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Impact of photo manipulation and visual literacy on consumers’ responses to persuasive communication
Abstract
As digital manipulation capabilities in image-based advertising become more ubiquitous, this project investigated whether knowledge of photo manipulation techniques might alter the way audiences perceive photography-based appeals. Using an experimental design with images manipulated to communicate product effectiveness (e.g. fuller hair, longer lashes and smoother skin), we found photo manipulation is a persuasive advertising technique to positively influence consumer choices and attitudes towards brands, regardless of higher societal knowledge that digital images are easily manipulated. These findings call into question the efficacy of visual literacy skills as a defence against visual manipulation.
... Despite now over fifty years passing since its introduction as an academic concept, the term 'visual literacy' lacks a strong theoretical foundation, and there is currently no widely agreed upon definition (Lazard et al., 2020). While field-specific understandings of visual literacy exist, we believe such definitions and measurements, though well-applied to their specific contexts, do not readily apply broadly to the field of visual communication. ...
... Visual literacy could provide implications for effective visual persuasion research and practice. Living in a visual culture, the concept becomes critical for advertising and strategic communication industries (Lazard et al., 2020). For example, there are commonly used advertising techniques known to be effective in persuading the viewer of something (e.g. ...
... In particular, while testing the effectiveness of two or more competing forms of visual communication, visual literacy, as measured by the scale, may be used as a moderator between the type of visual manipulation and its effectiveness. Visual literacy has been demonstrated to be a meaningful factor in this regard with respect to the visual communication of climate change (Duan & Bombara, 2022;Lazard & Atkinson, 2015), the issue of nuclear fuel cycle (Li et al., 2018), health infographics (Kanthawala, 2019), as well as for image-based advertising (Lazard et al., 2020). While its use as a potential moderating variable in visual communication research has thus far been limited, this may be the result of no standardised measurement existing, forcing researchers to create their own scales. ...
... Unlike media literacy, which covers various media types and emphasizes media consumption, visual literacy is specifically focused on visual media and involves both the ability to interpret and actively create visual content (Avgerinou & Pettersson, 2011;Lazard et al., 2020). Drawing on the framework proposed by Chen et al. (2011), which conceptualizes literacy as a continuum from functional to critical literacy, visual literacy can similarly be viewed as a continuum from interpretive to creative visual literacy. ...
... Interpretive VL (Cronbach's α = 0.80, M = 4.69, SD = 0.97) was calculated as an index by averaging the scores for three items sourced from Lazard and Atkinson's (2015) visual literacy scale, which has been applied to measure participants' ability to critically interpret or 'read' visual content through analysis (Lazard et al., 2020). The items are 'When I look at visual content in informational messages, it is easy for me to detect visual manipulation,' 'When I look at any visual content in informational messages, I can easily tell if it has multiple meanings,' and 'When I look at visual content in informational messages, it is easy for me to identify its purpose' (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree). ...
... Pengaruh panca indra terhadap persepsi dan pembentukan pengalaman konsumen (Hoyer, MacInnis, Pieters, 2023;Tu, Hsu, Creativani, 2022;East, Singh, Wright, Vanhuele, 2021;Varghesel & Agrawal, 2021;Lazard, Bock, & Mackert, 2020;Mothersbaugh, Hawkins, Kleiser, 2020;Solomon, 2020;Smith, 2020;Nimmermann, 2019;Schiffman, & Wisenblit, 2019;Demuth, 2013) ...
... Orang dapat membentuk persepsi yang berbeda dari stimulus yang sama karena tiga proses distorsi persepsi (Hoyer, MacInnis, Pieters, 2023;Tu, Hsu, Creativani, 2022;Lazard, Bock, & Mackert, 2020;Mothersbaugh, Hawkins, Kleiser, 2020;Solomon, 2020;Smith, 2020;Nimmermann, 2019;Schiffman, & Wisenblit, 2019;Vassileva, 2012;Hawkins, 2010) yaitu: 1. Selektif. Individu cenderung menyaring sebagian besar informasi yang diterima, menuntut pemasar untuk berupaya keras menarik perhatian konsumen. ...
Dalam kerangka perilaku konsumen, persepsi menjadi dua dari empat komponen psycho-process yang mempengaruhi keputusan pembelian konsumen terhadap suatu produk. Keputusan pembelian yang diambil perusahaan bertujuan untuk menjadi pilihan utama konsumen, sehingga sasaran dan tujuan organisasi berkembang (Mandari´c, Hunjet, Kozina, 2021; Meutia, Sinulingga, Fawzeea, Sadalia, 2020; Mothersbaugh, Hawkins, Kleiser, 2020; Solomon, 2020; Smith, 2020; Nimmermann, 2019; Schiffman, & Wisenblit, 2019; Blackwell, & Miniard, 2017; Hoyer, MacInnis, Pieters, 2023; Dianoux, Linhart, & Vnouckova, 2014; Monirul & Han, 2012).
... Pengaruh panca indra terhadap persepsi dan pembentukan pengalaman konsumen yaitu (Tu, Hsu, Creativani, 2022;East, Singh, Wright, Vanhuele, 2021;Varghesel & Agrawal, 2021;Lazard, Bock, & Mackert, 2020;Mothersbaugh, 2019;Hoyer, MacInnis, Pieters, 2023;Demuth, 2013 (Wedowati, Singgih & Gunarta, 2019). Contohnya, Philips menggunakan elemen visual untuk memberikan nuansa yang lebih muda pada produk elektroniknya. ...
... Orang dapat membentuk persepsi yang berbeda dari stimulus yang sama karena tiga proses distorsi persepsi (Tu, Hsu, Creativani, 2022;Lazard, Bock, & Mackert, 2020;Mothersbaugh, 2019;Hoyer, MacInnis, Pieters, 2023;Vassileva, 2012;Hawkins, 2010) ...
Persepsi konsumen dapat didefinsikan sebagai suatu proses kognitif yang melibatkan pemilihan, pengorganisasian, dan penafsiran informasi yang diterima oleh konsumen yang mencakup cara konsumen membentuk pemahaman dan interpretasi mereka terhadap produk, merek, atau layanan berdasarkan informasi yang mereka peroleh. Deskripsi ini menggambarkan bahwa informasi dapat mencakup berbagai elemen seperti produk, kemasan, merek, dan iklan yang memasuki pemahaman seseorang dan memicu respons atau sensasi. Tindakan seorang individu sebenarnya dipengaruhi oleh bagaimana dia mempersepsikan situasi pada saat itu. Penting untuk dicatat bahwa meskipun individu berada dalam situasi yang sama, persepsi mereka tidak selalu identik. Perbedaan ini dapat disebabkan oleh stimulus yang diterima, kondisi lingkungan sekitar, dan kondisi individu yang bersangkutan. Persepsi konsumen memainkan peran penting dalam membentuk pandangan dan sikap konsumen terhadap suatu produk atau merek (Mandari´c, Hunjet, Kozina, 2021; Kotler, Keller, Chernev, 2021; Meutia, Sinulingga, Fawzeea, Sadalia, 2020; Solomon, 2019; Mothersbaugh, 2019; Schiffman & Wisenblit, 2018; DiGiuseppe, David, & Venezia, 2016; Blackwell, & Miniard, 2017; Hoyer, MacInnis, Pieters, 2023; Demuth, 2013; Nurius, 2013Engel, Blackwell, Miniard, 2005; Grayson, & Martinec, 2004).
... In the current study context, a digital media literacy intervention might have a stronger effect on discernment for individuals who are already more digital media literate, as the intervention will help decrease their skepticism. While some scholars argue that a visual-specific literacy is needed in identifying visual manipulations (Lazard et al., 2020), general media literacy is found to be more effective in reducing the persuasiveness of and intention to share visual disinformation than deepfake-specific literacy (Hwang et al., 2021). Similarly, Barari et al. (2021) showed that having a broad understanding of the digital environment increases deepfake detection. ...
