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A New Bronze Age Mega-fort in Southeastern Europe: Recent Archaeological Investigations at Gradište Iđoš and their Regional Significance
Abstract
A newly discovered network of later Bronze Age fortified sites of unusually large size are discussed, with a primary focus on results of excavations at the site of Gradište Iđoš. Closely associated with the rivers Mureš, Tisza, and Danube, these sites are located in the southeast of the Carpathian Basin in central Europe. On current evidence, the main period of construction and occupation took place between 1400–1100 b.c., probably constituting successor communities of the tell-centred societies of the Middle Bronze Age. Geophysical survey and excavation results from Gradište Iđoš, the largest site in this network in Serbia, are presented in this paper within their regional context. We discuss preliminary insights into the structural development of the site, alongside a correlation of new ¹⁴C dates with relative ceramic chronological markers and the results of faunal analysis. These results provide new perspectives on settlement systems at the dawn of Urnfield cultural traditions in this region.
... This is based on a bias in distribution of pottery of this style in the north and south, and less-so the middle, of Banat. This is seen for example in the published assemblage from Gradište Iđoš and from its cemetery at Budžak Livade in the north and the cemetery of Karaburma in the south [50][51][52][53]. ...
... This was the largest construction built in any part of Europe up to that time, dwarfing the citadels of the Aegean world and their surrounding towns. Other impressive sites, while smaller, were nonetheless massive relative to earlier and contemporary sites in Europe, with sites such as Sântana Cetatea Veche, Gradište-Iđoš, Sakule, Crepaja, Bašaid, Csanádpalota, Orosháza Nagytatársánc and Ú jkígyós all warranting the term megasite or megafort, ranging from 75 to 460 Ha of enclosed space (Fig 1) [50,89,108]. ...
... An estimated 30-40% of the megafort at Crepaja has been eroded in the northeast through the migration of a now-extinct minor A functional hierarchy can be recognised in site design, whereby the larger sites are invariably more complex than smaller ones and they invariably have spatially more extensive and intensive surface traces of activity (apart, perhaps, from Bašaid). Internal divisions are defined by enclosures visible either in aerial imagery or through geophysical survey [50]. The variety of site locations, from gentle slopes to isolated islands on the edges of wetlands, may also suggest that apart from size and complexity, different sites had different roles or special purposes within this network. ...
Societies of the later Early to Middle Bronze Age (ca. 2200–1600 BC) in the Carpathian Basin exhibited complex, hierarchical and regionally influential socio-political organisation that came to an abrupt end in the 16th century BC. Considered a collapse by some, this change was characterised by abandonment of virtually all central places / nodes in settlement networks. Until recently, the complexity that characterised the period was believed to have substantially diminished alongside depopulation. This model was reinforced by a combination of the loss of established external networks and low-resolution knowledge of where and how people lived in the first stages of the Late Bronze Age (between 1600 and 1200 BC). We contest the idea of a diminished Late Bronze Age and argue that a fully opposite trajectory can be identified–increased scale, complexity and density in settlement systems and intensification of long-distance networks. We present results of a settlement survey in the southern Pannonian Plain using remote and pedestrian prospection, augmented by small-scale excavations. New absolute dates are used to define the occupational history of sites dating primarily between 1500–1200 BC. We argue that climate change played a substantial role in in the transformation of settlement networks, creating a particular ecological niche enabling societies to thrive. New and specific forms of landscape exploitation developed that were characterised by proximity to wetlands and minor watercourses. In this context, the largest monuments of Bronze Age Europe were created and inhabited. In considering the origins and demise of these megasites and related settlements, we provide a new model for Late Bronze Age societies in the Carpathian Basin and their regional relevance.
... The lack of chronological overlap between MBA fortified tells and LBA megaforts does not preclude a shared habitus of living in a clearly delineated, highly structured enclosed space. Molloy et al. (2020, fig. 1.1 & table 1.1) have identified a site hierarchy based on scale and size, design and distribution, with seven size-based ranks. ...
... The exceptional size of Corneşti-Iarcuri singles the complex out for special discussion (see Section 5.3). Four other well-investigated sites provide a representative selection of the fortified examples of the seventy currently known LBA sites in the Banat (Molloy et al. 2020, fig. 1.1) (here, Fig. 24) -Csanadpalota (400 ha), Idjoš-Gradište (200 ha), Sântana (180 ha) and Munar (15 ha) (for details, see Table 4). ...
