No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Brand Authenticity and Strategic Response to Crises: Symbolic Effects of Donation Type on Purchase Intent and Digital Engagement
Abstract
Brand Authenticity is paramount in contemporary advertising and brands can communicate their authenticity by supporting social and environmental crises. Brands often donate money or products to causes, and while the value of such activities has been documented, the actual nature of the donation relative to authenticity and subsequent outcomes is unclear. How much should brands donate? What type of donation is best? What are the advantages of choosing certain crises over others? This paper explores how a brand’s authenticity might be affected by its response strategy to various crises. Two experimental studies provide converging evidence that with either an acute (a weather-related crisis) or a chronic social (school funding) issue, the right type and size of donation can lead to desirable brand outcomes while assisting those in need. We argue that symbolic consumption is the mechanism through which process occurs. We find that purchase intent can be generated through donating cash or products to a crisis that fits well with brand values, whereas digital engagement is best generated through product donation in support of a crisis which does not.
... External CSR can improve consumer attitudes toward brands, usually when there is a high congruency (e.g., brand/cause fit; ) (Nan & Heo, 2007;Kim et al., 2015), but occasionally when there is not (Pittman & Sheehan, 2020). Research indicates that external CSR as a strategy is generally effective and influences consumer choice (Barone et al., 2000), brand sales (Strahilevitz & Myers, 1998), brand switching (Smith & Alcorn, 1991), improves the image of the organization (Ross et al., 1992;Bhattacharya & Sen, 2004), and enhances brand loyalty (Van Den Brink et al., 2006). ...
... For example, while Nike is a brand often lauded as being focused on racial justice, a look at the racial composition of Nike's leadership team indicates that "Nike is not part of the change it seeks to promote" (Ritson, 2020). In other words, consumers are no longer satisfied with brands contributing to social causes without first addressing and dismantling social inequities within the organization (Dowell & Jackson, 2020;Ho, 2020) and consumers may be skeptical of campaigns that seem to lack authenticity (Dalal, 2020;Pittman & Sheehan, 2020). The perception that a brand is merely "washing" its messaging with superficial virtue-signaling is detrimental because it lowers consumer confidence in the actual causes and related products (Delmas & Burbano, 2011). ...
... Participants accessed the study link through MTurk and were directed to Qualtrics. After agreeing to informed consent, participants were asked to enter basic Instagram account information to increase ecological validity (Pittman & Sheehan, 2020). Participants then saw one of the four Instagram ads posted by Nancy's, passed an attention check, and then answered questions about the ads and the manipulation check. ...
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) efforts by established legacy brands are often seen as inauthentic. What can brands do to genuinely engage in CSR efforts? This study investigates internal CSR as a potential solution. CSR type (internal and external) and extrinsic cues (brand size and age) interact to affect congruence, authenticity, and subsequent purchase intention for companies that communicate these efforts on social media. Through a series of three experiments, we compare the effectiveness of internal and external CSR in influencing consumer perceptions. Results confirm that CSR is not a one-size-fits-all solution for brands. We find that Internal CSR is more effective for legacy (older, larger) brands, while external CSR is more effective for novel (newer, smaller) brands. This paper is among the first to conceptualize internal CSR as a potential strategy for legacy brands that often struggle for authentic ways to get involved with social issues. Results indicate that consumers want to see larger, older brands try to "fix" themselves before they attempt to fix the world.
... This suspicion of inauthentic marketing campaigns is explained by a phenomenon known as greenwashing (Schmuck, Matthes, and Naderer 2018), a term which refers to exaggerated benefits or unsubstantiated claims in support of the environment. Consumers may be skeptical of green campaigns if they think the brand lacks authenticity (Pittman and Sheehan 2020) or cannot be trusted (Matthes and Wonneberger 2014). The perception that a brand is simply "washing" its advertising with a superficial environmentalism is detrimental to long-term sustainability efforts, because it lowers consumer confidence in product quality (Delmas and Burbano 2011) and increases consumer confusion generally (Chen and Chang 2013). ...
... Such authenticity is vital for brands that want to tap into the social norm of environmental sustainability but avoid suspicions of greenwashing. One way this is accomplished is through symbolic gestures and messaging (Pittman and Sheehan 2020). Research has found that product advertisements that attempt to indicate authenticity through emotion (e.g., "made with love") lead to greater perceptions of brand ethics (de Kerviler, Heuvinck, and Gentina 2021). ...
... To confirm and extend the results from Study 1, Study 2 was conducted to test with a new product and a different social media platform, additionally testing a new dependent variable: digital engagement (Pittman and Sheehan 2020). While purchase intent is a pertinent and common outcome of advertising efforts, users' expectations of social media environments are also focused on engagement with the brand (Voorveld et al. 2018). ...
This research investigates the effects of digital context on perception of green advertising. We challenge the common advertising practice of posting similar content across platforms by showing how the same ad is received differently by consumers on different digital channels. We use social norms theory (SNT) to build our hypotheses and test them with two experiments. We demonstrate that on a news website, brand quality is the mechanism for the persuasive effect of an appeal (product, environmental, or hybrid). However, on Instagram (Study 1) and Facebook (Study 2), brand authenticity is the persuasive mechanism for generating purchase intent and digital engagement. Results provide converging evidence for brand authenticity as a pivotal factor for green brand success on social media.
... Greenwashing creates uncertainties about the economic and functional risks of green products for consumers, such as the chance of purchasing unsuitable products or paying unreasonable premium prices. Consumers become sceptical of green advertisements when they perceive marketing messages as lacking authenticity and trustworthiness (Pittman & Sheehan, 2021). Therefore, marketers should reduce consumers' uncertainties by fostering positive impressions and building intimate relationships through frequent interactions using various methods, such as face-to-face communication, social media messages, and visual imagery. ...
... Structural capital stems from the time and effort invested in building and nurturing relationships (Meek et al., 2019). Given the flood of green advertisements on social media platforms, consumers tend to skip unrelated messages but engage with green social media influencers who promote shared values using clear and relatable language (Boerman et al., 2022;Pittman & Sheehan, 2021). Informants say they are eager to interact with green social media influencers to learn more about green products and eco-friendly practices. ...
This research explores how green social media influencers affect consumers’ electronic word‐of‐mouth behaviour regarding green products by developing cohesive relationships. Grounded in social capital theory and relational cohesion theory, this study aims to understand how green social media influencers can build cohesive relationships with their followers and the subsequent effects of these relationships using a mixed‐method research design. The quantitative study (Study 1) uses a sample of 471 social media users who follow and interact with at least one green social media influencer and employs partial least squares structural equation modelling to analyse the data. The results show that green social media influencers’ cognitive capital and relational capital significantly trigger social interaction frequency, which, in turn, evokes positive mood and reduces uncertainty. This process fosters cohesive relationships and drives electronic word‐of‐mouth behaviour about green products. The study also examines how gender moderates the impact of cognitive and relational capital on social interaction frequency and its subsequent effects on relational cohesion and electronic word‐of‐mouth behaviours. The subsequent qualitative study (Study 2) corroborates the quantitative results and provides complementary findings, enhancing the understanding of how green social media influencers can use their social capital to develop cohesive relationships with consumers and drive electronic word‐of‐mouth behaviours. This research provides significant insights into how green social media influencers can build cohesive relationships with consumers and improve their effectiveness in promoting green products through social capital.
... Finally, although green advertisement has been identified to contribute positively to green purchase decisions (Atkinson & Kim, 2015), other studies found otherwise (Wei et al., 2017). And this has been largely attributed to green skepticism by consumers (Albayrak et al., 2011), due to greenwashing behaviors by firms (Pittman & Sheehan, 2021). GCT is therefore seen as an antidote to help overcome this consumer skepticism challenge, so firms could realize the full potential of GA (Chen & Chang, 2013). ...
... Firms engage in greenwashing to tap into the market acceptability of green and environmentallyfriendly products. Due to greenwashing, consumers are becoming skeptical about GA, doubting the authenticity of the green claims in adverts (Pittman & Sheehan, 2021). GA may in effect enhance the relationship between CnSR and GPB in the footwear sector, however, perceived greenwash may cause this benefit not to be realized. ...
Generation Z (Gen-Z), representing a demographic cohort of persons born from 1995 to 2010, has demonstrated their concerns for environmental protection. On September 20, 2019, for example, millions of Gen-Zs from over 150 different countries across the globe embarked on a protest to pressure decision-makers and governments to help save the planet. Such campaigns have caused firms to rethink how they operate by adopting green operations in their production and distribution of products. The footwear industry is not left out. The problem this research sought to address is the assessment of the effect of green consumer knowledge on green purchase behavior among Gen-Z consumers towards footwear while assessing the roles of consumer social responsibility, green advertising, and green consumer trust. The study was quantitative in nature and used an online questionnaire to survey 559 Chi-nese Gen-Z consumers. Findings revealed that although green consumer knowledge had a direct effect on green purchase behavior, this effect was partially mediated by consumer social responsibility. The effect of consumer social responsibility on green purchase behavior was positively moderated by green advertising, and the moderating effect of green advertising was further strengthened by green consumer trust. Finally, the mediating effect of consumer social responsibility was conditional on the moderating effects of green advertising and green consumer trust. It was concluded that green consumer knowledge is an essential ingredient in enhancing Gen-Z con-sumers' green purchase behavior towards footwear, as such, advocacy and pressure groups must increasingly conscientize consumers.