... Participants rated their levels of skill with visual creation and digital creation tools, including photography, image manipulation, digital illustration, and reverse image search (Brumberger, 2011;Lazard et al., 2020) using a 5-point scale (1 ¼ No Experience; 5¼ Expert/Professional). These items showed satisfactory reliability and were combined into one measure (Cronbach's alpha ¼ 0.75). ...
As a significant source of misinformation, out-of-context visual misinformation refers to visuals presented in an unrelated context. This study explores whether a digital media literacy intervention that features reverse image search tools has significant effects on participants’ message credibility judgment, discernment of visual misinformation, and intention of using reverse image search tools. Data were collected from a pre-registered, web-based, between-subjects experiment (N = 905). Results revealed a significant difference on intention of using reverse search tools among three experimental conditions: active intervention that involved both knowledge and behavior, passive intervention that involved knowledge only, and a control condition. Specifically, active intervention significantly increased intention of using reverse search tools, compared to the passive intervention and the control. Neither active nor passive intervention had an effect on credibility judgment or misinformation discernment. We discuss the implications for future digital media intervention designs and journalism practice that aim to combat visual misinformation.
... Another important aspect of advertising noted in previous research on consumer attitude analysis is the feature or attention stimulus of advertising authenticity. According to Lazard et al. (2020), the findings of the study suggest that consumers rely on images shown to them even when they are aware that they are manipulative (not entirely truthful) in situations requiring quick decisions. However, it is important to assess the capabilities and knowledge of the modern consumer (Cornelis & Peter, 2017); thus, intentionally misleading, not entirely informative -manipulative -advertising, according to Munusamy et al. (2007), can also have a negative impact on consumer attitudes toward advertising. ...
This research aims to reveal the role of consumers’ visual attention stimuli in advertising from traditional and neuromarketing research perspectives. This study examines six stimuli of consumers’ visual attention, which are divided into three groups – complexity of advertising, reflection of reality in advertising, and attributes of advertising content. A conceptual model was developed, encompassing the relationships of the identified stimuli with consumers’ visual attention (via gaze fixation duration and frequency) and with consumers’ attitudes toward advertising. The model was empirically tested using survey questionnaires and an eye-tracking system to analyze a specific food advertising case. A survey involving 403 respondents in Lithuania found that a statistically significant relationship exists between all visual attention stimuli and attitudes toward advertising, except for advertising authenticity (p-value>0.05). However, the results of the linear regression confirm only instrumental attributes in advertising content (R2=0.294) and higher design complexity (R2=0.230) positively influence on consumer attitudes toward advertising. In the neuromarketing study with 26 participants, a significant relationship was revealed between both dependent variables (the duration and frequency of participants gaze) and visual attention stimuli in food advertising. ANOVA analysis results show longer gaze fixation duration for simple, clear designs, manipulative advertising, symbolic content attributes; more frequent gaze fixation for advertising reflecting high functional and design complexity, authenticity, and instrumental content attributes. However, no relationship was found between gaze variables and consumer attitudes, except for authentic advertising, where higher greater gaze frequency was linked to a more positive attitude.
... Menurut East, Singh, Wright, Malcolm.,Vanhuele (2021), Kotler, Keller, Chernev (2021) ;Lazard, Bock & Mackert (2020); Solomon (2020), Blackwell & Miniard (2017), Hoyer, MacInnis, Pieters (2023), Lantos (2015), sikap konsumen terdiri dari tiga komponen utama, yaitu: ...
Sikap konsumen adalah kecenderungan atau penilaian yang bersifat persisten terhadap suatu produk, layanan, merek, atau situasi pembelian. Sikap mencakup komponen kognitif (pengetahuan dan keyakinan), afektif (emosi dan perasaan), dan konatif (niat dan perilaku) yang mempengaruhi bagaimana konsumen memandang dan berperilaku terhadap produk atau layanan tertentu. Sikap konsumen sangat mempengaruhi keputusan pembelian dan perilaku konsumen secara umum. Faktor-faktor seperti pengalaman sebelumnya, informasi, dan interaksi sosial dapat membentuk dan mengubah sikap konsumen terhadap suatu produk atau merek (East, Singh, Wright, Vanhuele, 2021; Kotler, Keller, Chernev, 2021; Mothersbaugh, Hawkins, Kleiser, 2020; Solomon, 2020; Schiffman & Wisenblit, 2019; Blackwell, & Miniard, 2017; DiGiuseppe, David, & Venezia, 2016; Dianoux, Linhart, & Vnouckova, 2014; Monirul & Han, 2012; Engel, Blackwell, Miniard, 2005).
... In addition, although not directly mentioned by ourparticipants, untruthful visual representations of animals could provide unrealistic expectations of how the species looks, acts or behaves. For example, Dydynski and Mäekivi (2021) highlight how the representations of animals as cartoons can create idealistic perceptions of the species that can cause disappointment when the animal is encountered in real life.Additionally, when photo editing is not clear to a viewer, it can have the effect of increasing a person's engagement with and positive attitudes towards a brand(Lazard et al., 2018(Lazard et al., , 2020) and thus complaints have been made that the technique is often misleading or untruthful(Darke & Ritchie, 2007). Regulators for advertising standards now exist in multiple parts of the world, with some countries considering legislation or even passing restrictions, including requiring disclosures on retouched ads(Schirmer et al., 2018). ...
Many threatened species suffer from a lack of conservation attention compared to others. Prioritisation of funding, research and conservation efforts seem to be driven by reasons beyond conservation need. This could be due to a ‘beauty bias’, whereby aesthetically pleasing species receive more attention.
We examined how editing an image to increase a species' aesthetic appeal may impact donation choices and public attitude towards that species. We posed two research questions; first, ‘do people make different donation choices when they see original images of a species compared to when they see images of the same species that have been edited to match aesthetic preferences?’ Using hypothetical donation experiments, we asked respondents to allocate funds to the conservation of three pictured species, one ‘aesthetically appealing’, one ‘aesthetically unappealing’, and one whose image was either edited to reflect common aesthetic preferences or left unedited. Our findings suggest that images edited to make an animal more visually appealing tend to receive higher hypothetical donation amounts than original images.
We also posed a second research question; ‘How do people of varying conservation expertise respond to original versus edited images of wildlife?’ To investigate this, we ran three focus groups with individuals unfamiliar with our test species, those familiar with two or more of our test species, and with conservation professionals, which showed mixed reactions both within and between groups. Focus group participants with less conservation expertise noted that edited images often seemed ‘cuter’ than unedited images, and were more likely to compare them to cartoon characters. Participants with more conservation expertise and species familiarity reported greater empathy towards unedited images, and noted that the edited images prompted an ‘uncanny valley’ response, highlighting the need for further scrutiny in how photo editing might be used in conservation messaging.
Our findings support the beauty bias hypothesis and highlight that decisions on conservation support should acknowledge that less aesthetically pleasing species are disadvantaged in public attention and funding. In addition, the findings highlight the role of conservation expertise in impacting viewer reactions, as well as the ethical implications of editing images of wildlife.
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... As a conclusion, it is crucial to point out that digital remediation that purportedly eludes conscious perceptions might be impervious to visually literate viewers (cf. Lazard et al., 2018;Lazard et al., 2020). Moreover, tattoo narratives of blog postings are most profitably not studied as decontextualized, denotational texts, since they are dynamically reconfigured by the interaction between the viewer and the posting. ...
