be achieved by creating curricula in cooperation with the industry. ...
This paper investigates the gap between software engineering education and the industry needs by suggesting solutions to close that gap. The implication is that classrooms agendas are to be more flexible in nature to meet the dynamism in technology needs by the tech sector, focusing on the inclusion of current data science technologies in education programs. This study is backed by data-driven inferences which help to identify the linkage between academia and industry, and with the use of the predictive model of the regression one can estimate the graduation success. The results have proved the importance of practical skills such as research abilities, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills over traditional metrics like GPA. Thus it should be the need of the hour to develop the industry-relevant training in order to provide vocational education to students. The coordination between academia and industry fields by merging student-centric projects that have modern technologies would aid improving adapting software engineering education to the variable industrial sector. The research results emphasize the significance of an active learning process and practical application of the learned concepts that should be employed to get students ready for the challenges awaiting them at the workplace. Finally, a paper that proposes permanent developing of the engineering curriculum and close collaboration between industry and academic institutions, so that the students receive key competences to be prosperous in software engineering. Python has been implemented to analyse the skills of the software engineering curriculum for achieving the requirements of the industry. Data visualisation, data pre-processing, and predictive models have been implemented to gather data based on industrial requirements.
... 1−3 However, the widespread use of petroleum-based plastic packaging has led to major global concerns due to overproduction, disposal challenges, and adverse effects to the environment. 4,5 Therefore, it is necessary that suitable alternatives to packaging materials are sustainably manufactured from renewable sources. 6,7 The development of high-performance biodegradable films is therefore very crucial 4 to promote food safety and quality while also reducing waste and achieving sustainable development goals (SDGs). ...
Natural food packaging methods have been developed to overcome the reliance on plastic packaging and align with sustainable development goals (SDGs), and it is necessary to develop biodegradable packaging. Starch is an alternative natural packaging material with numerous excellent properties. In this review, we focus on starch as a material for the development of biodegradable active packaging. However, the method still has significant limitations, and active studies are ongoing to unravel new and improved starch-based packaging strategies. Integrating active starch-based methods with emerging technologies in food packaging reduces adverse effects on the environment. In this review, we first introduce the role of emerging technologies, such as cold plasma, high-pressure processing (HPP), ultrasound, and pulsed electric field (PEF), in improving the properties of starch-based active packaging. These emerging technologies have enhanced the optical, physical, and thermal properties of starch-based active packaging. An up-to-date review explaining the potential of starch-based packaging, the use of emerging technologies in its preparation, and the application of this packaging in plant-and animal-based products is thoroughly discussed. The meta-analysis reported in this study can be used to address the challenges and applications of starch-based packaging in the future.
... With the growing effort to replace conventional plastics with eco-friendly alternatives, degradable materials are coming to the fore [12,13]. Biodegradable polymers (BDPs), emerging as viable substitutes for conventional plastics across various industrial sectors, are polymeric materials capable of undergoing decomposition by microorganisms into carbon dioxide, water, and biomass under aerobic conditions, or into methane and carbon dioxide under anaerobic conditions [14][15][16]. Comparable as conventional plastics, BDPs can also naturally break down into small particles, generating a substantial quantity of MPs [17,18]. However, despite their biodegradability, these MPs can persist for extended periods due to the influence of various environmental factors (biotic and abiotic) environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, pH, biologically active substances, and the presence and activity of microorganisms [19,20]. ...
Microplastics, pervasive contaminants in freshwater ecosystems, have raised ecological concerns. Efforts are underway to substitute conventional plastics with biodegradable alternatives that should be more easily decomposed in the environment. However, the biodegradation of these alternatives depends on specific conditions such as temperature, humidity, pH, and microorganisms, which are not always met. Consequently, these biodegradable alternatives can also fragment and generate microplastics, which can be ingested and affect biota. In this study, we investigated the acute, chronic, and multigenerational effects of two fractions (particles <63 μm and particles <125 μm) of biodegradable poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (P3HB) at varying concentrations on the inhibition, mortality, reproduction activity, and growth of the freshwater invertebrate Daphnia magna. No acute effects were observed for either size fraction. However, during chronic and multigenerational experiments, an increase in the concentration of P3HB microplastics corresponded with increased mortality, reduced reproductive activity, and slower growth among the mother organisms. Given the important role of D. magna in the food chain, these findings suggest that biodegradable microplastics may indeed negatively affect freshwater ecosystems.
... Moreover, waste from conventional plastics is also a serious pollution problem. Reduction and replacement of "fossil-based plastics" with "bio-based plastics" can decrease the carbon footprint and greenhouse gas emissions [1][2][3][4][5]. Thus, tailoring polymer blends of fossil-based and bio-based plastics is one method for reducing the carbon footprint of plastic products. ...
Polymer blends of poly(L-lactide)-b-poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(L-lactide) (PLLA-PEG-PLLA) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) with different blend ratios were prepared by a melt blending method. The thermal, morphological, mechanical, opacity, and biodegradation properties of the PLLA-PEG-PLLA/HDPE blends were investigated and compared to the PLLA/HDPE blends. The blending of HDPE improved the crystallization ability and thermal stability of the PLLA-PEG-PLLA; however, these properties were not improved for the PLLA. The morphology of the blended films showed that the PLLA-PEG-PLLA/HDPE blends had smaller dispersed phases compared to the PLLA/HDPE blends. The PLLA-PEG-PLLA/HDPE blends exhibited higher flexibility, lower opacity, and faster biodegradation and bioerosion in soil than the PLLA/HDPE blends. Therefore, these PLLA-PEG-PLLA/HDPE blends have a good potential for use as flexible and partially biodegradable materials.
The rising demand for sustainable and antimicrobial packaging materials has fuelled innovations in polymer‐based solutions, especially in the preservation of fresh fruit to reduce food waste and enhance food safety. This review delves into the advancement and refinement of nanocomposites based on polylactic acid (PLA) for sustainable antimicrobial fruit packaging, emphasising the synergistic effects of combining PLA with nanofillers and antimicrobial agents, such as metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, plant extracts and essential oils (EOs) and carbon nanomaterial. By elucidating the synergistic effects that emerge from these combinations, this review examines the ability to enhance mechanical and antibacterial properties of PLA, followed by a review of the recent changes in sustainable fruit packaging solutions that integrate technological features and environmental considerations. Ultimately, this review provides a comprehensive overview of the advancements in PLA‐based antimicrobial packaging, offering insights on the environmental benefits of integrating antimicrobial functionality into PLA‐based materials and the future of sustainable packaging for fruit preservation.
