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Dynamics of Himachal Pradesh : Upgrading Prometheus of Paleo Himachal
Abstract
This report documents the main findings of the Water Conservation & Paleontological profiling work carried out in the State of Himachal Pradesh, India, as a mean to support the planning of sustainable Paleo tourism & Cave tourism promoting interventions in next 20 years. Himachal is in the western Himalayas. Covering an area of 55,673 square kilometres (21,495 sq mi), it is a mountainous state. Most of the state lies on the foothills of the Dhauladhar Range. At 6,816 m, Reo Purgyil is the highest mountain peak in the state of Himachal Pradesh. The drainage system of Himachal is composed both of rivers and glaciers. Himalayan rivers criss-cross the entire mountain chain. Himachal Pradesh provides water to both the Indus and Ganges basins. The drainage systems of the region are the Chandra Bhaga or the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas, the Sutlej, and the Yamuna. These rivers are perennial and are fed by snow and rainfall. They are protected by an extensive cover of natural vegetation. Due to extreme variation in elevation, great variation occurs in the climatic conditions of Himachal. The climate varies from hot and sub humid tropical in the southern tracts to, with more elevation, cold, alpine, and glacial in the northern and eastern mountain ranges. The state's winter capital, Dharamsala receives very heavy rainfall, while areas like Lahaul and Spiti are cold and almost rainless. Broadly, Himachal experiences three seasons: summer, winter, and rainy season. Summer lasts from mid-April till the end of June and most parts become very hot (except in the alpine zone which experiences a mild summer) with the average temperature ranging from 28 to 32 °C (82 to 90 °F). Winter lasts from late November till mid-March. Snowfall is common in alpine tracts.
The knowledge of Martian geology has increased enormously in the last 40 yr. Several missions orbiting or roving Mars have revolutionized our understanding of its evolution and geological features, which in several ways are similar to Earth, but are extremely different in many respects. The impressive dichotomy between the two Martian hemispheres is most likely linked to its impact cratering history, rather than internal dynamics such as on Earth. Mars’ volcanism has been extensive, very longlived and rather constant in its setting. Water was available in large quantities in the distant past of Mars, when a magnetic field and more vigorous tectonics were active. Exogenic forces have been shaping Martian landscapes and have led to a plethora of landscapes shaped by wind, water and ice. Mars’ dynamical behavior continues, with its climatic variation affecting climate and geology until very recent times.
The knowledge of Martian geology has increased enormously in the last
40 yr. Several missions orbiting or roving Mars have revolutionized our understanding
of its evolution and geological features, which in several ways are similar to Earth, but
are extremely different in many respects. The impressive dichotomy between the two
Martian hemispheres is most likely linked to its impact cratering history, rather than
internal dynamics such as on Earth. Mars’ volcanism has been extensive, very longlived and rather constant in its setting. Water was available in large quantities in the
distant past of Mars, when a magnetic field and more vigorous tectonics were active.
Exogenic forces have been shaping Martian landscapes and have led to a plethora of
landscapes shaped by wind, water and ice. Mars’ dynamical behavior continues, with
its climatic variation affecting climate and geology until very recent times.
The Rakwana mountain range, which is located in the margin of the northern side of Sinharaja, a UNESCO world heritage site, is an area having rich bio–diversity. The recent excavations of the alluvial deposits in Sabaragamuwa basin associated with northern side of Sinharaja area revealed that the existance of caves in the vicinity of Pannila mountain. The cave formation is seen within the rocks of crystalline limestons (marble),which is popularly known as 'Pannila Hunugala' is of 550 m in length and 350 cm height at its entrance of which 60 cm filled with water, where special cave characteristics are visible. Stalagmite and stalactites of 2.5 m height at the core of the cave was believed to be formed after re-crystallization of pre-existing crystalline limestones-the basement rock-in the Highland Complex of Sri Lanka belongs to the Precambrian age. Speleothem dimensions were used to measure the volume of stalagmite and stalagtites. The action of chemical weathering of crystalline limestone followed by limy solutions makes it secondary features like stalagmite and stalactite.It is postulated from the Geological map of Sri Lanka that the same crystalline limestones bed is extended to the Rakwana Pannila Hunugala' ,Samanalawewa, Handagiriya caves.