Digital remediation increasingly plays a pivotal role in delivering political messages. This study examines postings of corporeally mediated tattoos in a China-based blog, focusing on in what sense blogs can provide a breathing or even emancipating space for Chinese tattoo wearers and enthusiasts to control the viewer’s perceptions of tattooing and negotiate long-standing stigmatized associations of tattoos there. The study analyzes 305 postings collected from the blog covering a period between 24 April 2020 and 3 May 2021, taking a quantitative approach. Methodologically, it first analyses the distribution of the signs across body parts as displayed. By applying multimodal perspectives, this study also investigates photographic techniques such as distance, angle, gaze, and modality harnessed and exploited for visual manipulation during digital remediation of turning body narratives into digital narratives. Findings of the study suggest that digital remediation facilitates personal expression of tattoo wearers and photographic techniques play a critical role in introducing ready alignment of the viewer with the postings. The study thus adds quantitative inquiries to existing, mostly qualitative, studies of tattoos which usually rest on interviews with tattoo wearers, enthusiasts, and artists for an account of tattoo narratives in connection to personal expression and self-definition. Its findings would be inspiring to socially stigmatized and marginalized groups to circumvent social, cultural, and political barriers to communicate and make their stories heard to more people.
... As a result, with the proliferation of visually rich, screen-based materials, being visually literate has become a necessity for effective visual media communication (Riddle 2009). Media scholars also argue that visual literacy is a useful tool for comprehending visual news information, being critically aware of visual media manipulation, seeing how the camera angles are used for persuasive purposes, which all subsequently affect audience responses to the news content (Lazard et al. 2020). ...
This study examines how the level of concreteness and abstraction of climate change imagery influences people’s responses via emotional valence, and how such effect is moderated by people’s visual literacy. Findings show that concrete images promote negative feelings, which subsequently reduce people’s perceived distance to climate change, encourage concern and behavioral intention. Less visually literate people are more influenced by the visuals’ effect and are more motivated by concrete images. Our study integrates theoretical perspectives from construal level, emotional valence and visual literacy, while also offering practical advice regarding how to effectively visualize climate change to engage a wide audience.
... Another possible reason is the growing trend of photo manipulation on social media (Kleemans, Daalmans, Carbaat, & Anschütz, 2018). As active users and content creators on Weibo and Xiaohongshu, they might have a higher level of visual literacy and understanding of photo manipulation (Lazard, Bock, & Mackert, 2020). During Stage-I interviews, a few interviewees also mentioned that texts might sometimes seem more authentic to the readers. ...
With the growing popularity and versatility of mobile applications, this study examined consumers' usage of multi-functional social media content apps and the influence of user-generated travel posts on their travel decision-making. Using the case of Chinese millennial travelers and Weibo and Xiaohongshu as representative apps, semi-structured interviews and surveys were conducted. Results showed that while respondents used Weibo more often in daily life, Xiaohongshu was more likely to influence their destination selection. Key attributes of travel posts and preferences of different user groups were identified. The relative importance of each attribute in guiding dining/accommodation/transportation/shopping/attraction decisions was examined. The most active app users placed lower importance on the number of images and higher importance on length of text and language style.
... Various modes like TV, the internet, paper media, movies, and posters convey a plethora of messages, often absorbed without question. As Mitchell (1994) points out, the power of images intertwined with words has an extraordinary capacity to influence and carry ideologies such as subliminal advertising (Lazard, Bock, & Mackert, 2020) and political propaganda (Mirzoeff, 2002). ...
This article argues that despite CORU’s recognition of Creative Arts as integral to Social Care Practice, there are ‘pedagogical, theoretical and practice gaps’, which might be addressed through a ‘process orientated novel creative pedagogy’ (PONCP) introduced in this paper. The PONCP is built on two tenets, firstly that creative expression is not just for professional artists – everyone is capable of creative expression, though cultural messages make us believe otherwise, and secondly engaging in creative practice is therapeutic in varying degrees from passing time productively to psychoanalytic engagement. A curriculum is proposed comprising: edusemiotics (the interpretation and creation of meaning), multimodality (the use of different modes / tools of/for expression) and Inquiry Graphics (a tool for critical analysis of photographs) (Lacković, 2010, 2020).
Through this PONCP the author hopes to establish a terrain for future research and elaboration, and to develop creative, reflective and analytic capabilities for effective, high-quality practice with service users. The PONCP aims to support social care creative work by promoting everyday creativity and imagination as an affirming expressive and adaptive ability through understanding how ‘signs’ construct meaning and therefore learning. By critically reading and analysing the visual world through ‘signs’, socially constructed ideologies and accepted visual meaning can be challenged revealing hidden truths. Overall this may serve to enhance professional practice as well as professional critical appraisal in keeping with the CORU Standards of Proficiency.
A pesar de la importancia que la imagen tiene en la sociedad contemporánea, sigue habiendo debates sobre su definición y sobre la existencia de lenguajes estructurados que la utilicen como signo básico. La consecuencia inmediata de ello es que todo el mundo reconoce la necesidad de hablar de alfabetización visual pero pocos estudios logran un acuerdo sobre cuáles son aquellas características fundamentales que permiten organizar procesos de interpretación y formación en lo visual. Este artículo revisa las definiciones dadas al término por 156 documentos de la base de datos Education Resources Information Center entre 1969 y 2019. A partir del impacto de cada una, establecido por el número de citas recibidas, identifica los problemas clave de la expresión y cómo estos se han ido abordando a lo largo de los años. Los resultados de la investigación permiten reflexionar sobre qué es ser una persona alfabetizada en la actualidad.
Sikap konsumen adalah kecenderungan atau penilaian yang bersifat persisten terhadap suatu produk, layanan, merek, atau situasi pembelian. Sikap mencakup komponen kognitif (pengetahuan dan keyakinan), afektif (emosi dan perasaan), dan konatif (niat dan perilaku) yang mempengaruhi bagaimana konsumen memandang dan berperilaku terhadap produk atau layanan tertentu. Sikap konsumen sangat mempengaruhi keputusan pembelian dan perilaku konsumen secara umum. Faktor-faktor seperti pengalaman sebelumnya, informasi, dan interaksi sosial dapat membentuk dan mengubah sikap konsumen terhadap suatu produk atau merek (East, Singh, Wright, Vanhuele, 2021; Kotler, Keller, Chernev, 2021; Mothersbaugh, 2019; Solomon, 2019; Schiffman & Wisenblit, 2018; Blackwell, & Miniard, 2017; DiGiuseppe, David, & Venezia, 2016; Dianoux, Linhart, & Vnouckova, 2014; Monirul & Han, 2012; Engel, Blackwell, Miniard, 2005).
Motivasi konsumen merujuk pada keadaan dalam diri seseorang yang mendorong keinginan individu untuk melakukan kegiatan guna mencapai suatu tujuan. Motivasi ini dapat menjadi pendorong utama di balik keputusan konsumen dalam berbagai aspek, termasuk pembelian produk atau layanan. Pemahaman mendalam terhadap motivasi konsumen penting dalam konteks pemasaran, membantu perusahaan untuk merancang strategi yang lebih efektif dalam memahami dan memenuhi kebutuhan serta keinginan konsumen. Beberapa elemen kunci yang terkait dengan pengertian motivasi konsumen (Simamora, 2021; Żyminkowska, Perek-Białas, Humenny, 2022; Arifin, Sumarwan & Najib, 2020; McLeod, 2020; Ryan, R. & Deci, 2000; Blackwell & Miniard, 2017; Karimi & Nickpayam, 2017; Haridakis & Hanson, 2009) yang melibatkan:
1. Keadaan Dalam Pribadi. Motivasi konsumen berasal dari faktor internal individu, seperti kebutuhan, keinginan, dan nilai-nilai personal.