Indian agriculture is undergoing a significant transformation, driven by cutting-edge
technologies and scientific advancements. With the need to meet growing food demands and environmental challenges, innovations in biotechnology, digital platforms, mechanization, and sustainable practices are reshaping how food is produced and distributed in India.This edited volume, Contemporary Trends and Technological Breakthroughs in Indian Agriculture, explores the latest advancements in the agricultural sector. The contributors, experts in their fields, delve into the technologies shaping the future of Indian agriculture, covering areas such as genome editing, CRISPR-Cas9, digital platforms, and sustainable farming practices.The book highlights the integration of new technologies with traditional methods,
focusing on the impact of genome editing and transgenic technologies in crop development, as well as the role of CRISPR-Cas9 in biotechnology. The use of digital platforms in market dynamics, agricultural economics, and climate adaptation is also discussed. Empowering rural agriculture through training, entrepreneurship, and modern agricultural extension methods is a key theme, reflecting the importance of skill development and knowledge dissemination.Sustainable practices, such as zero-budget organic farming and eco-friendly pest control, are explored alongside innovations in food safety, traceability, and alternative proteins, which are crucial for meeting the food demands of an urbanizing population. The evolution of the dairy industry, with technologies like sex-sorted semen and A1 vs. A2 milk, is also examined. The book further covers plant immunity, genomics, and disease management strategies to safeguard crops and ensure food security. Advances in mechanization, robotics, and automation in agriculture and food processing industries are also featured, with a focus on AI and machine learning in food traceability, quality control, and supply chain management.This volume offers valuable insights into the technological revolution in Indian agriculture and its potential to enhance productivity, sustainability, and food security. It will serve as a resource for researchers, policymakers, and practitioners interested in the future of agriculture.
Concerns regarding single-use petroleum-based plastic have led to a push toward bioplastic packaging. Poly(lactic acid) (PLA), one of the most utilized bioplastics, suffers from poor oxygen barrier that limits its application as a packaging material. In this work, layer-by-layer nanocoatings consisting of chitosan, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and cellulose nanocrystals are applied to PLA to improve its barrier performance. These coatings decrease the oxygen transmission rate of PLA by up to 30× at just 120 nm of thickness, placing them among the best-performing fully biobased barriers ever reported. Combinations of coating materials are investigated to provide the best performance in both dry and humid conditions. The effect of humidity on the barrier performance is found to depend heavily on the presence of cellulose nanocrystals in the film. Additionally, the biobased coatings do not impede the biodegradability of the PLA substrate. The barrier technology and deposition process fulfill the principles of green chemistry and represent a significant improvement in sustainable gas barrier films.
Bio-based plastics, primarily polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), offer a hopeful alternative to petroleum-derived plastics. Third-generation (3G; microalgae/cyanobacteria) biomass has gained significant importance due to its rapid biomass productivity and metabolic versatility. Microalgae can produce PHAs by utilizing CO2 and wastewater, establishing them as highly promising and eco-friendly systems for bioplastic production. This comprehensive review presents comprehensive insights into microalgae-PHA production, from optimization of physicochemical and cultural conditions to effective PHA purification processes. The critical review also examines the latest advancements in cultivation strategies, metabolic engineering, and bioreactor developments, which may lead to more sustainable and progressive microalgal-based bioplastic accumulation. The effectiveness of algae biomass generation for PHA accumulation through integrated wastewater treatment has been addressed. This review examines the role of mathematical modeling and emerging artificial intelligence in advancing algae-based PHA production processes. Finally, the review concludes with a discussion of the economic and social challenges, life cycle analysis, and prospects for research and development of advanced microalgal-derived bioplastics production and predictions of potential solutions for economically feasible and sustainable microalgae-based PHA production at the industrial scale.
In this research, active packaging which was made of all-natural component hydrogels from nanocellulose composited with silver nanoparticles at various concentrations (AgH) was studied. The concentration of silver nanoparticles ranged from 0.0078 to 0.0624 phr. AgH was characterized in terms of basic properties, functional properties, and packaging applications. Biocompatibility testing with the Caco-2 cell line showed that higher concentrations of silver (higher than 0.0312 phr) provided a lower cell viability rate (lower than 70% cell viability). Here, 0.0156 phr of silver nanoparticle concentration was the maximum loading that is safe for the target cell (82% cell viability) and was thus selected for use as active packaging. The antimicrobial activity showed that AgH at all concentrations inhibited both Gram bacteria up to 99.99%. Total volatile basic nitrogen compound testing showed that chicken meat preserved by AgH had the lowest values, indicating that AgH can prolong the shelf life in freshness level 1 (15% TVB-N) for 6.2 days compared to 3.9 and 4.1 days of blank and neat cellulose hydrogel. In addition, all AgH were gradually degraded over time and eventually disappeared within 15–30 days in organic soil.
Food waste exacerbates greenhouse gas emissions and environmental degradation, while the prevalent use of conventional plastics in food packaging, characterized by their cost-efficiency, lightweight nature, and durability, has intensified environmental concerns through increased greenhouse gas emissions and waste accumulation. In response, the utilization of biowaste-derived biopolymers for bioplastic production has emerged as a promising strategy within the framework of the circular economy. Although these bioplastics offer advantages such as biodegradability and bio-based origins, early formulations were constrained by suboptimal mechanical strength, hydrophilicity, and barrier properties, necessitating the incorporation of advanced additives. Recent advancements have centred on improving the functionality of bioplastics derived from biowaste through the integration of specialized additives. These enhancements, including the incorporation of functional fillers and reinforcement agents, have significantly augmented the tensile strength, Young’s modulus, thermal stability, and water vapor barrier performance of bioplastics. Additionally, these additives impart notable antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, which enhance food safety and extend shelf life while maintaining eco-friendly characteristics. This review comprehensively examines the latest innovations in biowaste-to-bioplastics technologies, focusing on the integration of antimicrobial, antioxidant, and physiochemical enhancements. By highlighting these advancements, the review emphasizes the transformative potential of biowaste-derived bioplastics in developing sustainable food packaging solutions and advancing a circular economy.
The widespread use of plastics in the production of materials for packaging is attributed to their high performance and tranquility of generation. However, this increased reliance on plastics has led to significant ecological issues, primarily due to their resistance to biodegradation. In response to these environmental challenges, there has been a growing interest in biopolymers as alternatives for various applications, including food packaging materials, encapsulation matrices, and food coatings for functional foods. Biopolymers offer novel approaches to lengthen the shelf life of products while simultaneously decreasing the total amount of carbon emissions related to food packaging. This chapter comprehensively explores the types and applications of biopolymers in the realm of resources for packaging of food. It delves into potential solutions, discusses the advantages of using biopolymers, and explores future trends in the production of food packaging compounds derived from sustainable and renewable resources. In essence, the adoption of biopolymers in food packaging not only addresses the environmental concerns associated with plastic usage but also unlocks new possibilities for enhancing the functionality and sustainability of packaging materials.