... show that consumers respond more favorably to crisis and disaster CSR than ongoing CSR (Cui et al., 2003;Ellen et al., 2000) and outline two common CSR types in this domain: donating in-kind and donating money (Hildebrand et al., 2017;Pittman & Sheehan, 2021). Indeed, in their review of 200 firms, the authors found that the majority of firms engaged in donation activities (see Section 1 for details). ...
... In the current work, the authors test the impact of nine CSR types (donating in-kind, donating money, creating content, free products, free services, communication of operational changes, employee support, financial support, and shifting production) on authenticity and subsequent attitude and purchase intentions during the COVID-19 pandemic. This is important in the context of crisis response and disaster relief specifically, given that existing research focuses primarily on donating in-kind and donating money(Hildebrand et al., 2017;Johnson et al., 2011;Muller & Whiteman, 2009;Pittman & Sheehan, 2021). Thus, by first identifying and then measuring consumer responses to the seven additional CSR types employed during the COVID-19 pandemic, the authors provide a significant contribution to these literatures.Next, given that the objective of this research was to identify and measure consumer responses to the CSR types employed during the COVID-19 pandemic, the authors used an inductive approach to identify and classify CSR types versus a deductive approach using existing frameworks from past research (e.g.,Bower & Grau, 2009;Green & Peloza, 2015;Mishra & Modi, 2016;Prasad & Kumar, 2022). ...
Firms responded to the COVID‐19 pandemic by participating in an unprecedented level of corporate social responsibility (CSR). The authors build on the existing CSR and crisis response and disaster relief literatures by examining nine CSR types employed during the pandemic (donating in‐kind, donating money, creating content, free products, free services, communication of operational changes, employee support, financial support, and shifting production). Then, they test the impact of starting versus stopping each CSR type on consumer perceptions of authenticity, attitude, and purchase intentions in two experiments, replicated in 2020, 2021, and 2022. Consumers distinguish between CSR types and rate employee and financial support most favorably and creating content and communication of operational changes least favorably. Starting (vs. stopping or no) CSR increases authenticity and subsequent attitude and purchase intentions. Interestingly, stopping CSR is worse than no CSR in 2020, but no CSR is worse than stopping CSR in 2022. This indicates that consumers discredit firms for stopping CSR during the acute phase of the pandemic but discredit firms for not engaging in any CSR after the acute phase ends. Finally, consumers rate small (vs. large) firms more favorably for engaging in some CSR types. Taken together, these results help inform how firms should engage in CSR activities in response to crises and disasters.
... As companies address consumers' heightened concerns, the authenticity of their intentions are brought into question (Mann et al., 2021). CSR and brand activism both require a level of authenticity, which requires continuity, credibility, integrity and symbolism (Pittman and Sheehan, 2020). Brands that embrace brand activism exist on continuums of activist marketing messaging and prosocial corporate practice (Vredenburg et al., 2020). ...
... Blended Brand lost the continuity, sincerity and integrity required for truly authentic messages (Pittman and Sheehan, 2020). ...
Purpose
This study aims to evaluate how brands communicate with consumers through the COVID-19 pandemic and how messaging has shifted over time. The authors identify a typology drawn from extant literature and use it to understand how brands shape consumers’ behavior.
Design/methodology/approach
Through a mix of interpretive and thematic analysis, the authors examine 858 US email advertisements and how these messages have evolved throughout the pandemic.
Findings
The authors findings demonstrate brand communication ranges from prosocial to brand messaging and brands employed different strategies at different phases of the pandemic. Specifically, while brands started out emphasizing socially desirable behavior before and directly after a national emergency was declared, COVID-19-related communications shifted to predominantly marketing-related messages later in the pandemic.
Originality/value
This study provides valuable insight into how brands adjust communication strategies through a prolonged cultural trauma and how these messages relate to authenticity, the triple bottom line and a social (versus branded) focus.
... This skepticism in environmental marketing campaigns is encompassed by a phenomenon known as greenwashing, a term that refers to exaggerated benefits or unsubstantiated claims in support of the environment (Sheehan, 2014). Consumers may be skeptical of green campaigns if they think the brand lacks authenticity (Pittman & Sheehan, 2020) and cannot be trusted (Matthes & Wonneberger, 2014). The perception that a brand is merely "washing" its marketing with a superficial green-ness is detrimental to long-term sustainability efforts because it lowers consumer confidence in (Delmas & Burbano, 2011) and increases consumer confusion about (Chen & Chang, 2013) green products. ...
... Prior research has established trust as an important variable in online environments (Urban et al., 2009). Within the context of green advertising appeals, consumers might feel increased skepticism (Carlson et al., 2013) and reactance (Kim et al., 2017) because of lack of authenticity or greenwashing suspicions (Pittman & Sheehan, 2020). Hence, we predict that consumers will use popularity metrics as a cue for the influencer's motive. ...
Digital marketing campaigns increasingly utilize social media influencers. Research in influencer marketing has investigated popularity metrics but found conflicting results on how the number of followers and likes on posts might influence consumers' behaviors. The present research investigates green living orientation of influencers as a moderating characteristic that leads to differential interpretation of popularity metrics in the context of green advertising messages. Specifically, lower popularity metrics seem to benefit green influencers or “greenfluencers.” An increased perception of trust in greenfluencers with lower popularity results in enhanced attitudes toward a sponsored product and increased purchase intentions. Additionally, consumers are willing to donate higher amounts to a related charity after exposure to a promotional post by a green influencer with low following. We present the results of three lab studies and discuss theoretical and practical implications.
... Brand equity and fondness are essential for measuring a brand's strength (Foroudi et al., 2018). Besides, literature concerned with brand equity theory has strongly supported that positive brand intentions can build purchase intention likelihood (Pittman & Sheehan, 2021). However, the same has to be examined in the Internet of Things context. ...
The growth of the Internet of Things has expanded its application across all business and consumer product lines. While limited research has gone to understand the strength of Internet of Things content in marketing and branding, this research has built a comprehensive framework by integrating the technology acceptance model (TAM) and brand equity. The study uses a mixed-approach research design by creating an experiment-based survey. The study used structural equation modelling with mediation and moderation analyses to investigate the proposed hypotheses. The results suggested that the utilitarian and hedonic attributes of the Internet of Things can contribute to brand building. The Internet of Things technology risks can negatively moderate the relationship between the Internet of Things technology attitude and brand equity. The study integrates TAM and brand equity framework, which was long-standing due to theoretical space. Moreover, the suggestions regarding the Internet of Things mechanism will contribute generously to the technology and marketing practitioners.
... While some research findings support the idea that brands should advocate positions on issues such as COVID-19, other studies suggest that brands should be cautious about risking their reputation to support sensitive and potentially divisive issues (e.g., Pittman and Sheehan 2021;Villegas and Morton 2020). Kirk and Rifkin (2020) noted that brands that disseminate COVID-19-related messages should avoid acting in a manner perceived as self-serving or in ways that expect sacrifices from others (i.e., employees or customers) without demonstrating a willingness to match their sacrifice. ...
This research explores normative beliefs advocated in the earliest stage of the COVID-19 public health crisis. The exploration utilizes Tight-Loose Theory and Hofstede’s dimensions as frameworks to analyze N = 377 COVID-centered ads run from March to June 2020. The findings from this research support the presence of both tight and loose orientations in ads dedicated to COVID-19 messaging. The outcome is contrary to what one might expect in the US, a country where a loose orientation generally dominates societal norms. This research establishes a benchmark for comparison with the evolutionary stages of branded messages related to COVID-19.
... Brand authenticity, defined by Morhart et al. (2015) as being "faithful and true toward itself and its consumers," has multiple implied meanings, including providing products and services in accordance with the proclaimed quality and origin, appearing consistent with the firm's existing values, and being emotionally perceived by consumers as honest, sincere, and moral (Södergren, 2021). Brand authenticity has been found to lead to favorable consumer attitudes and behaviors, such as online engagement, purchase intentions (Pittman & Sheehan, 2021), positive word-of-mouth, and brand attachment (Morhart, 2015). In the social psychology field, authenticity means relatively unbiased understanding of oneself, and engaging in activities with full self-authority. ...