A sufficient knowledge on prehistoric culture and habitat of earliest Homo sapiens (Balangoda man) is available in Batadomba-lena cave, a noticeable rock shelter in lowland rainforest of southwestern Sri Lanka goes upto Pleistocene and Holocene eras. Late Pleistocene inhabitants of Batadombalena cave's foraged for a broad spectrum of plant and mainly arboreal animal resources such as, monkeys, squirrels and rainforest snails etc. Archaeo-faunal evidence would help to describe the prehistoric man eating behavior as well as availability of nature prehistoric flora, fauna and environmental status. The family Acavidae is very sensitive to climatic variations, hence used as a bio-indicator to describe the variations of paleo-climatic nature. This study examined the morphological features of 20 samples of Acavidae family (living/fossil samples of Acavus superbus, and sub fossil samples of Oligospira waltoni) collected from soils by digger method in 2005 and compared with 20 samples from the same area at presently available. The shell characters of snails such as, height, width, diameter of mouth, thickness of lip, and angular of axis were measured and subjected to multivariate analysis to understand how climatic variability and nature of paleo-diet contribute survival of Acavidae species. Results showed that Acavus superbus living species had large shell characteristics than the sub fossils. Results of similar study in the same climatic status in 2000 showed that the shell measurements of Acavus superbus are relatively larger than both living and sub fossils in Batadobalena cave. Ordination diagram derived from species shell characteristics showed that Acavus superbus living species grouped as scattered /diffuse clusters, while sub fossil species grouped as a single cluster at the center of the ordination diagram. It is imply a trend of speciation /diversification of Acavus species from Pleistocene era to date. Multivariate analyses prove that, a strong positive correlation of species characteristics, such as height (r = 0.62), thickness of lip (r = 0.544) and angular of axis (r = 0.744), and a strong negative relationship (r = 0.832) for shell width for the species were observed. Our results are useful to compare with other fossil snails to see whether the climate change influence for changing body size. In conclusion, palaeo-environment, and present environment variation has been occurred in minimum way without much changes to observed Acavidae species compositions present and past.
Sri Lanka Has been Famous as a tourist location since ancient time. Named the “Pearl of the Indian Ocean”. It has been visited written about and acclaimed in many ancient chronicles. Being close to the equator, it has a year – round sunny weather and with its topography it harbors a host of rich biodiversity promoting ecotourism. With a costal belt right round the island it has attract many visitors to its beaches. The ancient history and monuments have called in tourist to its cultural sites. Currently, after the advent of the terrorist conflict, new vistas have opened up in the tourism trade. These are popularly known as a ‘Eco Tourism’, ‘Nature Tourism’ , ‘Adventure tourism’, ‘ Ayurvedic tourism’, ‘Religious tourism’, ‘Agriculture tourism’, ‘Cave tourism’, Culture tourism’,ect. Palaeo biodiversity is the biodiversity of ancient times. It addresses ancient man and his interaction with his palaeo environment. It Speak of the geological eras, the prehistoric people. Therefore, this subject has another aspect of interest to the visitor. With the prehistory that dates far back as 125000 BP and its locations situated amidst forests and streams it mainly attracts the ecotourism. Since this subject has been introduced newly it is not possible to market this product alone. Therefore it is much more convenient to market it along with other product such as ecotourism, nature tourism, adventure tourism and cave tourism, ect
The Late Tithonian ammonite-bearing horizons have very limited geographic occurrence in Kutch, being restricted only to the
western part of the mainland. A 15 m thick sequence consisting mainly of oolite-shale alternations and coarse grained sandstone
yields the terminal Tithonian faunal assemblages. The previous comprehensive report comes from Spath’s work (1927–1933) where
he described some Early Tithonian ammonites from farther east within the mainland, but the typical Upper Tithonian assemblages
are restricted only to the westernmost part, i. e., towards the paleoshoreline (Fig. 17.1).