Despite its popularity as a bio‐based biodegradable material, polylactic acid (PLA) has a number of shortcomings. Nevertheless, the combination of poly(butylene adipate co‐terephthalate) (PBAT) and thermoplastic starch (TPS) to enhance the mechanical properties of PLA was achieved through the utilisation of PLA/PBAT/TPS ternary composites, which were created through the calendering method. These composites exhibit advantageous characteristics, including high ductility, enhanced toughness, and biodegradability. The results of the water vapour permeability test indicate that the proportion of the material composition exhibiting the lowest value of water vapour permeability is 2.0571 g/m²·24h. The results of the water vapour transmission test demonstrate that the material generated by the composition ratio has the lowest water vapour transmission, indicating that the composite material blending effect is superior. The majority of current research employs nanocellulose as a substrate in PLA, with a paucity of studies investigating its use in PLA/PBAT/TPS composites. These composites are modified due to the notable divergence of nanocellulose from the hydrophobicity of the composite and its susceptibility to decomposition at elevated temperatures. This study establishes a foundation for future research in this field.
In response to escalating environmental concerns, a profound shift toward sustainable materials has spurred intense exploration into bioplastics as an alternative to conventional plastics. This comprehensive review critically assesses the life cycle analysis (LCA) of bioplastics vis-à-vis conventional plastics, providing an expansive overview of their sustainability perspectives. Drawing on recent empirical studies and industry examples, this chapter aims to comprehensively evaluate environmental impact, economic viability, technological challenges, and practical applications of bioplastics. The synthesis of these multifaceted dimensions seeks to enrich the discourse on sustainable materials and guide strategic decisions toward a more environmentally conscious future.
The proposed integrated experimental and simulation study focuses on the mechanical behavior and failure analysis of coupled paper–aluminum (paper–Al) laminates for sustainable packaging. The research employs an innovative experimental approach combining uniaxial loading with in situ visualization of sample deformation. The acquired experimental data are utilized to validate a simulation model, ensuring its accuracy and reliability. Parametric studies conducted through the finite element model further enhance our understanding of the mechanical behavior of the coupled laminates. Specifically, the study investigates microscopic mechanisms influencing the overall response of laminates in both the machine direction (MD) and the cross-machine direction (CD), presenting a comparative analysis with traditional aluminum–polyethylene (Al–PE) laminates, which is a prevalent choice in the packaging industry. The findings contribute to a better comprehension of key factors affecting the mechanical behavior of paper–Al laminates, enabling the design of more effective and sustainable solutions for the packaging industry. Results indicate the advantage of increasing the laminate thickness in the MD, demonstrating an enhanced strength. Conversely, the sensitivity of the thickness variation in the CD is found to be less pronounced. Additionally, our investigation highlights the substantial potential of paper-based materials as environmentally friendly alternatives, particularly in contrast to Al–PE laminates. Furthermore, integrating an innovative digital twin model, which combines experimental data and simulation, significantly advances our understanding and application of laminated in the context of paper packaging design.
The increasing global concern over environmental plastic waste has propelled the progress of biodegradable supplies for food packaging. Biopolymer-based packaging is undergoing modifications to enhance its mechanical properties, aligning with the requirements of smart food packaging. Polymer nanocomposites, incorporating reinforcements such as fibers, platelets, and nanoparticles, demonstrate significantly improved mechanical, thermal, optical, and physicochemical characteristics. Fungi, in particular, have garnered significant interest for producing metallic nanoparticles, offering advantages such as easy scaling up, streamlined downstream handling, economic feasibility, and a large surface area. This review provides an overview of nano-additives utilized in biopackaging, followed by an exploration of the recent advancements in using microbial-resistant metal nanoparticles for food packaging. The mycofabrication process, involving fungi in the extracellular or intracellular synthesis of metal nanoparticles, is introduced. Fungal functionalized nanostructures represent a promising avenue for application across various stages of food processing, packaging, and safety. The integration of fungal-derived nanostructures into food packaging materials presents a sustainable and effective approach to combatting microbial contamination.” By harnessing fungal biomass, this research contributes to the development of economical and environmentally friendly methods for enhancing food packaging functionality. The findings underscore the promising role of fungal-based nanotechnologies in advancing the field of active food packaging, addressing both safety and sustainability concerns. The study concludes with an investigation into potential fungal isolates for nanoparticle biosynthesis, highlighting their relevance and potential in advancing sustainable and efficient packaging solutions.
The need to urgently find alternative plant-based biodegradable fibres is not just important, it is a pressing necessity. The severe environmental damage caused by plastic packaging materials demands immediate action. It is a responsibility that everybody should share to reduce the global plastic pollution rate and environmental footprint. Biodegradable films from natural and waste products have gained considerable consideration for their ability to guarantee optimal product conservation while avoiding any risk of contamination or intoxication. Therefore, this overview addresses recent developments in food packaging and the application of sensors to indicate possible packed food spoilage. The new role of food packaging was discussed widely, from traditional to bio-based, active and intelligent packaging. Until a few years ago, food packaging had the sole purpose of protecting food from external contamination. However, the barrier effect is no longer enough: the packaging should act directly on the food and the surrounding space. The interesting innovation that responds to this need is active and intelligent packaging, a market with solid growth in recent years. It allows the enhancement of food conservation and the detection of pathogens while maintaining good monitoring of the environment inside the package, continuously recording the food conditions. This more complete and interactive information is recorded thanks to special analytical devices: sensors. They can detect and transmit a message to the consumer about food quality, freshness and safety, thanks to the ability to record internal and external changes in the product’s environment. However, these devices are not free from limitations, such as costs and performance, which limit their wider use.
Conventional polymers are environmentally damaging materials; therefore, global efforts are being made to gradually replace these conventional polymers with bio-based, biodegradable, and compostable plastics due to claims of being more sustainable than petroleum-based plastics. However, such claims may not be based on reality, and unregulated bio plastics may cause environmental anarchy similar to conventional plastics. The degradation of bioplastics has received significant attention because it is the parameter used to evaluate their end-of-life disposal and to assess their environmental shortcomings - where the bioplastics which degrade completely in different environments, thus, considered as an environmental-friendly polymers. Upon disposal, the bioplastics decompose in a bio-active medium by microorganisms such as algae, bacteria, and fungi or to humus, water, and CO2 by marine water. Different standardization and certification bodies have set the standards for bioplastics, compostable, and biodegradable plastics to evaluate the environmental constraints of bioplastics. These standards support various industries in creating bioplastics. Thus, it is important to harness the regulatory power to bring all the standardization and certification bodies (both at the national and international levels) together in setting standards with a high threshold to classify bio-based plastics, biodegradable plastics, and compostable plastics.