This mixed-method investigation proposes and empirically tests a human-Artificial Intelligence (AI) relationship development model in the context of social chatbots. Utilizing data from representative populations and employing method triangulation, the study uniquely combines existing human-computer interaction theoretical concepts (Computers are Social Actors, Perceived Social Presence, and Parasocial Interaction) with interpersonal relationship theories (Social Penetration and Attachment Theories) to advance an explanatory model of human – AI relationship development mechanism. We identify AI Anthropomorphism and AI Authenticity as antecedents, AI Social Interaction as a mediator, and Attachment to AI as an outcome of this process, moderated by the AI usage motivations. Meaningful theoretical, managerial, and societal implications, as well as suggestions for chatbot designers and future research are provided.
... The first purpose for this paper is to extend knowledge about observers' licensing effects on consumer-brand relationships, specifically regarding how consumers react when a brand has been reputed for acting morally and then inconsistently transgresses moral guidelines. As brands globalize, irresponsible behaviors are inevitable (Choi & La, 2013;Eisingerich et al., 2011;Klein & Dawar, 2004;Pittman & Sheehan, 2021;Tan et al., 2021;Trump, 2014;Tsarenko & Tojib, 2015;Vanhamme & Grobben, 2009;Wagner et al., 2009), with consequences such as damaged reputations, reduced sales, and lowered stock returns (Cleeren et al., 2017;Khamitov et al., 2020;Tsarenko et al., 2019;Van Vaerenberg et al., 2019). To strategically counter negative consumer responses, transgressing brands often promote their past good deeds, such as through corporate social responsibility (CSR). ...
Moral licensing theory suggests that consumers can liberate brands from their transgressions in light of the brands’ past moral deeds, and the literature discusses two possible underlying processes: moral credentials and moral credits. However, little research has examined when and why consumers use a particular process over the other when licensing brand transgressions. This paper examines two important moderators: self-brand connection (SBC) and the ambiguity of transgressions. Across five studies, this article shows that both high- and low-SBC consumers license ambiguous brand transgressions with (vs. without) information about the brand’s prior good deeds but through different paths, moral credentials and moral credits, respectively. If the brand’s prior moral behaviors are deemed moral credentials, high-SBC consumers excuse even blatant transgressions. However, the licensing effect is diminished if high-SBC consumers use self-affirmation as an alternative means of ensuring self-worth. The current research sheds light on different paths to moral licensing in the eyes of observers at the brand level.
... Therefore, our primary purpose in this research is to examine whether individuals who feel proud (grateful) respond more favorably to donation appeals that highlight self-benefits (other-benefits) on social media posts. Our work advances the literature that has shown the effects of internal and external cues for prompting socially desirable behavior , 2020Baek, Yoon, & Kim, 2015;Han et al., 2019;Kim et al., 2017;Lee et al., 2018Lee, Zhao & Chen;2021, Lim et al., 2020Pittman & Sheehan, 2021;Septianto & Garg, 2021;Yoon. Kim, & Baek., 2016). ...
In an examination of charitable advertising on social media, the authors show that pride and gratitude determine the effects of egoistic versus altruistic appeals. Across three experimental studies of prosocial advertising conducted in the United States and India, participants who are induced to feel pride are more influenced by Twitter and Instagram ads that focus on egoistic (vs. altruistic) benefits, while participants who are induced to feel gratitude are equally influenced by ads that focus on egoistic and altruistic benefits in terms of donating greater amounts (Study 1) and intending to donate (Studies 2 and 3). Theoretical insights and practical implications for social media fundraising campaigns are discussed.
... Individuals' perceptions of how they appear to others have psychological effects driving their behaviors (Fehr and Falk 2002). This is shown particularly in prosocial domains where desires to be liked and respected influence behaviors such as charitable giving (Ariely, Bracha, and Meier 2009;Exley 2018;Fehr and Falk 2002;Hong and Lee 2019;Lee, Choi, and Muldrow 2020;Pittman and Sheehan 2021;Soetevent 2011). Relatedly, people who post on social media were shown to be motivated either by intrinsic desires for inherent satisfaction or image desires to impress others (Toubia and Stephen 2013). ...
This article reports the results of a study examining consumer responses to gym membership advertisements for individual and group workout programs, according to whether the ads use a gain frame for advertising a minimum participation requirement (“Visit ten times a month and get 50 more if you fail to make ten visits a month”). Participants in a 2 (group versus individual exercise) × 2 (gain versus loss framing) × 2 (overachievement versus adequate achievement) experimental study indicate that overachieving (adequately achieving) group exercisers respond more positively to gain framing (loss framing) of minimum participation requirement, but individual exercisers do not show such effects. Public image is identified as the basis for the differences between group and lone exercisers. The findings have implications for marketers and policymakers who wish to use public image to encourage positive behaviors.
... Following Christensen et al. (2016), crisis management performance refers to fans' assessments of sport brands' efforts to address COVID-19-related challenges. Sport brands develop crisis management strategies aligned with their brand philosophy and value position (Inoue et al., 2021;Pittman & Sheehan, 2020) in an attempt to address business and social demands (Wu et al., 2020). Studies have shown that fans' evaluative processes related to sport brands are largely determined by personal brand involvement (Kunkel et al., 2014) and often lead to psychological and behavioral outcomes. ...
Research Question
The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the need for a transformative perspective on the role of sport brands in promoting fans’ psychological well-being. Drawing upon attachment theory, the current research explores how individuals’ involvement with sport brands may contribute to their psychological well-being in the wake of COVID-19.
Research Methods
Data were collected from sport fans (n = 770) in mainland China through an online survey. Machine learning-based model selection algorithms were used to optimize the balance between the predictive power and parsimoniousness of the empirical model. Bayesian structural equation modeling was performed to examine the effects of sport brand involvement (SBI), crisis management performance, and perceived togetherness (PT) on fans’ sense of hope and emptiness.
Results and Findings
The results indicate that fans’ involvement with sport brands was positively associated with fans’ psychological well-being. SBI mitigated fans’ perceived emptiness. This relationship was partially mediated by PT but not by crisis management performance. Furthermore, sport brands’ crisis management performance and PT fully mediated the positive relationship between SBI and hope.
Implications
This research contributes to theorizing the transformative role of sport brands in enhancing fans’ psychological well-being. We offer an alternative view of sport branding literature by moving beyond fans’ contributions to business outcomes to explore how sport brands may benefit fans’ well-being. Findings highlight the importance of the transformative power of ‘we’ in unifying sport brands and fans amid the uncertainty of the COVID-19 pandemic.
... Strategic implications; refers to influences on corporate planning. Strategic implications are the main consequences arising from the unintelligible and the ability to cope with the effects of power and the dynamics of the diverse changes that can often affect business from the point of view due to technological advances[37][45]. ...
Digital media is a form of technological advance in Industry 4.0 that entrepreneur can utilize it to reach customers. This research aims to analyze, describe, and explain the rationalization of various digital media usage in an integrated manner as a means of marketing communication in an effort to develop the market potential of a product in the current industrial environment with the possibility of enhancement to face industry 5.0. The research was conducted on the issue of the development of product market potential using Qualitative approach and Case Study method toward entrepreneurial firm in retail product. The findings are, the digital media as an important part of industry 4.0 have their respective roles and complement each other as marketing communication tools, and are used in an integrated way to provide information and attract customers. However, even though the industry is moving forward, the business in this case study has no preparation in welcoming industry 5.0 other than the usage of digital media and internet connection (IoT).
... Essentially, digital engagement refers to brands' efforts to link with customers through social media, blogs, and websites (Drummond, Toole, & McGrath, 2020). The concept of digital engagement resides on the promise that the higher the customer engagement with the brand on digital channels, the greater the likelihood of customers making positive recommendations for the brand, essentially connecting customers with the brand (Pittman & Sheehan, 2020). Like customer engagement, digital engagement is also composed of customers commenting, liking, and sharing brand-related content (Reich, Brandon, & Pittman, 2020). ...
The study aims to provide the concept of "holistic digital engagement" (HDE) in marketing and establish its psychological antecedents through brand identity, brand personality, and brand affect from the lens of social identity theory. Guided by the cross-sectional research design, the study conducts PLS-SEM analysis of 303 responses collected through a survey questionnaire. The respondents were selected through judgmental sampling design. The findings of the study indicate that brand personality, brand identity, and brand affect are the critical factors to form HDE. The mediating role of brand affect between brand identity and HDE also emerged significant in path modeling. The study advances a scholarly debate about HDE, its psychological antecedents, and how HDE differs from social media engagement (CBE). This research contributes to the emerging literature of engagement in marketing by filling a vacuum of empirical investigations on HDE from the social identity perspective. It is the first study that has established the psychological antecedents of HDE.