2. Pendorong Keinginan. Motivasi memicu keinginan individu untuk melakukan kegiatan tertentu, seperti berbelanja atau mencari produk tertentu.
3. Mencapai Tujuan. Motivasi konsumen bertujuan untuk mencapai suatu tujuan, baik itu kepuasan pribadi, pemenuhan kebutuhan, atau pencapaian aspirasi tertentu.
Farid, Cavivvi, Rahman, Barua, Ethen, Happy, Alam (2023), En, & Balakrishnan (2022), Indrawati, Yones, & Muthaiyah (2022), Lee, Goh & Mohd Noor (2019), Hanjani & Widodo (2019), Tiruwa, Yadav & Suri (2018) mendefinisikan minat beli (purchase intention) sebagai what we think we will buy. Oleh karena itu, minat beli dapat menjadi ukuran kecenderungan konsumen untuk membeli suatu produk atau jasa dimana semakin kuat miat beli maka semakin besar keinginan konsumen untuk membeli produk tersebut. Minat beli muncul ketika seseorang telah mendapatkan informasi yang cukup mengenai produk yang diinginkan dan memiliki kecenderungan untuk bertindak sebelum keputusan membeli benar-benar dilaksanakan. Minat beli merujuk pada kemungkinan individu untuk mendapatkan produk tertentu dan juga merupakan aspek penting dalam menilai perilaku konsumen. Minat beli konsumen dijelaskan oleh Mathur (1999), Rakib, Pramanik, Al Amran, Islam & Sarker (2022), Shalehah, Moslehpour & Trisno, (2019). melalui pernyataan seperti "saya akan sepenuhnya mempertimbangkan untuk membeli produk dari merek ini", "saya berharap untuk membeli dari merek ini", dan "saya akan benar-benar merencanakan untuk membeli produk dari merek ini". Peter dan Olson (2013) menjelaskan bahwa minat beli dapat diartikan sebagai suatu rencana untuk melakukan pembelian produk tertentu.
Kepuasan pelanggan merujuk pada perasaan positif yang dirasakan oleh pelanggan terhadap produk atau jasa yang mereka beli atau gunakan dari suatu perusahaan atau organisasi. Hal ini mencakup kesesuaian antara harapan pelanggan dan pengalaman yang diperoleh dari produk atau layanan yang disediakan oleh perusahaan atau organisasi tersebut. Jika pelanggan merasa bahwa produk atau layanan tersebut memenuhi atau bahkan melebihi harapan mereka, maka kepuasan pelanggan tercapai. Dengan memenuhi kebutuhan pelanggan dalam berbagai aspek, perusahaan dapat meraih sejumlah keuntungan, termasuk: (Wardhana, Aditya, et al, 2022; Zhang, Cao, Gu, and Jiang, 2021; Kotler & Armstrong, 2020; Afsar, Cheema, and Javed, 2020; Huang, Wu, and Lin, 2020; Kim, Lee, and Yoon, 2020; Ali, Ryu, and Hussain, 2019; Oliver, 1997; Spreng, and Mackoy, 1996; Anderson, Fornell, and Lehmann, 1994; Zeithaml, Berry, and Parasuraman, 1993; Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry, 1985):
Loyalitas pelanggan, menurut Kotler, Keller, Chernev (2021), Kotler & Armstrong (2020), Solomon (2019), Blackwell & Miniard (2017), Peter & Olson (2013) adalah komitmen yang kuat untuk membeli kembali atau berlangganan produk atau layanan tertentu di masa depan, meskipun pengaruh situasi dan upaya pemasaran dapat menyebabkan perilaku beralih. Griffin & Herres (2007) menjelaskan bahwa seorang konsumen dianggap loyal atau setia jika mereka secara teratur melakukan pembelian atau memenuhi kondisi tertentu, seperti minimal dua kali pembelian dalam periode tertentu. Razak & Hanifah (2020), Kusumawati & Rahayu (2020), Maulidi et al. (2019), menjelaskan bahwa loyalitas juga bisa diartikan sebagai dorongan perilaku untuk membangun kesetiaan pelanggan terhadap suatu jasa yang diberikan oleh suatu bisnis dan memerlukan waktu yang cukup lama melalui penggunaan berulang jasa tersebut Dalam konteks bisnis elektronik, loyalitas pelanggan menciptakan kegiatan pembelian ulang pada produk dari merek tertentu, atau dapat diinterpretasikan sebagai niat konsumen untuk kembali membeli dari suatu situs online. Wade (2023), Putra & Yasa (2021), Annamalah & Linghan (2020), Aslam, Hussain, Farhat, Arif (2019), Maqsood & Javed (2019), Amalia, Carmella, Pramesti, Sayyida, Ayu, Irwansyah., Ernungtyas (2018), Gummerus, Liljander, Pura, Riel (2004) menyebutkan bahwa komitmen konsumen untuk secara konsisten kembali ke suatu situs karena lebih memilih berbelanja di situs tersebut daripada beralih ke situs lain sebagai loyalitas pelanggan. Kesimpulannya, loyalitas pelanggan terjadi ketika konsumen secara berulang membeli produk atau jasa tertentu sebagai respons terhadap kepuasan setelah penggunaan.
Keputusan pembelian melibatkan serangkaian pilihan yang dibuat oleh konsumen sebelum melaksanakan pembelian. Proses ini dimulai setelah konsumen memiliki keinginan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan tertentu. Konsumen harus mengambil keputusan terkait tempat pembelian, merek yang diinginkan, model produk, jumlah pembelian, waktu transaksi, jumlah uang yang akan dikeluarkan, serta metode pembayaran. Pemasar memiliki peran dalam mempengaruhi keputusan ini dengan menyediakan informasi yang relevan tentang produk atau layanan mereka, yang dapat membimbing proses penilaian konsumen (Lestari & Fahira, 2022; Kotler, Keller, Chernev, 2021; Kotler & Armstrong, 2020; Ardianti, 2020; Mothersbaugh, 2019; Solomon, 2019; Adzharuddin, Moses & Yussof, 2017).
Menurut MacInnis, Pieters (2023), East, Singh, Wright, Vanhuele (2021), Wardhana, et al (2021), Ramachandran & Basariya (2020), Mothersbaugh (2019), Solomon (2019), Schiffman, & Wisenblit (2018), Blackwell, & Miniard (2017), Hoyer, Mehra & Singh (2016), Abdurrahman & Yasar (2015), preferensi dapat diartikan sebagai suatu kondisi di mana objek dinilai oleh responden berdasarkan hubungan dominasi. Artinya, stimulus diurutkan berdasarkan preferensi terkait suatu atribut tertentu. Penilaian preferensi responden sering kali dilakukan melalui metode peringkat langsung, perbandingan berpasangan, dan skala preferensi. Berdasarkan konsep ini, dapat disimpulkan bahwa preferensi konsumen melibatkan penilaian atau keinginan terbaik dari konsumen. Preferensi ini memainkan peran kunci dalam menentukan pilihan konsumen, terutama ketika dihadapkan pada berbagai pilihan produk serupa. Oleh karena itu, pemahaman preferensi konsumen menjadi sangat penting bagi perusahaan. Pengusaha dapat menggunakan informasi mengenai preferensi ini untuk memahami kebutuhan konsumen, menghasilkan produk dengan fokus pada preferensi konsumen terkait atribut produk tertentu, dan mengidentifikasi segmen preferensi yang beragam.