This review discusses the latest advances in the composition of gelatin-based edible films and coatings, including nanoparticle addition, and their properties are reviewed along their potential for application in the food packaging industry. Gelatin is an important biopolymer derived from collagen and is extensively used by various industries because of its technological and functional properties. Nowadays, a very wide range of components are available to be included as additives to improve its properties, as well as its applications and future potential. Antimicrobials, antioxidants and other agents are detailed due to the fact that an increasing awareness among consumers regarding healthy lifestyle has promoted research into novel techniques and additives to prolong the shelf life of food products. Thanks to its ability to improve global food quality, gelatin has been particularly considered in food preservation of meat and fish products, among others.
To realize the potential environmental benefits that recycling and/or composting bio-based plastic packages can deliver, it is important that consumers view bio-based packaging as environmentally-friendly, but also correctly dispose of the packaging. The current experimental lab-in-the-field study was conducted among German consumers (n = 281) and explores whether consumers' perceived environmental benefits of recyclable and compostable bio-based plastic packages match with how consumers dispose of these packages. The results show that consumers only perceive compostable bio-based packages to have more environmental benefits than fossil-based packages. However, consumers dispose of compostable bio-based packages in an incorrect manner (not in line with what is communicated on the packaging label) relatively often. Consumers with a stronger familiarity with bio-based products more often correctly dispose of compostable bio-based packages, but not recyclable bio-based packages, relative to fossil-based packages. Thus, although mainly compostable bio-based plastic packages have strong environmental appeal to consumers, paradoxically this does not translate in the proper disposal actions to fully capitalize on the environmental benefits that bio-based packages can actually deliver. Increasing consumers' bio-based product familiarity might be an avenue to increase the levels of sustainable disposal.
Anaerobic digestion (AD) is a well-established technology used for producing biogas or biomethane alongside the slurry used as biofertilizer. However, using a variety of wastes and residuals as substrate and mixed cultures in the bioreactor makes AD as one of the most complicated biochemical processes employing hydrolytic, acidogenic, hydrogen-producing, acetate-forming bacteria as well as acetoclastic and hydrogenoclastic methanogens. Hydrogen and volatile fatty acids (VFAs) including acetic, propionic, isobutyric, butyric, isovaleric, valeric and caproic acid and other carboxylic acids such as succinic and lactic acids are formed as intermediate products. As these acids are important precursors for various industries as mixed or purified chemicals, the AD process can be bioengineered to produce VFAs alongside hydrogen and therefore biogas plants can become biorefineries. The current review paper provides the theory and means to produce and accumulate VFAs and hydrogen, inhibit their conversion to methane and to extract them as the final products. The effects of pretreatment, pH, temperature, hydraulic retention time (HRT), organic loading rate (OLR), chemical methane inhibitions, and heat shocking of the inoculum on VFAs accumulation, hydrogen production, VFAs composition, and the microbial community were discussed. Furthermore, this paper highlights the possible techniques for recovery of VFAs from the fermentation media in order to minimize product inhibition as well as to supply the carboxylates for downstream procedures.
Worldwide, millions of tons of crustaceans are produced every year and consumed as protein-rich seafood. However, the shells of the crustaceans and other non-edible parts constituting about half of the body mass are usually discarded as waste. These discarded crustacean shells are a prominent source of polysaccharide (chitin) and protein. Chitosan is a de-acetylated form of chitin obtained from the crustacean waste that has attracted attention for applications in food, biomedical, and paint industries due to its characteristic properties, like solubility in weak acids, film-forming ability, pH-sensitivity, biodegradability, and biocompatibility. We present an overview of the application of chitosan in composite coatings for applications in food, paint, and water treatment. In the context of food industries, the main focus is on fabrication and application of chitosan-based composite films and coatings for prolonging the post-harvest life of fruits and vegetables, whereas anti-corrosion and self-healing properties are the main properties considered for antifouling applications in paints in this review.
Development of material with enhanced mechanical properties and biodegradability by the incorporation of synthesized inorganic nanostructured mesoporous silica from rice husk has been investigated. The produced nanosilica (≈ 25 nm and 213.045 m²/g surface area) and nanosilica blended LDPE/starch composites were extensively characterised by SEM, FTIR, XRD, XRF, TEM, EDAX and TGA analysis. The low cost of production estimated, ensures its feasibility toward large scale application. The addition of nanosilica into the matrix led to the enhancement of Young’s modulus and stiffness by a value of 535.6 MPa and 32172.81 N/m respectively at 3% nanosilica content, thereby enhancing the initial rigidity and resistivity towards deformation making a better biodegradable substitute in terms of initial application range. The MFI and hardness value also increased with increase of silica content upto 1.5% and 2% respectively to 7.23 g/10 min and 42 (Shor D). Increase in nanofiller content improved the value of degradation rate constant (k) of the weight loss data plot in both vegetable waste and garden soil environment. The addition of 1.5% of nanosilica to a blend of 80% LDPE and 20% starch showed almost the same biodegradation rate as that without nanosilica but with superior mechanical properties and applicability range.
Hyperbranched poly(citrate glyceride)s (HBPETs) as plasticizers were mixed with maize starch (S) via cooking and film formation. The structure, aging properties, and hydrophilicity of the plasticized starches were studied by means of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X‐ray diffraction, tension testing, contact angle testing, solubility measurements, moisture absorption, and water vapor permeability (WVP). Compared with a glycerol–S plasticized film, the HBPET–S composite films had better mechanical properties in terms of both strength and elongation at break, better aging resistance, less moisture absorption, less WVP, and more hydrophobicity on the film surface. The mechanisms behind the performances resulted from stronger and more stable H bonds between the abundant active end groups of HBPET and hydroxyls of starch and the high branching degree of the HBPETs; this was helpful for effectively inhibiting the recrystallization of starch. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2019, 136, 46899.
This report presents an overview of facts and figures regarding bio-based and/or biodegradable plastics, in particular for packaging applications.