KEYWORDS: Brand affect; brand identity; brand personality; customer engagement; holistic digital engagement
... Building on these two studies, Study 3 addressed H1a, H1b, H2a, H2b, RQ1a and RQ1b by examining the effect of both functional (information: low vs high) and emotional (fear: low vs high) appeals on social media. Additionally, Study 3 incorporated a social media-specific dependent variable, digital engagement (Pittman and Sheehan 2020), to better generalize message effectiveness to other campaign metrics beyond purchase intention. ...
How can green advertising get non-green consumers to think more about the environment? Using Elaboration Likelihood Model and Social Judgment Theory, we construct hypotheses and test them across three experiments. Results provide converging evidence that messages placed on social media with low-information and high-fear (emotional) appeals are most effective at generating purchase intent and digital engagement. Moreover, pollution ideation is the mechanism underlying these effects on social media. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed in light of the potential for advertising to be a force for good, particularly on social media where campaigns may encourage non-green consumers to think more about the environment.
Purpose
This study aims to explore how ephemeral content marketing enhances brand love and customer engagement, with a focus on the mediating role of brand authenticity, self-brand connection and advertising value.
Design/methodology/approach
This research was conducted using a quantitative method through an online questionnaire with a sample of 728 in Vietnam, analyzing data by using the partial least squares structural equation modeling model.
Findings
This study evaluates ephemeral content marketing through six dimensions: entertainment, trendiness, informativeness, interactivity, aesthetic quality and perceived relevance. The findings indicate positive mediating roles of advertising value, self-brand connection and brand authenticity on the impact of ephemeral content marketing on brand love and customer engagement.
Research limitations/implications
This study provides a comprehensive model of factors affecting consumer perceptions of ephemeral content marketing, which can help businesses to proactively formulate strategic responses for consumers on social media platforms with ephemeral content features. This also allows them to precisely target their audience, avoiding ineffective and costly advertising efforts on social media when content quality is lacking.
Originality/value
This research sheds light on the six essential dimensions of effective ephemeral content that adds value to customers, ultimately leading to their love and active engagement. This substantial addition to the field of social media marketing opens up possibilities for further investigation of the dynamics across different forms of social media marketing, such as short-form videos or in various contexts such as tourism, fashion, food products and education, particularly in the context of ephemeral content in emerging markets such as Vietnam.
Companies and businesses have responsibilities towards their customers and the society at large. Such responsibilities should be revealed in their business actions and marketing communications done by them. The objective of the study is to understand the various aspects of socially responsible marketing communications. The methodology adopted is a conceptual analysis of the various aspects of marketing communications done by companies. Companies should understand their roles in socially responsible marketing communications viz. advertising, sales promotion, and personal selling. They should realize their responsibilities towards promotion of social responsibility and should adopt initiatives towards socially responsible marketing communications. Such initiatives will instill a sense of trust and belief in the minds of customers and the society at large. This will in turn allow companies to fulfill their social responsibilities and to achieve business excellence in the long run.
Purpose
The article aims to investigate how washing practices focused on appeasing sceptics of diversity work in for-profit organizations play out in corporate online communication of diversity and inclusion efforts, and how these enable communication to a wide audience that includes social equity advocates.
Design/methodology/approach
Online corporate communication data of diversity and inclusion themes were compiled from the websites of eight Swedish-based multinational corporations. The data included content from the companies’ official websites and annual reports and sustainability reports as well as diversity and inclusion-themed blog posts. A thematic analysis was conducted on the website content.
Findings
The study showcases how tensions between conflicting external demands are navigated by keeping the communication open to several interpretations and thereby achieving multivocality. In the studied corporate texts on diversity and inclusion, this is achieved by alternating between elements catering to a business case audience and those that appeal to a social justice audience, with some procedures managing to appease both audiences at the same time.
Originality/value
The article complements previously described forms of washing by introducing an additional type of washing – business case washing – an articulation of the business case rhetoric that characterizes the diversity management discourse. While much has been written about washing to satisfy advocates of social change and equity, washing to appease shareholders and boardroom members, who are focused on profit and economic growth, has received less attention. The article suggests that online corporate communication on diversity and inclusion, by appeasing diverse audiences, can be seen as aspirational talk.
Social media is a powerful medium for brands to engage with their consumers, especially during a public health crisis (PHC) when consumers are under duress. However, the impact of social media brand messages on consumer responses during a PHC is under-researched. Accordingly, this paper examines the brand message appeals that enhance online consumer response during a recent PHC in form of the COVID-19 pandemic. Four message appeals – emotional, rational, moral, and no-crisis – are proposed. The online consumer response to the messages with those appeals is measured by likes and shares. The variation of the effect across brands that sell essential and non-essential products/services are also examined. Following an exploratory study that examines 100 brand tweets to confirm the presence of the proposed message appeals, a total of 26,362 brand tweets on Twitter are collected and empirically analysed.
This research demonstrates that viewers increase purchase intentions when they view luxury product placements in movie scenes, particularly when luxury associations are activated and when background scenes are congruent with the product’s luxury image. In Study 1, participants view a luxury handbag appearing against upscale congruent or downscale incongruent backgrounds. In Study 2, participants are primed to associate with high or low social classes before they view a luxury product placed in upscale or downscale movie scenes. In Study 3, participants read a news article that describes the placed luxury product as a genuine high-end product or as a discount brand.
Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, many corporations have employed a new form of corporate social responsibility (CSR) advertising that incorporates COVID-19-related health behavior recommendations. This type of CSR advertising seeks to increase both business-oriented responses and health-oriented responses. As such, these ads are thought to benefit three audiences from inclusion of such messages: (1) society at large when individuals comply with the health messages; (2) individual consumers through increased sense of well-being and safety; and (3) the company through positive effects on the brand. Given the impact on all three audiences, we developed a comprehensive model that incorporates both the health belief model (HBM) and traditional advertising variables. We tested the model in the United States and Germany, surveying a total of 2,302 subjects. The model was largely confirmed in both countries. Importantly, COVID-19-related CSR ads increased the individual consumer’s sense of well-being, which then had a positive effect on brand outcomes but a detrimental effect on message compliance. This effect was stronger in Germany than in the United States. Thus, our findings are indicative of some undesirable effects on society of CSR ads that include COVID-19-related health behavior recommendations.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to provide an integrative theoretical framework that advances the underdeveloped stream of research that analyses how message authenticity influences the persuasiveness of corporate social responsibility (CSR) communication.
Design/methodology/approach
Theoretical and empirical literature on authenticity is reviewed to provide a comprehensive definition of message authenticity in CSR communication. An integrative theoretical framework is also developed to understand how message authenticity is enhanced through the design of informational content and it improves consumer responses to CSR communication.
Findings
The framework presented in the paper defends that message authenticity can be integrated in communication models based on three streams of research: identity-based brand management model, attribution theory and heuristic-systematic model. Consumer attributions of message authenticity can be notably improved with a message design based on CSR fit, social topic information and specificity. Authenticity improves message and source credibility by reducing consumer scepticism and enhancing their attributions of corporate expertise and trustworthiness. Indirect benefits of CSR message authenticity include increased consumer purchase, loyalty and advocacy behaviours.
Originality/value
The value of the paper resides in making the rather underdeveloped and inconclusive literature on authenticity accessible to CSR and communication researchers and practitioners. A theoretical framework is provided for further research that would contribute to improving the knowledge on the role that message authenticity plays in CSR communication.
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) efforts are known to affect firm and societal outcomes, but little is known about their effects on consumer well-being. We address this research gap by investigating whether consumers who have integrated their self-schema with a brand's schema (i.e., high self-brand overlap consumers) vicariously balance their moral behavior against a brand's CSR efforts. Specifically, we propose that a brand's socially responsible behavior can negatively influence the moral behavior of high self-brand overlap consumers (vicarious moral licensing), while a brand's less socially responsible behavior can positively influence the moral behavior of these consumers (vicarious moral cleansing). Further, we do not predict or observe these effects among low self-brand overlap consumers, given their lack of psychological identification with the CSR brand. Across four experiments, we demonstrate the vicarious moral balancing effect and show process evidence for the potential role of pride (guilt) in driving vicarious moral licensing (cleansing) behaviors. Importantly, we also demonstrate two potential methods to eliminate the vicarious moral licensing effect when firms conduct CSR efforts.
This research investigates to what extent brand authenticity lessens the impact of a brand scandal on consumer responses to the brand involved in the scandal. A 2 × 2 experiment shows that consumers responded more favourably to a more (vs. less) authentic brand in the event of a scandal. The protective effects of higher levels of brand authenticity emerged for emotional and behavioural brand outcomes (i.e. greater affection and willingness to pay) and brand-related inferences (i.e. lower perceived responsibility for the scandal and hypocrisy). Nonetheless, even a more authentic brand was harmed by a brand scandal (vs. no scandal). This suggests that higher levels of brand authenticity do not fully offset the negative consequences of brand scandals. A follow-up experiment ruled out that brand age drives these protective effects in case of a scandal. These findings give rise to theoretical and managerial implications.