Perilaku konsumen melibatkan keputusan pembelian barang dan jasa untuk konsumsi pribadi (Blackwell dan Miniard, 2017; Haghshenas, Abedi, Ghorbani, Kamali, Harooni, 2007). Bagi pemasar, pemahaman perilaku konsumen sangat vital karena bertujuan menciptakan dan mempertahankan pelanggan (East, Singh, Wright, Vanhuele, 2021; Barmola, Srivastava, 2010). Hoyer, MacInnis, Pieters (2023) dan Peter dan Olson (2013) menggambarkan perilaku konsumen sebagai interaksi dinamis antara pengaruh, kesadaran, perilaku, dan lingkungan dalam pertukaran aspek kehidupan. Solomon (2019), Peighambari, Sattari, Kordestani, Oghazi, 2016) menggarisbawahi bahwa perilaku konsumen melibatkan individu dan kelompok dalam memilih, membeli, menggunakan, dan membuang produk, layanan, ide, atau pengalaman untuk memenuhi kebutuhan dan keinginan. Kotler, Keller, Chernev (2021), Rabontu dan Boncea (2007) menyatakan perilaku konsumen adalah studi bagaimana individu, kelompok, dan organisasi memilih, membeli, menggunakan, dan membuang produk, layanan, atau pengalaman untuk memuaskan kebutuhan dan keinginan. Mothersbaugh (2019) dan Munnukka (2008) menekankan bahwa proses pengambilan keputusan pembelian dapat bervariasi tergantung pada harga produk atau layanan. Solomon (2019) menciptakan gambaran menyeluruh tentang perilaku konsumen, melibatkan psikologi, sosiologi, sosio-psikologi, antropologi, dan ekonomi dalam pembuatan keputusan pembelian individu atau kelompok. Schiffman dan Wisenblit (2018) menyoroti kompleksitas perilaku konsumen sebagai aspek psikologis yang muncul dalam bentuk perilaku khas individu atau kelompok yang terlibat dalam pembelian produk, penggunaan produk, dan pembelian ulang. Menurut Engel, Blackwell, dan Miniard (2005), perilaku konsumen mencakup tindakan langsung dalam memperoleh, mengkonsumsi, dan menghabiskan produk atau layanan, termasuk proses sebelum dan setelah tindakan tersebut.
Berdasarkan berbagai definisi perilaku konsumen, dapat disimpulkan bahwa perilaku konsumen adalah serangkaian proses dan aktivitas yang terjadi saat konsumen, baik secara individu, kelompok, atau organisasi, terlibat dalam mencari, memilih, membeli, menggunakan, dan mengevaluasi produk, layanan, ide, atau pengalaman. Tujuan utamanya adalah memenuhi kebutuhan dan keinginan, yang dipertimbangkan secara cermat dalam pengambilan keputusan pembelian
Proses keputusan pembelian konsumen adalah serangkaian langkah yang diambil oleh individu atau kelompok dalam memilih, membeli, dan menggunakan produk atau layanan (Solomon, 2019). Menurut Kotler, Keller, Chernev (2021), keputusan pembelian didasarkan pada bagaimana konsumen menilai harga dan apa yang mereka anggap sebagai harga aktual saat ini, bukan pada harga yang dinyatakan oleh pemasar.
Proses pengambilan keputusan pembelian konsumen merujuk pada serangkaian tahapan yang dilalui oleh individu saat mempertimbangkan untuk membeli produk atau layanan yang terdiri dari lima tahapan, dimulai dengan pengakuan akan kebutuhan, pencarian informasi, evlauasi alternatif, keputusan pembelianm dan berakhir dengan evaluasi keputusan pembelian. Memahami proses pengambilan keputusan pembelian konsumen menjadi penting karena memungkinkan perusahaan untuk mengantisipasi kebutuhan konsumen, yang pada gilirannya membantu perusahaan merencanakan strategi pemasaran atau penjualan berdasarkan kebutuhan tersebut.
Purpose
The primary objective of this study is to explore the nuanced interplay of conspicuous consumption, ethical label purchasing and the ensuing dynamics of civic virtue and cynicism within the luxury foodservice context.
Design/methodology/approach
Grounded in a theoretical understanding of solidarity within the context of product consumption, this research employs a two-pronged approach involving secondary data analysis and scenario-based experimental studies. The initial phase involves analyzing firm-level data from the Euromonitor database in 2019 and 2021. The main study employs a between-subjects experimental design with a cohort of 316 participants sourced from an online panel.
Findings
The results reveal a consistent pattern in the consumption of luxury foodservice and underscore a distinct upward trajectory in consumer demand for ethically labeled food. Notably, these findings underscore the moderating role of ethical label purchasing in the relationship between conspicuous consumption and consumers civic virtue. Additionally, ethical label purchasing moderates the impact of conspicuous consumption on consumer cynicism, both directly and indirectly through emotional solidarity related to both communal and equitable principles.
Originality/value
This study holds significance for both luxury food service researchers and market design practitioners. It provides valuable insights into how ethical labeling interacts with consumers conspicuous consumption, all facilitated by emotional solidarity.
Many factors influence a student's success in the academic world. One of them is the role of the lecturer in providing direction or guidance on the problems experienced by students while on campus. Lecturers who act like this are called academic advisors. Lecturers in the formation of student behavior are strongly influenced by the ability of lecturers to communicate. Persuasive communication is an effective communication technique in shaping behavior because by using this communication, students can do something they want without feeling burdened and afraid. Forming behavior is an activity of communication and social interaction between lecturers and students to convey their knowledge in small and large groups. In learning activities, there are teaching techniques so that learning objectives can be achieved. Persuasive communication, in this case, is effective enough to influence or shape behavior.
This chapter notes not simply the ubiquity of images in contemporary culture, but also their persuasive power. The unique methods that images use to communicate to viewers, however, are not a required part of general undergraduate education, so most students remain untrained in effective visual analysis. With the importance of transdisciplinary visual literary established, the rest of the chapter focuses on very simple and basic pedagogical approaches that are designed to help students become sustained and active viewers of visual material. It also focuses on teaching students to use more precise language as well as cite appropriate visual evidence when discussing images.
During public health crises like the ongoing novel coronavirus pandemic, there is a need to amplify and improve critical health communication messages. This need is due to pandemics producing infodemic conditions, meaning the public information environment is oversaturated with information of questionable accuracy and utility. The strategic use of visuals can be leveraged to improve the quality of health communication during public health crises and lessen the unintended effects of infodemic conditions. In this essay, we review previous visual communication theorizing and research that provide insights for effective and efficient use of graphical (e.g., data visualizations) and illustrative (e.g., photos, illustrations, and content features) visuals. We also discuss and advocate for more systematic research on visual misinformation and visual narratives, as there are significant gaps in the literature about how people interpret, act on, and engage with these visual content types. More systematic research about these areas of visual health communication research will improve public communication during future public health crises.
As Amazon’s Mechanical Turk (MTurk) has surged in popularity throughout political science, scholars have increasingly challenged the external validity of inferences made drawing upon MTurk samples. At workshops and conferences experimental and survey-based researchers hear questions about the demographic characteristics, political preferences, occupation, and geographic location of MTurk respondents. In this paper we answer these questions and present a number of novel results. By introducing a new benchmark comparison for MTurk surveys, the Cooperative Congressional Election Survey, we compare the joint distributions of age, gender, and race among MTurk respondents within the United States. In addition, we compare political, occupational, and geographical information about respondents from MTurk and CCES. Throughout the paper we show several ways that political scientists can use the strengths of MTurk to attract respondents with specific characteristics of interest to best answer their substantive research questions.