Bio-plastics such as polylactic acid (PLA) have been investigated as a sustainable alternative to petroleum-based plastics. In this study, the carbon footprint of packaging films made from LDPE, PLA, and PLA/PBAT blends was measured with three different waste scenarios based on the database of South Korea using life cycle assessment (LCA). The LCA followed ISO standards, and was a cradle-to-grave analysis. The functional unit was defined as 400,000 pieces of a film of 300 × 250 mm with thickness of 0.06 mm for packaging bag manufacturing. The waste treatments considered were incineration, landfill, and recycling applied with the present conditions of South Korea. Under the present analysis conditions, the PLA film with landfill was the most effective for reducing carbon emission. The PLA/PBAT with incineration was the worst case among the packaging films tested. Incineration was the worst choice of waste treatment in terms of carbon dioxide emissions. Generally, landfill may not be the best option in terms of sustainability but landfill was a better option for waste treatment than incineration. In addition, before bio-plastics are blended with other material, the blending material should first be evaluated for its environmental impact. The blended bio-plastics with PLA, such as PLA/PBAT, can be more inimical to the environment in terms of carbon dioxide emissions than existing materials, such as LDPE.
Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) biopolymers are emerging as attractive new sustainable polymers due to their true biodegradability and highly tuneable mechanical properties. However, despite significant investments, commercialisation barriers are hindering the capacity growth of PHA. In this work, we investigated the market potential for wood plastic composites (WPCs) based on PHAs. We considered the latest global production capacity of PHAs, estimated at 66,000 tonnes/year, and examined the implications of using PHAs for WPC production on the WPC market. Results indicate that a hypothetical usage of the current global PHA production for WPC manufacture would only represent the equivalent of 4.4% of the global WPC market, which is currently experiencing a 10.5% compounded annual growth rate. An economic assessment revealed that a wood-PHA composite as a drop-in alternative WPC product could cost as little as 37% of the cost of its neat PHA counterpart. Thus, WPCs with PHA offer a means to access benefits of PHA in engineering applications at reduced costs; however, further developments are required to improve strain at failure. The successful adoption of wood-PHA composites into the market is furthermore reliant on support from public sector to encourage biodegradable products where recycling is not a ready solution.
In recent years the littering of plastics and the problems related to their persistence in the environment have become a major focus in both research and the news. Biodegradable polymers like poly(lactic acid) are seen as a suitable alternative to commodity plastics. However, poly(lactic acid) is basically non‐degradable in seawater. Similarly, the degradation rate of other biodegradable polymers also crucially depends on the environments they end up in, such as soil or marine water, or when used in biomedical devices. In this Minireview, we show that biodegradation tests carried out in artificial environments lack transferability to real conditions and, therefore, highlight the necessity of environmentally authentic and relevant field‐testing conditions. In addition, we focus on ecotoxicological implications of biodegradable polymers. We also consider the social aspects and ask how biodegradable polymers influence consumer behavior and municipal waste management. Taken together, this study is intended as a contribution towards evaluating the potential of biodegradable polymers as alternative materials to commodity plastics.
Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate), PHBV, is a microbial biopolymer with
excellent biocompatible and biodegradable properties that make it a potential candidate for
substituting petroleum-derived polymers. However, it lacks mechanical strength, water sorption and
diffusion, electrical and/or thermal properties, antimicrobial activity, wettability, biological properties,
and porosity, among others, limiting its application. For this reason, many researchers around
the world are currently working on how to overcome the drawbacks of this promising material.
This review summarises the main advances achieved in this field so far, addressing most of the
chemical and physical strategies to modify PHBV and placing particular emphasis on the combination
of PHBV with other materials from a variety of different structures and properties, such as other
polymers, natural fibres, carbon nanomaterials, nanocellulose, nanoclays, and nanometals, producing
a wide range of composite biomaterials with increased potential applications. Finally, the most
important methods to fabricate porous PHBV scaffolds for tissue engineering applications are
presented. Even though great advances have been achieved so far, much research needs to be
conducted still, in order to find new alternative enhancement strategies able to produce advanced
PHBV-based materials able to overcome many of these challenges.
Plastics have become an inseparable part of our life in the society due to their merits such as low cost, light weight, good mechanical and thermal properties along with easy process ability. Since the last few decades, the unrestrained use of plastics in various fields like agriculture, packaging, transportation has raised a serious issue about its disposal and pollution. An efficient decomposition of plastics takes about 1000 years. Not only there is an increase in the problem of waste disposal of plastics but also they release CO2 and dioxins on burning which contributes to cause pollution. There is a growing concern for use of efficient microorganisms meant for biodegradation of non-degradable synthetic polymer because conventionally used methods for plastic disposal are ineffective for plastic waste management. This review paper focuses on one such type of plastic-polyethylene terephthalate (PET) which is widely used in a flexible packaging application, its manufacturing process and the various effects of waste generated by it on the surrounding environment. This review discusses an overview of various existing plastic disposal methods along with their limitations and mechanism of biodegradation of PET and factors affecting biodegradation.
The microbial degradation behavior of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate) (PHBHHx) and its compound with several polyesters such as poly(butylene adipate-co-telephtharate) (PBAT), poly(butylene succinate) (PBS), and polylactic acid (PLA) in seawater was tested by a biological oxygen demand (BOD) method. PHBHHx showed excellent biodegradation in seawater in this study. In addition, the biodegradation rate of several blends was much influenced by the weight ratio of PHBHHx in their blends and decreased in accordance with the decrement of PHBHHX ratio. The surface morphology of the sheet was important factor for controlling the biodegradation rate of PHBHHx-containing blends in seawater.
Conventional petroleum-derived plastics are recalcitrant to biodegradation and can be problematic as they accumulate in the environment. In contrast, it may be possible to add novel, biodegradable bioplastics to anaerobic digesters at municipal water resource recovery facilities along with primary sludge to produce more biomethane. In this study, thermal and chemical bioplastic pretreatments were first investigated to increase the rate and extent of anaerobic digestion. Subsequently, replicate, bench-scale anaerobic co-digesters fed synthetic primary sludge with and without PHB bioplastic were maintained for over 170 days. Two polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), one poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-4-hydroxybutyrate) and one polylactic acid (PLA) bioplastic were investigated. Biochemical methane potential (BMP) assays were performed using both untreated bioplastic as well as bioplastic pretreated at elevated temperature (35–90°C) under alkaline conditions (8<pH<12) for 3–48 h. PHB and PLA pretreatment increased average BMP values up to over 100%. Average PHB lag time before methane production started decreased when pretreatment was performed. Bench-scale anaerobic co-digesters fed synthetic primary sludge with PHB bioplastic resulted in 80–98% conversion of two PHB bioplastics to biomethane and a 5% biomethane production increase at the organic loadings employed (sludge OLR = 3.6 g COD per L of reactor volume per day [g COD/LR-d]; bioplastic OLR = 0.75 g theoretical oxygen demand per L of reactor volume per day [ThOD/LR-d]) compared to digesters not fed bioplastics. Anaerobic digestion or co-digestion is a feasible management option for biodegradable plastics.