Brands often do good through the vehicle of Corporate Social Responsibility. However, some implementations may still be viewed with cynicism leading to consumer backlash and stakeholder disengagement. Wicki & Kaaij (2007) propose that this arises due to an Authenticity Gap between the image an organization is pursuing and the actual perceived identity of the organization during and following CSR campaigns.
This paper explores the nature of the Authenticity Gap through making an examination of Levi’s award winning and widely praised CSR campaign. Employing expert practitioner focus groups it makes a contribution to knowledge by unpacking the constituent dimensions of the Authenticity Gap. It identifies eight factors comprising brand heritage, unpolished realism, collaboration, timing, tangibility, subdued approaches, situatedness and the media is the message. The research suggests that brands that take account of these factors have the potential to ward off paradoxical negative associations that can be experienced when attempting to do good.
A theoretical understanding of Brand Authenticity (BA) could not reach its full potential because of a disjointed body of research that has produced a wide variety of conceptualizations, which this study seeks to address. In order to help scholars converge on a unified understanding of BA, we conducted a thorough literature review which identified forty purported dimensions of BA. Our critical analysis resulted in a two-dimensional (i.e., originality and genuineness) conceptualization of the construct. Brand authenticity is defined as the extent to which a brand is considered unique, legitimate, truthful to its claims, and lacking falsity. This study conceptualizes BA as a second-order reflective–formative construct. A new scale for BA was proposed and then tested on data collected about Goodwill using Mechanical Turk. SmartPLS (PLS-SEM) was used to analyze the data using the two-stage approach. This study found that BA formatively comprises two theorized dimensions, and the proposed BA scale is valid and reliable. The major contribution of this study will be in improving the conceptualization of BA by unifying the fragmented literature and also presenting a scale developed and tested for the further study of BA.
This research explored a conceptual framework incorporating interrelationships among corporate social responsibility (CSR), corporate ability (CA), corporate reputation (CR), and CSR-related transparency on customer loyalty within the hotel context. In this study, we also analyzed consumers’ propensity to support CSR initiatives through the socio-demographic indicator of gender. We used independent sample t test and multiple regression analysis to test hypotheses based on 487 responses from American participants. Four antecedents (i.e., CSR, CA, CR, and transparency) exhibited favorable effects on customer loyalty. Among these four factors, the positively perceived CSR initiatives had a greater impact on customer loyalty. In addition, according to our findings, female participants were more likely to have a positive perception of the four antecedents than males.
Although firms leverage social media platforms such as Facebook to engage with customers, they often treat social media elements and other online marketing activities such as search engine advertising as stand-alone, rather than part of an integrated online activities system. Hence, it is important to systematically understand how specific elements of social media, signifying and representing behavioural manifestations of brand engagement, relate to other online activities. We study how three types of brand engagement on social media – affiliation, conversation and responsiveness – influence search engine advertising effectiveness, including click-through rate and conversion rate. Specifically, we find that affiliation, conversation and responsiveness increase click-through rate and conversion rate. Moreover, brand engagement on social media strengthens the relationships between advertisement rank and search engine advertising effectiveness.
A plethora of evidence suggests that developed societies such as the United Kingdom are becoming increasingly multicultural by the day. Hence, the diversity of consumption in these societies becomes gradually evident in the form of residents' age, gender, income and ethnicity. Accordingly, this article explores the brand personification and symbolic consumption in respect of London-based Black African teenage consumers. The study is rooted in the interpretive research paradigm with 36 in-depth interviews conducted with the target respondents. The study shows the interactions of personal, social, cultural, psychological and commercial factors in how these young ethnic minority consumers make their consumption decisions, define and manage their various 'selves' in the postmodern society. It specifically highlights that they use symbolic consumption to address their need for acceptance in the society. It updates the extant ethnic minority studies and enriches the current understanding about symbolic consumption and brand personification especially with a focus on a specific segment of the society. The managerial implications of the study are highlighted in the article.
Despite the growth of cause-related marketing (CRM), little is known about how consumers process cause-focused messages that contain emotional appeals. The present research seeks to further the understanding of guilt appeals in CRM by clarifying the moderating roles of product type and donation magnitude, and exploring the situations when a guilt appeal backfires. Although experimental results indicate that a guilt appeal is more effective than a non-guilt appeal, a guilt appeal backfires when the perceived hedonic value of a product is high. A high donation magnitude also eliminates CRM effectiveness of the guilt appeal. There is an interaction between guilt appeal and donation magnitude when promoting hedonic products with CRM. The findings underscore the importance for marketers of learning more about how guilt appeals work, and in turn describe how practitioners can avoid negative consumer reactions to their guilt appeals.
This investigation argues that authenticity is inherently a macromarketing concept that is linked to how marketers and consumers view themselves and their own status in society. We show that authenticity refers to the marketer’s marketplace condition (mindset) that can be best described as sincere concern for another. We argue that micromarketing as a general phenomenon is rooted in inauthenticity due to the fact that micromarketing practices represent (distressed, decomposed) overreaction to the marketers’ self-embraced narrow view of their own social status (as maximiser of self-interest, profit, growth) that is largely irrelevant – even contradictory – to the crucial goals of society.
This research furthers our understanding of brand authenticity by conceptualising and measuring relational authenticity as brands being true in their relationships with consumers. We develop a scale through two purification stages and then assess the scale’s predictive validity for various product and service brands. Sections of the Authenticity Inventory from psychology are adapted and subjected to exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis to confirm the dimensionality of relational authenticity. Discriminant and convergent validity tests confirm the four-item unidimensional construct is distinct from brand attachment. Next, we demonstrate the predictive validity of relational authenticity by identifying it as a stronger predictor of brand attitudes and purchase intentions than brand attachment. Relational authenticity increases brand attitudes and purchase intentions for those consumers with weak brand attachment. Finally, the predictive power of relational authenticity is further examined relative to two relationship quality measures of trust and commitment. Relational authenticity is a stronger predictor of brand attitudes than commitment to the brand and a stronger predictor of purchase intentions than trust in the brand. Marketers and brand managers can use relational authenticity as a basis for positioning or developing brands.
The issue of brand equity has emerged as one of the most critical areas for marketing management in the 1990s. Despite strong interest in the subject, however, there is little empirical evidence of how brand value is created and what its precise effects are. This study explores some of the consequences of brand equity. In particular, the authors examine the effect of brand equity on consumer preferences and purchase intentions. For comparative purposes, two sets of brands are tested, one from a service category characterized by fairly high financial and functional risk (hotels), and one from a generally lower risk product category (household cleansers). Each set includes two brands that are objectively similar (based on Consumer Reports ratings), but they have invested markedly different levels of advertising spending over the past decade. Across both categories, the brand with the higher advertising budget yielded substantially higher levels of brand equity. In turn, the brand with the higher equity in each category generated significantly greater preferences and purchase intentions.
As the nonprofit sector becomes increasingly competitive, it is critical for nonprofit service organizations to become more brand centered and to differentiate themselves in the marketplace. The two studies show that high-fit sponsorship programs between nonprofit service firms and businesses positively influence brand identity via broad associations and brand meaning, brand response, and brand relationships through specific associations. Conversely, low-fit sponsorship programs are likely to hinder nonprofit brand management strategies by negatively affecting brand identity, brand meaning, brand response, and brand relationships. Finally, the results reveal that nonprofit service organizations can use supportive communications to counter the risks of strategic alliances with low-fit businesses.
Three empirical studies employ a novel adaptation of self-construal theory to explain the theoretical basis of factors that are shown to influence consumers’ organic food purchase decisions. Study 1 tests a structural model and reveals that egoistic, self-focused (e.g., personal health) and altruistic, others-focused (e.g., environmental) considerations simultaneously predict consumers’ attitudes and purchase intentions toward organic food. Study 2 findings indicate that while personal considerations are equally prevalent for conventional and green (including organic) purchase decisions, societal considerations play a more influential role for green/organic products. Study 3 extends these findings by testing advertising treatments utilizing egoistic and/or altruistic claims. Using advertising stimuli for a fictitious brand of organic meat, results show that an ad that features both egoistic and altruistic message appeals produces more
favorable responses (brand and company attitudes and purchase intentions) than either an egoistic treatment or a control ad, but is equally effective to an ad featuring altruistic claims. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are presented and discussed.
We examine over 100 top performing Canadian firms in visibly polluting industries as we seek to answer four research questions: What specific environmental issues are firms addressing? How do these issues differ between industries? Are both symbolic and substantive actions financially beneficial? Does green-washing, measured as the difference between symbolic and substantive action, and/or green-highlighting, measured as the combined effect of symbolic and substantive actions, pay? We find that substantive actions of environmental issues (green walk) neither harm nor benefit firms financially, but symbolic actions (green talk) are negatively related to financial performance. We also find that green-washing (discrepancy between green talk and green walk) has a negative effect on financial performance and green-highlighting (concentrated efforts of the talk and walk) has no effect on financial performance. In this article, we provide explanations of our findings and put forth future research directions.