This chapter outlines the two basic routes to persuasion. One route is based on the thoughtful consideration of arguments central to the issue, whereas the other is based on the affective associations or simple inferences tied to peripheral cues in the persuasion context. This chapter discusses a wide variety of variables that proved instrumental in affecting the elaboration likelihood, and thus the route to persuasion. One of the basic postulates of the Elaboration Likelihood Model—that variables may affect persuasion by increasing or decreasing scrutiny of message arguments—has been highly useful in accounting for the effects of a seemingly diverse list of variables. The reviewers of the attitude change literature have been disappointed with the many conflicting effects observed, even for ostensibly simple variables. The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) attempts to place these many conflicting results and theories under one conceptual umbrella by specifying the major processes underlying persuasion and indicating the way many of the traditionally studied variables and theories relate to these basic processes. The ELM may prove useful in providing a guiding set of postulates from which to interpret previous work and in suggesting new hypotheses to be explored in future research.
Copyright © 1986 Academic Press Inc. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Infographics, which integrate visuals and text, can increase audience engagement with message content. Relying on two experiments, this study demonstrates the role of visuals for decisions to critically evaluate pro-environmental messages. Using the Elaboration Likelihood Model as a theoretical foundation, we demonstrate that individuals engage in greater levels of issue-relevant thinking when shown infographics compared to messages that rely just on text or just on illustration, with learning preferences and visual literacy as moderators. The findings demonstrate that visual content is an important factor for persuasive message processing, and infographic messages hold opportunities for the communication of environmental issues.
Despite the fact that to date Visual Literacy (VL) scholars have not arrived at a general consensus for a theoretical organization of the VL field, important conceptual investigations have emerged over the past four decades. In this paper we discuss and synthesize those studies. We then present a first attempt toward a cohesive theory of VL. The main components of the proposed VL theory are Visual Perception, Visual Language (ViL), Visual Learning, Visual Thinking, and Visual Communication. Here we focus on discussing ViL and its constituent parts: 1) ViL exists; 2) ViL is holistic; 3) ViL must be learned; 4) ViL may improve learning; 5) ViL is not universal; 6) ViL often needs verbal support.
Most studies of ideal-body media effects on body image focus on the extreme thinness of the models, not their idealness. In modern media, this idealness is often created or maximized via digital image editing. This experiment tested the effects of image editing outside the research-typical context of exclusive thinness. Original unretouched photographs were manipulated by a professional retoucher to produce unretouched and retouched image conditions. In a third condition (retouched-aware), the retouched images were explicitly labeled as retouched. Adolescents ( N = 393, average age 15.43) were randomly assigned to one of these conditions or a no-exposure control, and they completed a questionnaire following exposure. Objectified body consciousness increased and physical self-esteem decreased among male and female adolescents in the retouched-aware condition only. This boomerang effect of retouching awareness is explored in the discussion.
The purpose of this study was to develop a scale for measuring celebrity endorsers' perceived expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness. Accepted psychometric scale-development procedures were followed which rigorously tested a large pool of items for their reliability and validity. Using two exploratory and two confirmatory samples, the current research developed a 15-item semantic differential scale to measure perceived expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness. The scale was validated using respondents' self-reported measures of intention to purchase and perception of quality for the products being tested. The resulting scale demonstrated high reliability and validity.
Experiments are a powerful method for understanding causal relationships in journalism and mass communication research. In this essay, the authors examine seven aspects of experimental quality that reviewers should include as criteria in their evaluations. They note that there are complex interrelationships among these indicators. In cases where aspects of the standards are controversial, the authors attempt to summarize the conflicting arguments. Where different methodological conclusions can be rationalized as appropriate, the authors’ suggestion is that the researcher make clear what decisions were made in the experimental design and why, so that readers can evaluate those decisions.
Drawing on gender differences in processing strategies and elaboration thresholds, this study showed that comparative advertising encouraged greater levels of brand-evaluation involvement among men but not among women. Instead, for women, attention-gaining comparative appeals encouraged inferences regarding the ad's manipulative intent. Furthermore, these gender differences in processing led to evaluative consequences. For men, the greater brand-evaluation involvement brought about by comparative appeals led to more favorable ad and brand evaluations and greater purchase intentions. For women, the heightened perceptions of manipulative intent brought about by comparative appeals resulted in negative ad and brand evaluations and reduced purchase intentions. Finally, the attribute alignability of competing products moderated the gender-dependent effectiveness of comparative and noncomparative appeals.
In the last 20 years the notion that images overpower words, and the belief that a decreasing lexical literacy among the young has been offset by an increasing visual literacy, has been repeated often enough to become accepted wisdom. Yet the precise nature of visual literacy among the young and the relationship between visual competencies and the notion of media literacy have not been fully explored or adequately specified. Concepts of visual literacy and media literacy are unproductively conflated, and visual competencies are too often assumed on the part of those that exhibit familiarity with media culture. This essay compares and analyses notions of visual competence and media literacy and argues that: (1) a cultivated awareness of the production of visual forms and characteristics, and their implications, is necessary for what has been described in the literature as 'media literacy'; and (2) the acquisition of visual analysis skills pre-requires a broader operational context of media literacy. Through an examination of images from religious painting to news coverage the article argues that visual competencies and media literacy skills may, indeed, be mutually dependent.
Attitude toward the brand (Ab) and purchase intentions (PI) are two pivotal and popular constructs that have been routinely used by advertising scholars and practitioners. Despite their popularity, standard scales, with known psychometric properties, for measuring Ab and PI are not available. Furthermore, these two constructs might not be empirically distinguishable. On the basis of scales reported in prior studies, the authors develop measures of Ab and PI and assess their psychometric validity within a well-established, attitude toward the ad (Aad) theoretical framework. Implications of their findings are discussed.
This study is concerned with the moral dilemma that stems from the digital manipulation of magazine ads to render models thinner. Exposure to the "thin ideal" has been linked to such damaging psychological responses as body dissatisfaction, loss of self-esteem, and ultimately to disordered eating behaviors. However, the artistic freedom of photo editors is a cherished value that conflicts with the concern for public health. Findings suggest that, although aware of the prevalence of digital editing, readers disapprove of its use in rendering models thinner, and judge it to be unethical and unfair. Findings are discussed with regard to the role of education in helping readers discount manipulated images.
This research attempts to isolate variables responsible for moderating the effectiveness of complex print advertisements. In a controlled experiment, the complexity of the target print advertisements was manipulated along four dimensions: visual, technical, lexical, and information complexity. Responses to these ads were elicited from a sample of 244 undergraduate students. The results suggest that the effectiveness of such an advertising strategy (i.e., use of complex advertisements) is indeed moderated by individual-difference variables such as need for cognition, knowledge, and gender. However, the extent and type of such influence seems to differ along the four dimensions of advertising complexity.
Although the darkroom as a physical space has disappeared from newsrooms, it continues its life in an imaginary form, which sets the limits for digital photo editing. This article sheds light on this imaginary darkroom and its Tuchmanian rituals of objectivity by presenting results of a survey that was conducted in Finland among editorial staffs from different types of newspapers. By showing example sets of unaltered and altered photographic images, the survey mapped answers to such questions as: what are the limits of legitimacy for photo editing, what kinds of alterations in images should be announced to readers, and what effects may digital editing have on the alleged status of the “objective image”? The results show that all categories of staff generally oppose altering photographs used in a news context. The so-called objectivity of the journalistic image is an ideal that is deeply intertwined with journalistic work routines, but in concrete editing examples, opinions about what is acceptable and what is not may differ considerably. However, very often professionals refer to the “darkroom principle”: what was allowed in traditional darkrooms is also allowed in digital editing.