Thermoplastic starch (TPS) is a material that's been produced through a gelatinization process at elevated temperature in the presence of plasticizers. However, the hydrophilic properties of structural starch may decrease the thermal behaviour of TPS. Therefore, the effect of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate ([Emim] Ac) and 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([Emim] Cl) as plasticizers on the thermal behaviour of TPSs was investigated in this paper. The TPSs were prepared with two different ILs/water ratios; 1:4 and 2:3. The addition of [Emim] Ac as plasticizer shows lower onset temperature of the thermal degradation than [Emim] Cl. The presence of [Emim] Ac promotes the thermal degradation of starch molecules, leaving an amount of around 13% of residue. The results indicated that TPS plasticized by [Emim] Ac improved the thermal behaviour of TPSs than [Emim] Cl. Therefore, this can conclude that [Emim] Ac is more suitable than [Emim] Cl as a plasticizer for TPS.
Vast amounts of co-streams are generated from plant and animal-based food processing industries. Efficient utilization of these co-streams is important from an economic and environmental perspective. Non-utilization or under-utilization of co-streams results in loss of potential revenues, increased disposal cost of these products and environmental pollution. At present, extensive research is taking place around the globe towards recycling of co-streams to generate value-added products. This review evaluates various co-streams from food processing industries as raw materials in developing biodegradable agricultural mulching applications. Among the agriculture-based co-streams, potato peels, tomato peels, carrot residues, apple pomace, coffee residues and peanut residues were reviewed with respect to production amount, composition, film forming components and film forming capabilities. Similarly, selected co-streams from slaughterhouses, poultry and fish processing industries were also reviewed and evaluated for the same purpose.
Biodegradable polymers such as polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) can reduce pollution caused by the increasing global polymer demand. Although industrial production of PHAs grew rapidly in the past years, their total market share is still marginal. While this is often attributed to their higher price, which is mainly caused by high production costs, the industrial success of PHAs can also depend on policy framework. Environmental assessment tools such as life cycle analysis and the product environmental footprint showed that PHAs can contribute to greenhouse gas emission reduction targets, waste reduction as well as green jobs and innovation in the biotechnology sector. As many countries asp-ire to these targets under the umbrella of bioeconomy concepts, inclusion into the respective policies can stimulate industrial PHA production. With a high variability in the industrial production of PHAs in terms of feedstock, energy source, polymer properties etc., the choice of optimization criteria influences the design of new production processes. Considering the political targets for bioeconomy products is therefore useful to direct the technical design of sustainable PHA production, for example in integrated lignocellulose biorefineries.
Biopolymer Composites in Electronics examines the current state-of-the-art in the electronic application based on biopolymer composites. Covering the synthesis, dispersion of fillers, characterization and fabrication of the composite materials, the book will help materials scientists and engineers address the challenges posed by the increased use of biopolymeric materials in electronic applications.
The influence of preparation techniques on the generation of micro, meso, and nanoscale fillers, and the effect of filler size and dispersion on various biopolymers are discussed in detail. Applications covered include sensors, actuators, optics, fuel cells, photovoltaics, dielectrics, electromagnetic shielding, piezoelectrics, flexible displays, and microwave absorbers.
In addition, characterization techniques are discussed and compared, enabling scientists and engineers to make the correct choice of technique. This book is a ‘one-stop’ reference for researchers, covering the entire state-of-the-art in biopolymer electronics. Written by a collection of expert worldwide contributors from industry, academia, government, and private research institutions, it is an outstanding reference for researchers in the field of biopolymer composites for advanced technologies.
Food packaging materials are a family of materials used in food applications and include materials like plastics, glass, metal, and paper. Due to their different chemical structure the corresponding properties are the most disparate. To make the best choice, a good understanding of the behavior of these materials becomes essential.The worldwide market is growing annually at higher rate for plastic materials than for the others. This trend is driven by the convenience and economic aspects but also by the very high versatility of polymeric materials. Taking into consideration that synthetic polymers are not biodegradable, the use of biobased and/or biodegradable polymers is gaining importance. However, the performance of these materials is often less than conventional ones. Their property can be enhanced using various nanofillers. Research in the field of nanocomposites is thus gaining attention.
There is much interest in biodegradable polymers for different uses and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) have potential applications in a broad range of areas from food packaging to biomedical applications. The book will provide a comprehensive overview of the recent accomplishments in the area of polyhydroxyalkanoates providing a resource that helps find solutions to both fundamental and applied problems.
The book introduces polyhydroxyalkanoates including their biosynthesis, recovery and extraction followed by specific chapters on blends, composites and nanocomposites. The book finishes with the applications of the materials including additives in paints, adhesives, production of plastics as well as tissue engineering and drug delivery.
The book provides a reference for students and researchers in chemistry, polymer science, materials science, biotechnology and life sciences working in the field of bio-based and biodegradable polymers and composites as well as those interested in its applications.
The existing food packaging materials made up of fossil fuel-based polymers pose a serious threat to the environment. This is the motivation behind the extensive research on biopolymer sources including polysaccharides, proteins and lipids so as to produce biodegradable food packaging materials. Amongst the existing biopolymer sources, commendable attention has been diverted to polysaccharide materials due to their abundancy, film-forming abilities and good gas barrier properties. Despite their desirable properties, polysaccharide-based films demonstrate a poor water barrier and mechanical properties. Further, they are expensive in comparison with conventional plastic materials which restrict the commercialisation. In this regards, an extensive research effort has been made to improve the inherent properties exhibited by the biopolymer-based films by fabricating composites, nanocomposites, blends and addition of cross-linking agents. Amongst available, starch is a kind of polysaccharides consisting of different ratios of amylose and amylopectin, which determines its property. Modified starch with other polymers/nanofillers exhibits improved film properties. In addition, cellulosic derivatives as ionic binders are of a good choice in controlling the moisture and also enhance the mechanical properties of food packaging films. Moreover, chitosan like polysaccharide exhibits an antibacterial activity which is an important property to produce films of higher shelf life and to maintain product integrity. The quest for producing low-cost biodegradable food packaging films derived from polysaccharides with better water barrier and mechanical properties is a never-ending process and demands a multidisciplinary approach to accomplish this goal. The present chapter mainly focuses on recent research accomplishments on polysaccharide-based films for food packaging applications.