... The form of the ditches meant that defence was prioritised at some sites (e.g., the V-sectioned ditch at Sântana Enclosure III) but not at others (V-sectioned ditches were not encountered at Csanadpalota). At Idjoš, the form of ditch 2A, dug in front of an entrance, changed from V-sectioned, so defensive, to a U-shaped profile and finally a shallow, flat-bottomed form (Molloy et al. 2020). ...
meanings of megalithisme
... The lack of chronological overlap between MBA fortified tells and LBA megaforts does not preclude a shared habitus of living in a clearly delineated, highly structured enclosed space. Molloy et al. (2020, fig. 1.1 & table 1.1) have identified a site hierarchy based on scale and size, design and distribution, with seven size-based ranks. ...
... The exceptional size of Corneşti-Iarcuri singles the complex out for special discussion (see Section 5.3). Four other well-investigated sites provide a representative selection of the fortified examples of the seventy currently known LBA sites in the Banat (Molloy et al. 2020, fig. 1.1) (here, Fig. 24) -Csanadpalota (400 ha), Idjoš-Gradište (200 ha), Sântana (180 ha) and Munar (15 ha) (for details, see Table 4). ...
... The form of the ditches meant that defence was prioritised at some sites (e.g., the V-sectioned ditch at Sântana Enclosure III) but not at others (V-sectioned ditches were not encountered at Csanadpalota). At Idjoš, the form of ditch 2A, dug in front of an entrance, changed from V-sectioned, so defensive, to a U-shaped profile and finally a shallow, flat-bottomed form (Molloy et al. 2020). ...
This is an Element about some of the largest sites known in prehistoric Europe – sites so vast that they often remain undiscussed for lack of the theoretical or methodological tools required for their understanding. Here, the authors use a relational, comparative approach to identify not only what made megasites but also what made megasites so special and so large. They have selected a sample of megasites in each major period of prehistory – Neolithic, Copper, Bronze and Iron Ages – with a detailed examination of a single representative megasite for each period. The relational approach makes explicit comparisons between smaller, more 'normal' sites and the megasites using six criteria – scale, temporality, deposition / monumentality, formal open spaces, performance and congregational catchment. The authors argue that many of the largest European prehistoric megasites were congregational places.
... Previous knowledge about the economy of Bronze Age communities in the territory of present-day Serbia is based on archaeozoological research of several sites located in different regions. In the territory of Northern Serbia these are Feudvar (Becker 1991;Blažić 1991Blažić , 2005, Gradište -Iđoš (Molloy et al. 2020), Mokrin (Blagojević 2020Bököny 1972;Стефановић и Димитријевић 2007), Mitrovačke Livade -Sremska Mitrovica, Livade -Sremska Mitrovica, and Erem -Sremska Mitrovica (Blažić 1995). In the area south of the Sava and the Danube rivers the number of sites is more numerous: Bubanj (Bökönyi 1991;Bulatović 2020), Vinča -Belo Brdo (Arnold and Greenfield 2006aGreenfield , 2006bGreenfield 2014), Crkvine, Petnica and Livade (Arnold and Greenfield 2006aGreenfield , 2006bGreenfield 1986a), Novačka Ćuprija (Arnold and Greenfield 2006aGreenfield , 2006bGreenfield 1986aGreenfield , 1986b, Ljuljaci (Arnold and Greenfield 2006aGreenfield , 2006bGreenfield 1986aGreenfield , 1986c, Vrbica, Sarina Međa and Vecina Mala (Greenfield 1986a;, Rit and Nad Klepečkom (Vuković and Marković 2019). ...