Introduction to Petrology and Mineralogy to Implement Fossilization is for describe process of the fossilization & their factors,including geology . Fossilization is the process by which a plant or animal becomes a fossil. This process is extremely rare and only a small fraction of the plants and animals that have lived in the past 600 million years are preserved as fossils. This may be surprising, considering the millions of fossils that have been collected over the years, and the many billions still in the rocks. Those plants and animals that do become fossils generally undergo, with some exceptions, several key steps
The Quaternary period of the geographic history of the earth includes two geologic epochs viz., the Pleistocene and the Holocene. Both epochs divided the faunal stages and human cultural phases based on climate and sea level changes that took place during these periods. The Quaternary ice age began roughly about 2.58 MYO with cool and dry climate conditions. The extinct Australopithecines and many other extinct genera of mammalian mega fauna appeared during this time. Thus, the Quaternary period shows the extinctions of numerous predominantly larger, especially mammalian mega faunal species, many of them lived during the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene epoch. The debate on the demise of the mammalian megafauna is often characterized by two highly polarized points of view: (1) climate-induced extinction; and (2) human-induced extinction. In Pleistocene period most parts of the Northern Hemisphere of earth were covered with glaciers creating a cold climate. Due to this glacial formation the main sea level was much lower than it is today. The low sea level facilitated the connection of Sri Lanka with the Indian mainland with a land bridge. Therefore, a number of mega fauna and micro fauna were able to cross to Sri Lanka from India along this land bridge. The last land bridge was emerged around 7500 years BP. During the Pleistocene Period Sri Lanka experienced heavy rainfall causing the emergence of rain forest in the country. The heavy rainfall in the Sabaragamu Basin also provided habitats for a number of marsh loving animals including mammals. However, at the end of the Pleistocene epoch, drastic climatic changes were occurred resulting in the extinction of a number of animal taxa. Pleistocene fauna in Sri Lanka is known as Rathnapura Fauna. Their fossils are found in alluvial deposits in the Sabaragamu basins
The Rakwana mountain range, which is located in the margin of the northern side of Sinharaja,UNESCO world heritage site, is an area having rich bio–diversity,included unique geological formations such as limestone caves etc. Numerous fossils of Elephants(Elephas spp.), Gaur(Bos gaurus), Sambar Deer (Rusa unicolor), Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros kangawena), Red dogs(Cuon sinhaleyus), Hippopotamus (Hexaprotodon sinhaleyus) & Tiger (Panthera tigris) dated to 17,000-13,000 ybp belongs to the Pleistocene Epoch, could be identified during the recent excavations of the alluvial deposits in Sabaragamu basin. Isolated living Elephants, Sambar Deer & Eel (Anguilliformes ssp.) are unique to this area. The detailed study of the limestone cavern at Pannila mountain revealed that it is of 750 meters in length. The height of the cave entrance is 300 cm (3.5 feets) of which 60 cm filled with water, where special cave characteristics are visible. Stalagmite and stalactites of 5 m height formed after re-crystallization of pre-existing limestones could also be observed at the core of the cave. The studied limestone cave popularly known as ‘Pannila Hunugala’ is a part of the basement marble bed in the Highland Complex of Sri Lanka belongs to the Precambrian age. It is postulated that the same marble bed is extended to the marble beds located at the Samanalawewa, Waulpane and Rakwana. The action of chemical weathering occurred in the recent times makes it secondary features like stalagmite and stalactite. It is interesting to study that the existence of animal fossils within and around the cave is an indication of the period of cave formation, which probably contemporaneously to the Pleistocene Epoch. It was reported in the literature that during the Pleistocene Epoch, the entire island experienced heavy rain fall resultant the growing of thick rain forests, of which Sinharaja is one of the best existing example (Deraniyagala 1958). These heavy showers created large lakes and marshes in the Sabaragamuwa basin providing habitats for a number of marsh-loving mammals and other animal species mentioned above that were once lived in Sri Lanka and have got extinct as a result of the Earth’s Precession change in the following period.
Speleothem dimensions were used for measure the volume of Stalagmite & Stalagtites
Speleothem dimensions were measured using a caliper. The diameters were measured at the base (the point of attachmentof the speleothem to the roof or floor), at the place where the most conspicuous width changes took place, and near the tip of the speleothem. The height of each speleothem was also measured with a 10m measuring tape. Stalactites showing evidence of breakage were noted as such. A very fragile, translucent framework of calcite with euhedral crystal terminations was assumed to represent undisturbed stalactites, while an unusually thick layer of calcite with no crystal terminations suggested that the stalactite had been broken at some point in time. A few small curtains were present, and because they had roughly boxlike shapes, the length, width, and height were measured. Any other slightly anomalous formations were noted and appropriate measurements were taken. The volume of calcite contained within the stalagmites and stalactites was calculated using equation 01 & 02, derived from the volume formula for a truncated cone. This equation was determined to best quantify the volume of a speleothem using a reasonable number of measurements
.
Volume = [1/3 π (h1)(R2base + R12 + RbaseR1 )] +[ 1/3 π(h2 - h1)(R12 + R22 + R1R2] + [1/3 π (h total -h2)R22] (01)
Where: h1 = height from base to first radius measurement (mm)
h2 = height from base to second radius measurement (mm)
Rbase = radius at the base of speleothem (mm)
Volume = πr2 h ( h =Average Height / 10)
R12,R22,R32,R42,R52,R62……………Rn2 (02)
Discription : R12,R22,R32.. Rn2 (Average radius of Stalagmite & Stalagtites)
Measurements of Stalagmite (GM) & Stalactites (GT)
Stratigraphy of the Muth Quartzite of the' Himalayas
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DYNAMICS OF HIMACHAL
PRADESH