The aim of this research was to understand current knowledge and perceptions regarding bioplastics. Results
were gathered through an online survey of 2518 nationally representative Australians. The results indicate that
the Australian public’s knowledge of bioplastics is low, but perception, particularly of biodegradable plastics, is
positive. Biodegradable plastics were perceived as better for the environment than ‘normal plastics’ and even
‘easily recyclable’ plastics. The majority of respondents (58%) said they were unsure whether biodegradable
plastics can have negative environmental impacts. Sixty-eight percent of people say they would like to see more
of the plastic items they use be biodegradable. If this becomes the case, there will be an increased stream of
bioplastics entering the recycling system with 62% of people saying they would dispose of bioplastic items in the
recycling bin. In light of the results presented in this work, potential issues relating to the introduction of
bioplastics are raised and the role that governments and local councils can play in driving the development of the
standards, labelling and waste management options that will need to be introduced alongside the introduction of
wider bioplastic materials use are discussed.
An alternative transesterification with vinyl laurate (VL) was applied for chemical modification of hemicelluloses (HC) to prepare functional packaging films. Successful transesterification was confirmed by FT-IR and NMR. Semitransparent laurated HC (LHs) films were prepared by solvent casting method. SEM indicated the ordered honeycomb-patterned surface and the dense cross section of LHs films. The LHs films exhibited excellent hydrophobicity with water contact angle about 120° and the enhanced mechanical properties with tensile strength and elongation at break as 33.94 ± 3.09 MPa and 22.41 ± 2.87%, respectively. The water vapor permeability (WVP) and oxygen permeability (OP) values of LHs films ranged from 1.59 ± 0.07 to 2.23 ± 0.11 (10-10·g/m·s·Pa) and 1.21 ± 0.04 to 4.24 ± 0.30 (cm3·μm/m2·d·kPa), respectively. Moreover, the films had acceptable antioxidant activity. In terms of these properties, the shelf life of green chilies could be largely extended to 15 days after packing with LHs films.
Bioplastics are emerging on the market as sustainable materials which rise to the challenge to improve the lifecycle of plastics from the perspective of the circular economy. The article aims at providing a critical insight of research studies carried out in the last 20 years on the degradation of bioplastics under aerobic composting and anaerobic digestion conditions. It mainly focuses on the various and different methodologies which have been proposed and developed to monitor the process of biodegradation of several bioplastic materials: CO2 and CH4 measurements, mass loss and disintegration degree, spectroscopy, visual analysis and scanning electron microscopy. Moreover, across the wide range of studies, the process conditions of the experimental setup, such as temperature, test duration and waste composition, often vary from author to author and in accordance with the international standard followed for the test. The different approaches, in terms of process conditions and monitoring methodologies, are pointed out in the review and highlighted to find significant correlations between the results obtained and the experimental procedures. These observed correlations allow critical considerations to be reached about the efficiency of the methodologies and the influence of the main abiotic factors on the process of biodegradation of bioplastics.
In order to utilize biodegradable polymers as a functional material, it is important to make the best use of their biodegradability. Biodegradation of aliphatic polyesters, such as PCL, PBSA and P3HB, in seawater was investigated. BOD test using seawater and field test were carried out. As for BOD test, several factors were investigated such as tide, preservation of seawater, sampling place, population of microorganism, and seawater temperature. Biosynthesized P3HB and PHBHH showed rapid biodegradation by BOD method. As for synthetic polyesters, PCL also degraded fast. However, PBSA which is a popular biodegradable polymer in soil was not always biodegraded by BOD method with seawater. PBS and PBAT showed much slow biodegradation. Solvent cast films were immersed in the sea at a depth of 1.5 m. After 4 weeks, the weight loss of P3HB film was about 90%. On the contrary, the biodegradation by BOD method for 4 weeks was around 50%. Synthetic polyesters also showed obvious weight loss in field test, in contrast to the BOD results.
The bio-based products market is currently limited resulting in relatively small quantities of waste streams, viewed as contaminants of conventional waste streams. The steady growth of bio-based products however, drives the need to investigate their End-of-Use (EoU)/End-of-Life (EoL) alternatives. A critical review of the inventory of targeted valorization options for bio-based plastic waste is presented with limitations and opportunities. Impacts on the conventional waste management routes and the environment are considered. The provisions of the circular economy package, the targets and objectives set by the relevant EU environmental legislation, are used as key drivers for developing the inventory of the alternative EoU/EoL routes. Optimal alternative EoU/EoL routes are defined for the bio-based products in such a way that they are turned into valuable resources for the circular economy. This is a prerequisite to promote recirculation of bio-based by-products and waste streams along the whole chain of their production and use. The expected impacts include reduction of public health and environmental pollution problems, preservation of natural resources, reduction of GHG emissions, avoidance of landscape deterioration and land and marine littering.
The present study investigates the main recycling technologies of biopolymers, including bio-based and/or biodegradable polymers, disclosed in the patent literature. Most of the retrieved patents relate to the recycling of aliphatic polyesters, in particular PLA, which is nowadays the most commonly used biodegradable polymer.
The main recycling technologies, which are examined, are sorting, mechanical recycling, chemical recycling (hydrolysis, alcoholysis, and thermal depolymerization with catalysts) and the relatively new enzymatic depolymerization of biopolymers. Currently, mechanical processing of post-industrial waste appears to be the only realistic option for the recycling of biodegradable PLA. Bio-based non-biodegradable polymers, such as bio-PET, bio-PE, bio-PA can be mixed with their fossil fuel-based counterparts and recycled in existing recycling facilities. Poly(ethylene furanoate) (PEF) can also be mixed with industrial PET in an amount up to 2%, and recycled.
Despite the dynamic growth of biopolymers their waste streams are still small and scattered; and no separate recycling stream yet exists for PLA. On the other hand, there is much activity in patenting on the recycling of biopolymers. Most of the information presented in this paper is not to be found anywhere else, but in patents.
Anaerobic digestion (AD) of the organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW), leading to renewable energy production in the form of methane, is a preferable method for dealing with the increasing amount of waste. Food waste is separated at the source in many countries for anaerobic digestion. However, the presence of plastic bags is a major challenge for such processes. This study investigated the anaerobic degradability of different bioplastics, aiming at potential use as collecting bags for the OFMSW. The chemical composition of the bioplastics and the microbial community structure in the AD process affected the biodegradation of the bioplastics. Some biopolymers can be degraded at hydraulic retention times usually applied at the biogas plants, such as poly(hydroxyalkanoate)s, starch, cellulose and pectin, so no possible contamination would occur. In the future, updated standardization of collecting bags for the OFMSW will be required to meet the requirements of effective operation of a biogas plant.