... In the above-mentioned Bronze Age faunal assemblages, the most important domestic animals were those usually used in the diet (cattle, caprines, pigs), while their proportions vary depending on the site. The distribution of wild animals is not negligible, especially in the case of red deer (Arnold and Greenfield 2006aGreenfield , 2006bBecker 1991;Blagojević 2020;Blažić 1991Blažić , 2005Блажић 1995;Bökönyi 1972Bökönyi , 1991Bulatović 2020;El Susi 1996;Greenfield 1986aGreenfield , 1986bGreenfield , 1986cGreenfield , 1996Greenfield , 2014Molloy et al. 2020;Стефановић и Димитријевић 2007;Vuković and Marković 2019). The faunal collection from Jaruga -Izbište site is mostly consistent with these assemblages and differs only regarding the representation of wild animals, which might be a consequence of the small sample size. ...
Although today there are a lot of various publications about the Vatin culture, its periodisation, characteristics, and material culture, the data on the exploitation of animals based on the analysis of faunal material is very modest. Therefore, this paper provides a valuable insight into animal exploitation during the Middle Bronze Age, based on results of archaeozoological analysis of one small assemblage from the Jaruga – Izbište site, related to the Vatin Culture. Relative distribution of species and skeletal elements, butchering marks, and bone fragmentation, suggest that animal remains from this sample mostly represent food leftovers. Faunal assemblage predominately consisted of mammal remains, while molluscs were present as well. Animal husbandry had a significant role, according to the high representation of domestic mammals (cattle, caprines, pig, horse, and dog), while hunting had a secondary role (rare remains of wild boar were the only specimens among wild mammals). The presence of freshwater shells from the Unio genus suggests exploitation of aquatic resources as well.
... 45 Heeb -Szentmiklosi -Wiecken 2008Szentmiklosi et al. 2011;Heeb et al. 2018;Lehmphul et al. 2019. 46 Molloy et al. 2017; Molloy et al. 2020. fortified sites from the period have been located and partly excavated, 47 and work on non-fortified settlements started as well. ...
The aim of this article is to provide a brief description of the Late Bronze Age settlement of Csanádpalota-Földvár and the results of the first years of excavations at the site. During the rescue excavations from 2011 to 2013, a fortified settlement of enormous proportions with several ramparts and ditches was found. The first rescue excavations were followed by a series of non-destructive investigations, targeted smaller excavations and research into the regional context of the site.
Antaeus 38 (2022 [2023]) 213-250.
... The Bronze Age fortifications of this region can be labelled as megaforts, a term coined by Harding (2017) and which have only been investigated in the last ten to fifteen years. Archaeological excavations of mega-forts have been carried out in Cornești (Szentmiklosi et al., 2011) (Fig. 2), Sântana (Gogâltan et al., 2019) (Fig. 3), and Munar (Sava and Gogâltan, 2017) in Romania, Csanádpalota (Szeverényi et al., 2017) and Makó -Rákos-Császár (Szeverényi et al., 2017) in Hungary, and Gradište Idjoš in Serbia (Molloy et al., 2020). ...
This study aims to provide new insights into Europe’s largest known Bronze Age earthworks using open-access and freely distributed medium-resolution satellite images. The most extensive Bronze Age fortifications in Europe, namely, the Corneşti-Iarcuri and Sântana – Cetatea Veche sites, were investigated through the Sentinel 2 and the newly launched Landsat 9 optical sensors. Image processing techniques were applied to both datasets, including vegetation indices, orthogonal spectral transformations, and pan-sharpening techniques. The final results revealed several known and unknown archaeological proxies by enhancing a number of linear and curved crop marks in the vicinity of the archaeological sites. Indeed, while previously implemented geophysical results confirmed some of these archaeological proxies, new findings (crop marks) were also revealed, representing archaeological structures that were unknown until now. The study's overall findings indicate that medium-resolution satellite images can be used in appropriate areas with archaeological interest as a first step toward better understanding the broader context of an area. The findings addressed in this study have a direct impact on the non-invasive aspect of archaeology, as the methodology employed in this paper may be applied to various types of sites in southwestern Romania and beyond and might serve as a solid starting point for any archaeological project. Finally, this is the first elaboration of Landsat 9 intended for archaeological research, and our study proves its utility for archaeological and heritage purposes.
... Most hillforts are known from surveys and appear to be densely distributed in the territory. Some evidence from Dalmatia suggests that a marked increase in the building of hillforts took place during the LBA, when in neighboring regions in the interior (from present Serbia to Hungary and Romania) some forts were gargantuan (more than 1700 ha), so much so that the term mega-fort has been proposed (Molloy et al. 2020). Closer to the sea, the main problem remains understanding whether these fortified hillforts were in use simultaneously and/or may have had different functions. ...