What was noted by E. J. Langer (1978) remains true today: that much of contemporary psychological research is based on the assumption that people are consciously and systematically processing incoming information in order to construe and interpret their world and to plan and engage in courses of action. As did Langer, the authors question this assumption. First, they review evidence that the ability to exercise such conscious, intentional control is actually quite limited, so that most of moment-to-moment psychological life must occur through nonconscious means if it is to occur at all. The authors then describe the different possible mechanisms that produce automatic, environmental control over these various phenomena and review evidence establishing both the existence of these mechanisms as well as their consequences for judgments, emotions, and behavior. Three major forms of automatic self-regulation are identified: an automatic effect of perception on action, automatic goal pursuit, and a continual automatic evaluation of one's experience. From the accumulating evidence, the authors conclude that these various nonconscious mental systems perform the lion's share of the self-regulatory burden, beneficently keeping the individual grounded in his or her current environment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Much research in the last two decades has demonstrated that human responses deviate from the performance deemed normative according to various models of decision making and rational judgment (e.g., the basic axioms of utility theory). This gap between the normative and the descriptive can be interpreted as indicating systematic irrationalities in human cognition. However, four alternative interpretations preserve the assumption that human behavior and cognition is largely rational. These posit that the gap is due to (1) performance errors, (2) computational limitations, (3) the wrong norm being applied by the experimenter, and (4) a different construal of the task by the subject. In the debates about the viability of these alternative explanations, attention has been focused too narrowly on the model response. In a series of experiments involving most of the classic tasks in the heuristics and biases literature, we have examined the implications of individual differences in performance for each of the four explanations of the normative/descriptive gap. Performance errors are a minor factor in the gap; computational limitations underlie non-normative responding on several tasks, particularly those that involve some type of cognitive decontextualization. Unexpected patterns of covariance can suggest when the wrong norm is being applied to a task or when an alternative construal of the task should be considered appropriate.
Although the concept of moderator variables has been used extensively in marketing-related studies, much confusion persists as to how they are defined and identified. To alleviate this confusion, the authors present a typology of moderator variables with a framework for identifying their presence and type. Simulated data are used to illustrate and validate the proposed framework.
Researchers in a variety of disciplines use Amazon’s crowdsourcing platform called Mechanical Turk as a way to collect data from a respondent pool that is much more diverse than a typical student sample. The platform also provides cost efficiencies over other online panel services and data can be collected very quickly. However, some researchers have been slower to try the platform, perhaps because of a lack of awareness of its functions or concerns with validity. This article provides an overview of Mechanical Turk as an academic research platform and a critical examination of its strengths and weaknesses for research. Guidelines for collecting data that address issues of validity, reliability, and ethics are presented.
In today’s multimedia environment, visuals are essential and expected parts of storytelling. However, the visual communication research field is fragmented into several sub-areas, making study difficult. Fahmy, Bock, and Wanta note trends and discuss the challenges of conducting analysis of images across print, broadcast, and online media.
Data collection using Internet-based samples has become increasingly popular in many social science disciplines, including advertising. This research examines whether one popular Internet data source, Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTurk), is an appropriate substitute for other popular samples utilized in advertising research. Specifically, a five-sample between-subjects experiment was conducted to help researchers who utilize MTurk in advertising experiments understand the strengths and weaknesses of MTurk relative to student samples and professional panels. In comparisons across five samples, results show that the MTurk data outperformed panel data procured from two separate professional marketing research companies across various measures of data quality. The MTurk data were also compared to two different student samples, and results show the data were at least comparable in quality. While researchers may consider MTurk samples as a viable alternative to student samples when testing theory-driven outcomes, precautions should be taken to ensure the quality of data regardless of the source. Best practices for ensuring data quality are offered for advertising researchers who utilize MTurk for data collection.
This article takes a convergent evidence approach to visual communication; how the brain functions in perception, how this relates tofeeling and logical reasoning, and how we respond to our visual world, These are the keyprobative areas implicit in every act of seeing.As new medical imagingtechniques make the brain’s inner workings moreaccessible, we take thefirst rudimentarysteps toward developing a unified theory of how the mind works, and therefore toward understanding how we receive, process, and act on visual information, A neurological approach to perception yields insights into those mechanisms that empower the visual image.
The so-called millennial learners who currently populate college classrooms are purportedly digital natives whose repeated exposure to a host of new technologies has allegedly resulted in enhanced skills in several areas, including those related to technology and visual communication. By extension, the argument has been made that digital natives have a significant degree of visual literacy. This article reports the results of an empirical study that examines these claims by assessing post-secondary students’ use of visually-oriented technologies and their interpretation of visual material. The survey data suggest that participants are not particularly adept at producing and interpreting visual communication.
News organizations are turning increasingly to video journalism as survival strategy in the era of convergence. Video journalism, the process by which one person shoots, writes, and edits video stories, represents both a socially and materially constructed form of news and adds a new dimension to daily work practices. This qualitative project examines the daily work practices of video journalists in a variety of organizational settings, including newspapers and television stations. This project found that the material requirements of video journalism have the potential to shift control of some aspects of news narrative away from journalists and toward their sources.
[The author presents] four major conceptual levels of understanding: imparting visual literacy as a prerequisite for comprehending visual media; creating awareness of the general cognitive consequences of visual literacy; making us alert to visual manipulation; and promoting aesthetic appreciation of the images we see. Taken together, these approaches provide a comprehensive view of how visual images are produced and interpreted, and of what their potential social consequences may be. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study examines gender differences in responses to advertising for low-involvement products. I argue that when an opportunity for detailed information processing is present, females will be inclined to use it and engage in systematic consideration of message content, whereas males will tend to ignore it and instead process an ad in a heuristic manner. I further suggest that this difference in cognitive styles will have implications for advertising effectiveness. In line with predictions, two experiments supported moderation effect of processing opportunity on behavioral intentions in responses to advertising. After viewing the ad in the conditions that allowed extensive elaboration on message arguments, females were more willing to engage in word-of-mouth (WOM) communication about the advertised product compared to males. No gender differences were observed when the opportunity for ad processing was low. Cognitive responses to advertising mediated the gender by processing opportunity interaction effect on WOM intentions.
Teaching students how to decode advertising images enables them to move away from being passive receivers of messages to active unravelers. Some concepts from semiotics and the deconstruction of advertising messages are tools teachers can use.
This research studies how men and women respond to different types of print advertisements. The results show that women have superior affect (A<SUB>ad</SUB> and A<SUB>b</SUB>) and purchase intent toward advertisements that are verbal, harmonious, complex, and category-oriented, whereas men have superior affect (A<SUB>ad</SUB> and A<SUB>b</SUB>) and purchase intent toward advertisements that are comparative, simple, and attribute-oriented. In two studies, and across a variety of advertisements, men and women listed an equivalent number of total thoughts. In all instances, however, women listed more category-oriented thoughts and men listed more attribute-oriented thoughts. This pattern of results suggests that women use a relational processing style, whereas men use an item-specific processing style.
Numerous studies have established a relationship between thin ideal media content and disordered eating patterns in women. Many of the images viewed in the media that endorse the thin ideal are digitally manipulated or computer-created. This experiment compared college women's visual literacy - defined in terms of their knowledge of digital manipulation in fashion and entertainment images - to their desire to be thin, their desire to look like the model shown and four disordered eating subscales. Visual literacy did not reduce participants' desire to look like the model seen; however, entertainment media was a significant predictor of greater body image distortion across the sample.
This research examines the influence of involvement, need for cognition (NFC), and gender on consumer response toward sexual and nonsexual appeals. The results show that sexual appeals lead to better memory and superior attitudes and purchase intent among low-involvement consumers, whereas high-involvement consumers process both sexual and nonsexual ads more thoroughly and exhibit superior attitudes and purchase intent toward nonsexual appeals. Similarly, low-NFC consumers favor sexual appeals, whereas high-NFC consumers favor nonsexual appeals. With respect to gender, women respond favorably to sexual appeals when there is a strong fit between the ad and brand, but not when the fit is weak. In contrast, men respond favorably to sexual appeals irrespective of the level of fit.