This paper combines insights from marketing and information systems research to arrive at an integrative model of online brand experience. In this model emotional aspects of brand relationship supplement the dimension of technology acceptance to arrive at a more complete understanding of consumer experience with an online brand. The empirical tests involve structural equation modeling and primary data from a survey of 456 users of online search engines. The results demonstrate that trust and perceived usefulness positively affect online brand experience. Positive experiences result in satisfaction and behavioral intentions that in turn lead to the formation of online brand relationship. Interestingly, brand reputation emerges as an important antecedent of trust and perceived ease of use of an online brand.
This research relied on a field experiment involving a real-world instance of corporate philanthropy to shed light on both
the scope and limitations of the strategic returns to corporate social responsibility (CSR). In particular, the authors demonstrate
that the impact of CSR in the real world is not only less pervasive than has been previously acknowledged but also more multifaceted
than has been previously conceptualized. The findings indicated that contingent on CSR awareness, which was rather low, stakeholders
did react positively to the focal company not only in the consumption domain but in the employment and investment domains
as well. Stakeholder attributions regarding the genuineness of the company’s motives moderated these effects.
This research investigates a novel type of fit unique to digital marketing: That between the intimacy of an advertising appeal and of the social media platform through which it is advertised. In doing so, we challenge the common marketing practice of posting identical content across platforms by showing how the same ad is received differently by consumers across differing platforms. Consistent with theories of processing fluency, we propose that platform‐appeal fit (in terms of intimacy) enhances consumers’ social media engagement with the brand because the associated fluency enhances consumers’ favorable cognitive judgments, affective state, and attitudes. A Pilot Study first maps the contours of platform intimacy through multidimensional scaling of several popular platforms. The resulting perceptual maps are then used to compare consumer response to an intimate or non‐intimate appeal posted by actual (Experiment 1) and fictitious (Experiment 2) brands on platforms of varying intimacy. Results provide evidence for fluency as a mechanism for increased engagement following platform‐appeal fit, suggesting that a one‐size‐fits‐all approach to digital marketing may be sub‐optimal in terms of consumer response.
Brand-cause fit, the concept that a brand and a social issue ‘pair’ together conceptually, has been a topic of great interest yet it is not fully understood due to inconsistent findings and limited theoretical development. In this study, we take a different approach to understanding brand-cause fit to explore how and in what ways ‘fit’ shapes advertising message strategies. A growing trend in advertising is ‘brand responsibility’, wherein a brand aligns itself with a social issue. A prominent focus of these messages is gender equality, namely, female empowerment. Advertisers utilize ‘femvertisements’ to emphasize their support of women. The motive behind this work is often called into question, given brands’ inherent desire to sell products. Advertisers should consider how brands ‘fit’ with specific social issues. Through a qualitative analysis of advertisements that received an award for femvertising, this study sheds light on the differences in message themes between brands with high versus low brand-cause fit, specifically target audience brand-cause fit, in an effort to further this literature and advertising practice. Five key messaging themes are elucidated among high-fit brands (overt femininity, fixing the self, being a girl is a hardship, actors on set, and let’s talk about it) and four themes among low-fit brands (low femininity, breaking stereotypes, reminders that women and men do the same activities, and getting men on board); which shape how women are depicted, the overall brand message, and the overall social issue message. Indeed, fit should be considered beyond simple high/low congruence. Implications for advertising practitioners and researchers are discussed.
Authenticity is a critical concept affecting consumers' judgments of brands, as well as CSR programs. However, while much research has examined the impact of authenticity, there is less understanding regarding the dimensions that influence consumers' perceptions of authenticity, especially within the CSR domain. Thus, the purpose of this research is (1) to identify the dimensions of CSR authenticity and (2) to develop and validate a multi-dimensional scale to assess it. Our findings support a seven-dimensional scale with the following dimensions: community link, reliability, commitment, congruence, benevolence, transparency, and broad impact. In addition, our findings support the efficacy of CSR authenticity for predicting positive consumer attitudes and intentions toward the firm. Marketing implications are discussed.
The author presents a conceptual model of brand equity from the perspective of the individual consumer. Customer-based brand equity is defined as the differential effect of brand knowledge on consumer response to the marketing of the brand. A brand is said to have positive (negative) customer-based brand equity when consumers react more (less) favorably to an element of the marketing mix for the brand than they do to the same marketing mix element when it is attributed to a fictitiously named or unnamed version of the product or service. Brand knowledge is conceptualized according to an associative network memory model in terms of two components, brand awareness and brand image (i.e., a set of brand associations). Customer-based brand equity occurs when the consumer is familiar with the brand and holds some favorable, strong, and unique brand associations in memory. Issues in building, measuring, and managing customer-based brand equity are discussed, as well as areas for future research.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the relationship between emotional experience and symbolic consumption on brand loyalty. The authors also examine the differences in Generation Y consumer behavior through the comparison of Generation Y consumers’ income sources.
Design/methodology/approach
A conceptual model was developed to represent the proposed relationships among the related variables. Data from a total of 328 usable surveys were collected from Thai Generation Y consumers. The proposed hypotheses were tested using structural equation modeling analyses.
Findings
The study found that emotional experience has a significant and positive effect experience symbolic consumption, symbolic consumption provided a positive effect on brand loyalty.
Research limitations/implications
Time and resources limitation did not allow studying the larger sample. Future research should include more product categories. The sample can be extended to consumers in ASEAN countries to provide more comprehensive insights into consumer perceptions and brand behaviors.
Practical implications
The findings suggest that symbolic consumption is a key motivation to increase brand loyalty when developing marketing strategies for the Generation Y consumers.
Originality/value
This study identifies the components of symbolic consumption in meaning for conspicuous products and provides empirical support for the effect of emotional experience and symbolic consumption on brand loyalty in coffee shop industry.
Drawing from the affect–reason–involvement model, we examine how misleading advertising about the environmental features of products, or greenwashing, affects how consumers perceive ads and brands. Using data from two experimental studies with quota-based samples in the United States (N = 486) and Germany (N = 300), we compare nondeceptive claims with two types of claims often used in greenwashing: vague claims and false claims. We also identify the presence of pleasant nature-evoking images and test for interaction effects with two types of environmental involvement: environmental concern and environmental knowledge. Results indicate that while vague claims do not enhance consumers' perceived greenwashing regardless of their environmental knowledge or concern, false claims do, which consequently harms consumers' attitudes toward those ads and brands. In the United States, consumers' environmental knowledge moderates that effect, whereas all consumers in Germany could identify false claims as attempts at greenwashing. Moreover, associating greenwashing claims with nature-evoking images activates an affective persuasive mechanism that appeals to consumers' affinity for nature, which not only positively influences their evaluations of ads and brands but also influences their attitudes toward ads and brands more strongly than perceived greenwashing. In closing, we discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these findings.
This study investigated the National Football League’s (NFL) communication efforts of its annual Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) campaign, “A Crucial Catch,” and the subsequent social media engagement from the public. A content analysis was conducted examining how NFL teams communicate their CSR efforts on Facebook using Charity Support Behaviors (CSB) and framing as our guide and then measuring which of these types of social media posts were most effective for increasing positive social media engagement. The extent that each team’s season record affected CSR messaging was also examined, underscoring the importance of winning and losing and its effect on social media engagement. The results of this study yield a comprehensive analysis of the types and frequency of messages used to communicate CSR activity on Facebook. Results provide best-practice recommendations for sports organizations using social media to communicate activities to external stakeholders (i.e., fans) that will benefit the cause and increase positive social media engagement (e.g., likes, shares, and comments).
Drawing insights from the theory of planned behaviour, this study examined the determinants of consumer support for cause-related marketing (CRM) across companies with either positive or negative corporate social responsibility (CSR) reputations. With the use of online experimental data (n = 311 college students), similarities and differences in the relationships between the determinants were discussed across two prior CSR reputations. For companies with positive CSR reputations, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control (PBC) appeared to have positive relationships with purchase intention. For companies with negative CSR reputations, attitude towards CRM, subjective norm, and PBC appeared to have positive relationships with purchase intention. For companies with both CSR reputations, affect towards CRM support was not found to be related to purchase intention. Subsequently, purchase intention turned out to influence the development of favourable brand image for companies with both positive and negative CSR reputations. Overall, these findings shed light on the potential that controversial companies with prior negative reputations can restore and enhance their brand image by employing CRM initiatives. Theoretical and managerial implications were discussed.