The Late Bronze Age (1700–900 BC) represents an extremely dynamic period for Mediterranean Europe. Here, we provide a comparative survey of the archaeological record of over half a millennium within the entire northern littoral of the Mediterranean, from Greece to Iberia, incorporating archaeological, archaeometric, and bioarchaeological evidence. The picture that emerges, while certainly fragmented and not displaying a unique trajectory, reveals a number of broad trends in aspects as different as social organization, trade, transcultural phenomena, and human mobility. The contribution of such trends to the processes that caused the end of the Bronze Age is also examined. Taken together, they illustrate how networks of interaction, ranging from the short to the long range, became a defining aspect of the “Middle Sea” during this time, influencing the lives of the communities that inhabited its northern shore. They also highlight the importance of research that crosses modern boundaries for gaining a better understanding of broad comparable dynamics.
... Medium and long-distance trade, the intensity of metallurgical and agricultural production generated unprecedented accumulations of wealth during LBA II, reflected in three hoards of gold ornaments and numerous bronze deposits. During the 13th century B.C., it can be observed in the Lower Mures Basin a series of violent destructions of the major fortifications (Gogaltan et al., 2019a;Lehmphul et al., 2019;Sava, 2019;Molloy et al., 2020). It should be noted that the number of discoveries associated with LBA III (approx. ...
Knowledge of the past can provide information to protect the future and the potential of the technological development in the analytical sciences can be successfully applied for the study and conservation of cultural objects. In this context, in the present paper we propose an analytical methodology to characterize seven samples of ancient ceramic objects (dating to the Late Bronze Age). The samples were analyzed using optical microscopy, and all the samples presented a strong inhomogeneity on the surface, as suggested by the different colors of the ceramics. X-ray fluorescence (XRF) results reveal a relatively heterogenous composition of the samples, as well as strong differences between the different surfaces of each sample. By comparative analysis of the diffractograms recorded for both sides of the same samples were observed some differences, especially in terms of relative concentration of the component minerals, and, in lesser content, in terms of new phases present in the samples. Corroborated results obtained by XRF and X-ray diffraction (XRD) offered information regarding mineralogical composition of the samples: for some of them illite/muscovite and plagioclase phases are present in higher quantities or a lower quartz content. The presence of these components was confirmed by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis. The thermal analysis completes the analytical investigation of the ceramic samples. The thermal behavior of the sample conducted to some explanation regarding the observed differences, due to the raw materials (that the major clay mineral in the samples is represented by illite) or to environmental factors during their burial in the soil.
In our paper, we explore the violent conflicts in the Lower Mureș Valley during the Bronze Age, focusing on the remarkable fortification at Sântana and the societal shifts surrounding its destruction. By cataloging various archaeological findings, we reveal how warfare perceptions evolved alongside significant social and economic changes in the region. We invite you to read our findings and share your thoughts!
In this study, we use high-resolution data from airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) acquisitions to comprehensively analyse late prehistoric earthwork structures in the alluvial plain of Friuli (NE Italy). By comparing LiDAR-derived models with direct topographic surveys of the structures carried out in the past we provide a detailed overview of the main characteristics of the structures. The new documentation, including Digital Terrain Models (DTMs), profiles and 3D models of the preserved structures, refines the topographic information collected by previous scholars and offers new insights into the development of sophisticated building techniques by Bronze Age communities. Additionally, by converting earthwork volumes into energetics and combining workforce investment analysis with other archaeological proxies—particularly site size and distribution—we have supported the analysis of settlement patterns and organization. Assuming 100 hypothetical full-time workers, the construction of burial mounds would have required from 1 week to 2 months; phase 3 monumental embankments at Sedegliano, Savalons, and Galleriano forts would have taken 4–10 months while 2.5–4 years at Udine. The Udine mound would have demanded up to 28 times the labour needed for other forts’ embankments, requiring approximately 11 years to complete and likely necessitating additional workforce from nearby settlements. This approach reveals the emergence of a defined hierarchical settlement system in the Friuli plain during the Recent Bronze Age, with the fort of Udine serving as a top-order settlement within a polity of smaller ones, akin to those recognized in the nearby regions of the Po Plain.