The media have been criticized for depicting the thin woman as ideal. Some argue these images create unrealistic expectations for young women and cause body dissatisfaction and disordered eating. This study cumulates findings of empirical studies that examine the effects of media on body image. An estimate of overall effect size, trends in the research, and the influence of moderating variables are examined and reported. Results suggest depictions of thin women may have little to no effect on viewers. However, images of overweight women seem to have a positive effect on women's body image. Suggestions for future research are offered.
This paper reviews research on the third-person effect--the perception that communications exert a stronger effect on others than on oneself It is concluded that the third-person effect is a reliable and persistent phenomenon that emerges across variations in question order, format, and wording. The effect is also more situationally specific than originally believed, as illustrated by evidence of first-person effects in response to socially desirable messages. Self-enhancement biases, although not the only processes that underlie the effect, provide a parsimonious explanation of message-desirability recruits. Other delimiting conditions such as social distance are critically reviewed, evidence for behavioral effects is discussed, and methodological shortcomings are noted. Six directions for research are articulated.
Objective. Scholars and media observers alike have bemoaned the deleterious effects of television imagery in political spot ads. In light of the increased capability of technology to distort the messages in political spots, this study tests whether or not distortions in visual imagery in televised political ads have any identifiable effect on voters. Methods. The study uses experimental tests of distorted spots and their nondistorted counterparts to determine effects of distortions. Results. Results show that the computer and video manipulations often used in spots do affect voters in predicted ways: Spots with distortions result in higher evaluations and vote likelihood for the sponsoring candidate and lower evaluations and vote likelihood for the opponent. Surprisingly, the visual literacy level of the voter did not mitigate these effects. Conclusions. These findings suggest that new technologies are making it possible for candidates to enhance their own images and to decrease those of the opponent in ways that may be damaging tc the goals of informed decision making in the electoral process.
Engagement plays a contingent role in the effectiveness of advertising processing that corresponds to the message effects created during the process. Such message effects are advertising recall, message involvement, message believability, attitude toward the message (Am), and attitude toward the advertisement (AAD). This study's objective is to examine whether higher engagement initiated by contextual relevance increases advertising recall, message involvement, message believability, Am, and AAD. The results have revealed that higher engagement increases advertising recall, message involvement, message believability, Am, and AAD- Moreover, message involvement mediates the engagement effect on message believability, whereas Am mediates message believability on AAD. Implications based on the findings demonstrate the importance of engagement as a driver of message involvement and a metric for advertising effectiveness.
Article based on speech given before First Annual National Conference on Visual Literacy (Rochester, New York, March, 1969).
Like other literacies (textual literacy, numeracy), digital visual literacy (DVL) is the ability both to create and to understand certain types of information, in this case visual materials created with a computer. DVL is now essential in many daily life and workplace tasks, from looking critically at newspaper images or TV evening news to using a digital camera, making a Web site, creating presentations, and modeling and visualizing data in virtually all of the sciences. DVL is, of course, also now essential in all visually oriented disciplines. Defining the underlying principles of DVL and integrating it into established curricula presents many challenges. This article describes some of these and the authors' responses, using experiences from an innovative course at Brown University and a larger-scale community-college-based project, Digital Visual Literacy.
The advent of computer-assisted digital manipulation has raised new ethical concerns in news photography. A series of recent questionable manipulations in news magazines gives rise to a call for some systematic decision making and accountability. Protocols rather than codes of ethics are called for.
A person exposed to a persuasive communication in the mass media sees this as having a greater effect on others than on himself
or herself. Each individual reasons: “I will not be influenced, but they (the third persons) may well be persuaded.” In some
cases, a communication leads to action not because of its impact on those to whom it is ostensibly directed, but because others
(third persons) think that it will have an impact on its audience. Four small experiments that tend to support this hypothesis
are presented, and its complementary relationship to a number of concepts in the social sciences is noted. The third-person
effect may help to explain various aspects of social behavior, including the fear of heretical propaganda by religious leaders
and the fear of dissent by political rulers. It appears to be related to the phenomenon of censorship in general: the censor
never admits to being influenced; it is others with “more impressionable minds” who will be affected.
In recent years, advertisers and magazine editors have been widely criticized for taking digital photo retouching to an extreme. Impossibly thin, tall, and wrinkle- and blemish-free models are routinely splashed onto billboards, advertisements, and magazine covers. The ubiquity of these unrealistic and highly idealized images has been linked to eating disorders and body image dissatisfaction in men, women, and children. In response, several countries have considered legislating the labeling of retouched photos. We describe a quantitative and perceptually meaningful metric of photo retouching. Photographs are rated on the degree to which they have been digitally altered by explicitly modeling and estimating geometric and photometric changes. This metric correlates well with perceptual judgments of photo retouching and can be used to objectively judge by how much a retouched photo has strayed from reality.
Although the impact of peripheral advertising cues on postcommunication attitudes has received considerable attention in the research literature, less consideration has been given to whether such persuasion affects behavior. This research examines the potential for peripheral persuasion to influence brand choice as a function of the degree of differentiation among choice alternatives. The results from three experiments show that peripheral advertising cues can affect brand choice but that the extent of this influence depends on the particular brand-relevant information available at the time of choice. These findings substantiate the usefulness of peripheral persuasion tactics for modifying consumer choice. Copyright 1992 by the University of Chicago.
Examination of structure-function correlates in the human brain reveals that there is a high degree of functional specificity
in the information transmitted over neural systems. It also appears that the human brain has a modular organization consisting
of identifiable component processes that participate in the generation of a cognitive state. The effects of isolating entire
modular systems or of disconnecting the component parts can be observed. The features of a left hemisphere specialized capacity
to interpret the actions of modules are discussed in terms of human consciousness.
Recently, there has been a convergence in lesion and neuroimaging data in the identification of circuits underlying positive and negative emotion in the human brain. Emphasis is placed on the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the amygdala as two key components of this circuitry. Emotion guides action and organizes behavior towards salient goals. To accomplish this, it is essential that the organism have a means of representing affect in the absence of immediate elicitors. It is proposed that the PFC plays a crucial role in affective working memory. The ventromedial sector of the PFC is most directly involved in the representation of elementary positive and negative emotional states while the dorsolateral PFC may be involved in the representation of the goal states towards which these elementary positive and negative states are directed. The amygdala has been consistently identified as playing a crucial role in both the perception of emotional cues and the production of emotional responses, with some evidence suggesting that it is particularly involved with fear-related negative affect. Individual differences in amygdala activation are implicated in dispositional affective styles and increased reactivity to negative incentives. The ventral striatum, anterior cingulate and insular cortex also provide unique contributions to emotional processing.
The Leo Burnett book of advertising
- S Broadbent
Broadbent, S. (1984). The Leo Burnett book of advertising. Hutchinson.
The heuristic model of persuasion
- S Chaiken
Chaiken, S. (1987). The heuristic model of persuasion. In M. Zanna, J. Olson, & C. Herman (Eds.),
Social influence: The Ontario symposium (Vol. 5, pp. 3-39). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
A primer for visual literacy. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology
- D A Dondis
Dondis, D. A. (1973). A primer for visual literacy. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
The truth in advertising act: Can the government really regulate photoshopping?
- S Dumenco
Dumenco, S. (2014, May 1). The truth in advertising act: Can the government really regulate
photoshopping? http://adage.com/article/the-media-guy/truth-advertising-congress-regulatephotoshopping/292619/