The current study examines the influence of unfamiliar food-related attributes (i.e., ingredients and food names) and stories about food origins on consumers’ perceptions of authenticity and their purchase intentions. The results show that unfamiliar ingredients, unique food names, and stories about food origins increase consumers’ perceptions of authenticity. In ethnic restaurants, authenticity has been emphasized as a critical factor for ensuring customer satisfaction and purchase intentions. The mediating role of customers’ perceptions of authenticity is confirmed in the current study. The findings of the current study suggest that the management of Chinese restaurants should develop unique food names and stories about a dish’s origin, as these are pivotal elements contributing to customers’ perceptions of authenticity and purchase intention.
Data collection using Internet-based samples has become increasingly popular in many social science disciplines, including advertising. This research examines whether one popular Internet data source, Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTurk), is an appropriate substitute for other popular samples utilized in advertising research. Specifically, a five-sample between-subjects experiment was conducted to help researchers who utilize MTurk in advertising experiments understand the strengths and weaknesses of MTurk relative to student samples and professional panels. In comparisons across five samples, results show that the MTurk data outperformed panel data procured from two separate professional marketing research companies across various measures of data quality. The MTurk data were also compared to two different student samples, and results show the data were at least comparable in quality. While researchers may consider MTurk samples as a viable alternative to student samples when testing theory-driven outcomes, precautions should be taken to ensure the quality of data regardless of the source. Best practices for ensuring data quality are offered for advertising researchers who utilize MTurk for data collection.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to investigate an antecedent of perceived authenticity in the relationship between product ethnicity (PE) and evaluations of foreign products. Moreover, the present study explores roles of product involvement and product type as moderators in the relationship between PE and authenticity.
Design/methodology/approach
A pretest was conducted to guide the selection of the product type utilized in the survey. With 200 South Korean panel data in Study 1, hypotheses were analyzed using multiple regression following the procedures outlined by Baron and Kenny (1986). With 288 US panel data in Study 2, mediation effects were analyzed using PROCESS by Hayes (2013).
Findings
The study provides strong evidences of the full mediating role of perceived authenticity between PE and consumer evaluations of foreign products. Experience goods accentuate the impact of congruent PE on authenticity relative to search goods. However, the product involvement as a moderator is not significant.
Practical implications
International marketing practitioners should attend to the importance of how source country consumers perceive the authenticity of foreign product. In particular, insights from findings will provide international marketers with a means to assess the efficacy of strategic communication messages designed to establish a perception of authenticity in the minds of consumers and a more effective approach to market segmentation in the foreign markets.
Originality/value
This study suggests the addition of authenticity into future studies of country of origin (COO) effects. As authenticity fully mediates the relationship between PE and product image evaluations, this study suggests the congruent product-country match as a signal of authenticity, in addition to product image. Moreover, this finding extends literature on COO effects by discussing the importance of authenticity in the context of experience goods relative to search goods.
The creation of identity, in terms of both consumer identity and brand identity, is a core topic in marketing theory. Based on participant ethnography of Yes Edinburgh North & Leith, part of Yes Scotland, the national referendum campaign supporting Scottish independence, this paper explores identity co-creation among three entities: the brand, the individual consumer, and the brand community. The findings suggest that the interactions among these entities co-create their identity, primarily through the actions of highly motivated working consumers. This paper identifies the main dialectic relationships and shows how the effects move beyond the dyads to affect the other entities, including the symbols used in the process of co-creation. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications for brands, individual consumers, and brand communities.
This paper investigates why audiences devalue organizations that behave inauthentically. One explanation is that inauthenticity leads to lower perceptions of product quality. This stems from the audience’s doubt of an inauthentic actor’s capability and commitment to produce high-quality goods. Another explanation is that audiences discount the symbolic value—or what the object represents—of products from inauthentic organizations. I empirically test each of these mechanisms in the craft beer industry. First, I exploit exogenous variation in consumers’ knowledge of craft brewers’ inauthentic identity (whether they are owned by a corporate brewer) to empirically demonstrate an inauthenticity discount. Next, I decompose audience evaluations to show that knowledge of a producer’s inauthenticity does not have a statistically significant impact on evaluators’ sensory experience of the product—its taste, smell, appearance, or mouthfeel—but that it does affect audience evaluations of the product’s symbolic value.
This paper was accepted by Olav Sorenson, organizations.
A new model of the advertising communication process is proposed, emphasizing scanning and focusing as stages in the processing of advertising by the consumer. During the scanning stage, the advertising should attract attention to become effective. Part of this attention-getting process is the primary affective reaction. The primary affective reaction is new to advertising process models. It is the gatekeeper and determinant of the remainder of the communication process. If successful, during the focusing stage cognitive elaboration, attitude formation and change take place. Measures of advertising effects are related to the stages of the communication process.
This paper reports the findings of a study on the effects of corporate social responsibility–brand fit (CSR-brand fit) on service brand loyalty via brand identification in a brand coffee shop industry. The authors also examine how customer participation in a firm’s CSR activities strengthens the formation of service brand loyalty. Using structural equation analysis, the proposed model was tested with 237 actual customers of brand coffee shops. The results indicate that CSR-brand fit strengthens both personal and social brand identification, which in turn increase consumers’ service brand loyalty. The results also indicate that personal identification has a larger influence on service brand loyalty than social identification does. The greater effect for personal versus social identification occurs when customers participate in companies’ CSR activities. This study deepens our understanding of the link between CSR-brand fit and loyalty via personal and social identification. The research is also the first to examine how customers’ active participation in CSR activities influences the process of loyalty formation.
Scholarly work over the past 15 years has demonstrated that corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives can have a positive impact on consumer behavior toward brands. Many consumers, however, claim they are uninformed about CSR. The goal of the current study was to find out what types of CSR-related media and content are more effectively communicated than others. The authors surveyed Austrian consumers for their preferences and compared the CSR communication methods used by international brands. They found that external sources—for instance, notices of prizes and awards for CSR initiatives—generated higher credibility than social media and certain corporate internal-communication methods.
This study examines object-based and existential authenticity using a multidimensional approach to perceived value. The effects of value perceptions on satisfaction are also examined. Data was collected from tourists at the Singapore Chinatown heritage precinct. The findings revealed that object-based authenticity, existential authenticity, and perceived monetary value positively influenced overall perceived value and subsequently, satisfaction. This paper provides researchers with a theoretical framework of authenticity and perceived value for future empirical studies in the heritage tourism context. It also provides insight into how destination marketers and policy makers can develop effective and sustainable strategies for heritage destinations.
Gaski’s commentary of Conejo and Wooliscroft’s “radical” (2015) “Brands Defined as Semiotic Marketing Systems” is rebutted. We reaffirm the need to update the AMA’s stagnant 80-year-old brand definition while addressing six issues: 1) That we don’t repudiate the AMA definition; 2) that we don’t present just another brand definition; 3) that definitions do change; 4) that products and brands are distinct concepts; 5) that the commentary does not properly address the Semiotic Brand System; and 6) that the commentary distracts from the real, more important question at hand, of whether the AMA brand definition is still viable.
Authenticity is examined in various marketing literature, but an understanding of its role in the context of corporate social responsibility (CSR) is lacking. Although it is known that consumers reward companies that engage in CSR, there is still a notable level of skepticism that hinders the success of CSR campaigns. This paper describes two studies. The first employs content analysis to understand the factors that influence the perceived authenticity of CSR initiatives. The second empirical study develops and validates a CSR authenticity scale and offers evidence that CSR authenticity is influenced by fit, impact, and reparation. Further, the findings indicate that CSR authenticity has a mediating influence on important consumer outcomes. The results indicate that it is not enough for a firm to simply engage in CSR. A firm's CSR strategy must also take into account the extent to which consumers perceive the CSR initiative to be authentic.
Although brand authenticity is gaining increasing interest in consumer behavior research and managerial practice, literature on its measurement and contribution to branding theory is still limited. This article develops an integrative framework of the concept of brand authenticity and reports the development and validation of a scale measuring consumers' perceived brand authenticity (PBA). A multi-phase scale development process resulted in a 15-item PBA scale measuring four dimensions: credibility, integrity, symbolism, and continuity. This scale is reliable across different brands and cultural contexts. We find that brand authenticity perceptions are influenced by indexical, existential, and iconic cues, whereby some of the latters' influence is moderated by consumers' level of marketing skepticism. Results also suggest that PBA increases emotional brand attachment and word-of-mouth, and that it drives brand choice likelihood through self-congruence for consumers high in self-authenticity.