Bio-based plastics show an evolving market and application range and therefore have become increasingly popular in research and economy. The limitation of fossil resources as well as linked environmental issues have led to the development of an innovative bioeconomy and also triggered the shift from fossil-based plastics to bio-based plastics. The original motivation for this study was to propose a comprehensive approach to calculate the sustainability performance of bio-based plastics on a global scale. To provide a calculative basis, a review on available data from life cycle assessment (LCA), social life cycle assessment (S-LCA) and life cycle costing (LCC) studies on bio-based plastics was carried out and showed limited availability of quantifiable results with regard to the social and economic performance of bio-based plastics. In environmental LCA, with the ISO-family and related documents, a group of harmonized standards and approaches does exist. However, missing practical and consented guidelines hamper the comparability of studies and the exploitability of data - not only within the bio-based plastic sector but also in comparison to the fossil-based counterparts. Therefore, a calculation for the global sustainability performance of bio-based plastics was merely conducted for the environmental impact category global warming potential. Taking the technical substitution potential of fossil-based with bio-based plastics as well as limitations in data availability into account the estimation was performed for a substitution of approximately two-thirds of the global plastic demand. The results show, that bio-based plastics could potentially save 241 to 316 Mio. t of CO2-eq. annually. Thereby this study gives a first outlook how bio-based plastics could contribute to a sustainable development, making benefits and drawbacks more tangible.
The purpose of this work is to establish structure-property relations of poly(lactide) (PLA) formulations that were branched by peroxide-mediated reactive extrusion, in the presence of triallyl trimesate (TAM) coagent. Based on detailed evaluations of the molar mass distributions and rheological properties we deduce that modified PLA consists of a population of linear, and long chain branched (LCB) PLA chains, depending upon the amount of the peroxide and coagent. Even though peroxide alone does not induce significant changes in the architecture, TAM is very effective in producing LCB structures, which result in substantial increases in viscosity, elasticity, as well as strain hardening characteristics. At high DCP and TAM loadings cross-linked structures are obtained. The reactively-modified formulations have higher molar mass, which results in improved Izod impact strength, whereas the rest of the properties, including their capacity to degrade hydrolytically are maintained. Furthermore, these materials develop high amounts of crystallinity, when cooled under well controlled conditions, revealing a nucleating effect, which promotes crystallization.
Silicon oxide (SiOx) films are widely used as barrier layers in different types of commodity packaging and have caught the interest of manufacturers and researchers alike owing to their high barrier functionality, good acid and alkali resistance, ability to withstand high-temperature and microwave treatments, and good transparency. In this study, we first synthesized polylactic acid (PLA) films by extrusion calendaring and then deposited a SiOx layer on the PLA films by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition to prepare SiOx/PLA composite films. We then evaluated the barrier functionality of the SiOx layer and elucidated its underlying mechanism. We also analyzed its effect on the mechanical properties of the composite films by comparing the oxygen and water vapor transmission rates, soil degradation performances, and surface morphologies of the two types of synthesized films (uncoated and coated with SiOx). The results showed that, because of the SiOx layer, the barrier properties and mechanical properties of the SiOx/PLA composite films were better than those of the uncoated films. In particular, the oxygen and water vapor transmission rates of the composite films were approximately 8–10 and 6–8 times lower, respectively, than those of the uncoated PLA films. In addition, the SiOx layer lowered the rate of soil degradation of the composite films, owing to which the weight-loss rates of the composite films were also lower than those of the uncoated films. Further, the tensile strengths and elongations at break of the composite films were higher because of the SiOx layer.
Recent interest in environmentally friendly bio-based polymers coupled with an increased food safety awareness has resulted in various packaging technology advances, including the incorporation of different kinds of nanofillers into biodegradable biopolymers to improve their overall properties for improving shelf life and preventing microbial growth. Among the different nanofillers that have recently emerged, graphene’s invention has catalyzed a multitude of novel material applications in different fields. Graphene has functionalized different biopolymers and has improved their mechanical, thermal, electrical, as well as, gas, and water vapor barrier properties, for potentially replacing petrochemical-based packaging materials that pose a great threat to the environment. The objective of this chapter is to provide comprehensive understanding of the different types of nanoreinforcement that are available for biodegradable packaging application, especially focusing on graphene oxide (GO), a graphene derivative nanofiller that is being extensively studied for packaging reinforcement. This chapter aims to draw a clear picture of synthesis and chemistry of bonding between graphene derivatives and biodegradable biopolymers suitable for packaging applications, like starch, cellulose, poly(lactic acid), and others. The methodology behind the chemical and physical changes during synthesis will be discussed, based on different spectroscopic characterization techniques, and the influence of chemical changes on resulting properties will also be highlighted. This chapter will also briefly go over other nanomaterials like clay, cellulose nanofibers, starch nanocrystals, and their usage in different biopolymers for packaging application. This will help to explain the synergy resulting from addition of nanomaterials, the use of different characterization techniques as well as the improvement in different properties.
There is growing interest in biodegradable polymers (BP), in particular poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT), due to environmental problems associated with the disposal of non-biodegradable polymers into the environment. However, high production cost and low thermo-mechanical properties restrict the use of this sustainable material, making its biodegradability advantageous only when it is decisively required. The addition of different compositions of monomers and selective addition of natural fillers have been reported as alternatives to develop more accessible PBAT-based bioplastics with performance that could match or even exceed that of the most widely used commodity plastics. This review explores the recent progress of the applications and biodegradation of PBAT. The addition of natural fillers and its effect on the final performance of the PBAT-based composites is also reported with respect to improving the properties of composites. The advance of polymerization reaction engineering combined with sustainable trend offers great opportunities for innovative green chemical manufacturing. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 2017. © 2017 Society of Plastics Engineers
Since the last two decades, the use of synthetic materials has increased and become more frequent in this capitalist system. Polymers used as raw materials are usually disposed very rapidly and considered serious damages when they return to the environment. Because of this behaviour, there was an increasing in the global awareness by minimizing the waste generated, in addition to the scientific community concern for technological alternatives to solve this problem. Alternatively, biodegradable polymers are attracting special interest due to their inherent properties, which are similar to the ones of the conventional plastics. Bioplastics covers plastics made from renewable resources, including plastics that biodegrade under controlled conditions at the end of their use phase. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are polyesters composed of hydroxy acids, synthesized by a variety of microorganisms as intracellular carbon and energy storage. These environmentally friendly biopolymers have excellent potential in domestic, agricultural, industrial and medical field, however their production on a large scale is still limited. This review considered the most recent scientific publications on the production of bioplastics based on PHAs, their structural characteristics and the exploitation of different renewable sources of raw materials. In addition, there were also considered the main biotechnological applications of these biopolymers.
Since 1950, the amount of synthetic polymers produced has increased exponentially and faster than the growth of the global economy. The amount of plastic waste that ends up in the environment is copying that curve, causing serious problems for wildlife. Plastic-bearing sediment layers may in the future help define the Anthropocene. Michael Gross reports.