Advertisers have long been interested in the persuasiveness of cause-related marketing (CRM) campaigns, and the authors extend this stream of research using two separate experiments that considers the effectiveness of the company's product versus cash donations. Findings from Study 1 indicate consumers perceive sponsoring companies of CRM campaigns less favorably when these companies make product rather than cash donations to their nonprofit CRM partners, and the level of consumer participation effort required in these campaigns does not moderate this effect. However, Study 2 introduces congruency as a potential explanation for these adverse effects and extends Study 1 by demonstrating that more (as compared to less) congruent product donations can eliminate the negative effects of product donations. Further, it confirms prior findings concerning the importance of sponsoring company–cause congruency. Campaigns designed with higher levels of both types of congruency (product donation–cause and company–cause) promote favorable campaign outcomes. Further, both studies demonstrate that the effects of product donations on campaign outcomes are mediated by company motive. Implications for advertising theorists and practitioners are offered.
This article explores the relationship between corporate social responsibility (CSR) and authenticity by developing a framework that explains the characteristics of CSR activities that lead to a perception by stakeholders that a firm’s CSR efforts are genuine. Drawing on the authenticity literature, we identify two core dimensions of authenticity that impact stakeholder perceptions of CSR: distinctiveness and social connectedness. Distinctiveness captures the extent to which a firm’s CSR activities are aligned with their core mission, vision and values while social connectedness refers to the degree to which an organization’s CSR efforts are embedded in a larger social context. We use this framework to explore the question ‘when are a firm’s CSR efforts most likely to be perceived as authentic by stakeholders?’ and find that both of these dimensions are necessary; social connectedness or distinctiveness alone are necessary but insufficient conditions for perceptions of authenticity to occur. A detailed exploration of authenticity, therefore, advances research in the CSR domain that may help mend the growing divide between business and society.
The author challenges the view that incongruent extensions are doomed to fail and demonstrates that brand extension ad content and repeated exposure to those advertisements influence consumer reactions to incongruent extensions. In a study of four highly regarded brands, participants who viewed brand extension advertisements five times evaluated incongruent extensions more positively, expressed higher usage intentions, indicated more favorable consistency judgments, and exhibited increased elaboration and more positive elaboration than did participants who viewed the advertisements only once. This relationship was attenuated for highly incongruent extensions for which the advertisement evoked primarily peripheral brand associations instead of benefit brand associations However for moderately incongruent extensions, advertisements that evoked either peripheral or benefit associations were equally effective. Process measures indicate the importance of the extent and nature of elaborative processing.
This study employed a content analysis of the creative strategies present in the social media content shared by a sample of top brands. The results reveal which social media channels are being used, which creative strategies/appeals are being used, and how these channels and strategies relate to consumer engagement in branded social media. Past research has suggested that brands should focus on maintaining a social presence across social channels with content that is fresh and frequent and includes incentives for consumer participation (Ling et al., 2004). This study confirmed the importance of frequent updates and incentives for participation. In addition, several creative strategies were associated with customer engagement, specifically experiential, image, and exclusivity messages. Despite the value of these creative approaches, most branded social content can be categorized as functional.
The search for self-identity is a key determinant of postmodern consumption so it is essential for marketers to understand the concept and dynamics of self, the symbolic meaning of goods and the role played by brands. Building from the concept of advertising literacy, this paper outlines a model of the dialectical relationship between self-identity and social-identity, the domains of self-symbolism and social-symbolism, and the process of the mediated experience of advertising and the lived experience of products/services. Implications for brand strategy are discussed in relation to trust, deep meaning and the possibilities for mass-market brands to have personal meaning for the individual.
Postmodern consumers use brands to create an authentic self and to reconnect to place, time, culture and others. Although previous research has identified that consumers draw on a range of cues in order to attribute authenticity to branded objects, no scales exist to measure the construct of brand authenticity. Building on the existing literature, this paper uses quantitative methods to develop a psychometrically robust measure of brand authenticity from a consumer's perspective. Findings demonstrate convergent, discriminant and predictive validity, whereby 14 items represent three interrelated first order factors labeled quality commitment, sincerity and heritage that correspond with a higher order brand authenticity construct. This study extends our understanding of the consumption of authenticity. Moreover, it provides a tool by which firms can evaluate the effectiveness of strategic decisions designed to deliver an authentic brand offering to consumers. Limitations and directions for future research are discussed.
Should business strive to be socially responsible, and if so, how? The Debate over Corporate Social Responsibility updates and broadens the discussion of these questions by bringing together in one volume a variety of practical and theoretical perspectives on corporate social responsibility. It is perhaps the single most comprehensive volume available on the question of just how "social" business ought to be. The volume includes contributions from the fields of communication, business, law, sociology, political science, economics, accounting, and environmental studies. Moreover, it draws from experiences and examples from around the world, including but not limited to recent corporate scandals and controversies in the U.S. and Europe. A number of the chapters examine closely the basic assumptions underlying the philosophy of socially responsible business. Other chapters speak to the practical challenges and possibilities for corporate social responsiblilty in the twenty-first century. One of the most distinctive features of the book is its coverage of the very ways that the issue of corporate social responsibility has been defined, shaped, and discussed in the past four decades. That is, the editors and many of the authors are attuned to the persuasive strategies and formulations used to talk about socially responsible business, and demonstrate why the talk matters. For example, the book offers a careful analysis of how certain values have become associated with the business enterprise and how particular economic and political positions have been established by and for business. This book will be of great interest to scholars, business leaders, graduate students, and others interested in the contours of the debate over what role large-scale corporate commerce should take in the future of the industrialized world.
Recent and emerging technology permits psychologists today to recruit and test participants in more ways than ever before. But to what extent can behavioral scientists trust these varied methods to yield reasonably equivalent results? Here, we took a behavioral, face-to-face task and converted it to an online test. We compared the online responses of participants recruited via Amazon’s Mechanical Turk (MTurk) and via social media postings on Twitter, Facebook, and Reddit. We also recruited a standard sample of students on a college campus and tested them in person, not via computer interface. The demographics of the three samples differed, with MTurk participants being significantly more socio-economically and ethnically diverse, yet the test results across the three samples were almost indistinguishable. We conclude that for some behavioral tests, online recruitment and testing can be a valid—and sometimes even superior—partner to in-person data collection.
The purpose of the present research was to examine the role of involvement and donation in moderating the effect of cause related marketing (CRM) and ordinary marketing (OM) on consumer attitudes and purchase intentions. It is proposed that the level of involvement (i.e., high or low involvement) may make either veridical information (i.e., high involvement) or peripheral cues (i.e., low involvement) in the message more salient, and hence, more relevant and more important in the formation of attitudes and purchase intentions. Therefore, the level of donation size (i.e., high or low level) may be perceived either as an important element in the message (i.e., high involvement) or as a peripheral cue (i.e., low involvement). It is hypothesized that in conditions where there is a match between levels of involvement and donation (i.e., high-high or low-low), CRM would be superior to OM in creating favorable attitudes and purchase intentions whereas in conditions where there is a mismatch between (i.e., high-low and low-high), OM would be superior to CRM. To test these hypotheses, half of the subjects were shown painful images (i.e., high cause involvement) and the other half were shown pleasant images concerning the cause (i.e., low cause involvement). In one half of the ads, 5% of sales were claimed to be donated (i.e., high donation) and 0.1% in the other (i.e., low donation). In one half of the ads, a fictitious nonprofit organization (NPO) was affiliated with the experimental brand and claimed to work on the sponsored cause (i.e., CRM) and in the other half there was no mention of a specific cause (i.e., OM). Results from several ANOVA analyses supported the hypotheses and all hypotheses were accepted.
Two hundred members of the public were interviewed in high street and railway station locations in central London to ascertain the considerations that encourage them to donate generously to a disaster relief fund-raising appeal. It emerged that the major fund-raising triggers involved media representations of the indigency of aid recipients, portrayals of people helping themselves, and highly emotive advertising imagery. Although they were potentially patronising and demeaning to disaster victims, such depictions seemingly exerted powerful influences on donation decisions. Factors discouraging donations included media reports of unfair aid distributions, warfare or internal insurrection, and inefficiency in the relief operation. Combined fund-raising efforts covering several organisations were viewed more favourably than individual charity initiatives. State endorsements of particular campaigns exerted little influence. Some but not all of the variables known to determine levels of donations to charity in general also explained the incidence of donations to disaster relief appeals. However, people with young children gave to disaster appeals more frequently than the rest of the sample, contradicting previous findings in the general (non-disaster) charity fund-raising area.
Cause-related marketing campaign structural elements (CSEs) are individual message components that are selected for campaigns and have the ability to influence consumer intentions and behavior. In this study, the impact of donation magnitude (small; large) and donation recipient (branded and well-known; branded and fictitious; unbranded and well-known) on the dependent variables of consumer attitude toward the offer, attitude toward the alliance, and participation intention is explored by means of a 2 × 3 between-subjects experiment. Despite significant differences in familiarity with and attitude toward the donation recipient, significant differences between groups in terms of the dependent variables were not found. The nature of the sample (Generation Y), their attitude toward helping others and charitable organizations, social exchange theory, and equity theory are explored in an attempt to clarify the lack of significant differences pertaining to the dependent variables.