The burial of metals in hoards is a trademark phenomenon of prehistoric Europe that may be counterintuitive to perceptions of value nowadays. For the first time here, we establish detailed biographies of a large corpus of hoarded metal objects, providing new insights into how societies in the second millennium BC engaged with their convertible material wealth. We move beyond previous research on prehistoric hoarding commonly focussing on separate questions such as what was placed in hoards, who selected the objects, what were the origins of materials, and where and when they were buried. Analysing ca. 200 metal tools and weapons, we use data reduction methods to define technological pathways in the long biographies of hoarded objects extending across the sourcing of materials, production, use, decommissioning, and deposition in the Carpathian Basin. We show how the differential treatment of materials and objects was strongly biased by social decisions across artefact types. We identify shared, standardised signature treatments that crossed over social-spatial boundaries. Our findings bring new insights on the interface between communal and elite wealth management at the intersection of technological reasoning and cultural beliefs in prehistoric communities.
Recent research in the later Bronze Age of the southern Carpathian Basin has revealed an extensive network of large, often-enclosed settlements. Within this network, a particularly dense group of sites has recently been characterized: the Tisza Site Group (TSG). Building on advances in inter-site relations in recent research, we explore social organization within settlements using five case studies from different parts of this network. Using a multi-proxy approach of satellite imagery, systematic surface survey, and geophysical prospection, we studied the distribution of archaeological features and surface traces of activity within the enclosed space. Results indicate that sites in the TSG shared a common ethos regarding the use of space and the role of the built environment that was specific to LBA occupation of this landscape. Activity areas with domestic assemblages distributed in low-density relative to the enclosed space indicates settlement and specialist subsistence activities took place in parallel.
Animal husbandry was of fundamental consequence in the planning and development of larger and more permanent communities. Pastoralism is often assumed to be highly mobile when considering social institutions and political formations, despite the diversity of husbandry practices that are either wholly, or largely, tethered to relatively sedentary social aggregations. Key tenets of more settled animal husbandry are intensive social relations between people, and between people, animals, and landscapes. This entails reciprocal, multispecies cooperative efforts to decide how to utilize pastoral resources, choose where to settle, and how to organize settlements with an eye for the animals. Yet, scholars have rarely considered how the logistics and social dynamics of pastoralism shaped the transition to sedentism and, particularly, the development of collective forms of governance in prehistory. In this paper, we re-center pastoralism in narratives of settling down, in order to recognize the critical ways that relations with animals shaped how humans learned to move and dwell in emergent grazing landscapes. We take an institutional approach to the concept of “the commons,” demonstrating the dynamics through 19th-century Irish rundale, then draw on case studies from Southern Scandinavia and the Carpathian Basin to consider the commons as a multispecies institution which resulted in variable sociopolitical formations of the European Bronze Age.
The present study aims to explore connectivity and networking in Late Bronze Age (LBA)/Early Iron Age (EIA) Greece and the Balkans using morphological biodistance analysis and test the potentiality of newly introduced statistical tests, which were designed for challenging datasets, in this particular cultural area. Cranial non-metric traits were recorded in ten skeletal collections, spanning from East Crete to Romania. We followed an experimental statistical approach encompassing two different measures of divergence, the conventional and well-tested mean measure of divergence (MMD) and the newly introduced untransformed measure of divergence (UMD). Though different, results based on these two measures are mutually supporting and show that biodistances in our regional case studies mainly follow the isolation by distance model. This cautiously confirms our main hypothesis that during the LBA and EIA periods in Greece and the Balkans, personal mobility was a slow process characterized by integration, rather than displacement or transformation. The current study is the first one to infer biological affinities using cranial non-metric analysis combined with artifactual evidence, in LBA/EIA Greece and the Balkans. Building a larger dataset through future non-metric analyses will better enable exploring networking and mobility to further complement ongoing bioarchaeological, genetic, and material culture studies.
To understand the context in which it was possible for such an important event as the siege of the Late Bronze
Age Sântana-Cetatea Veche mega-fort/site to take place, we have enlarged our area of research on violent conflicts,
both geographically and chronologically. Our area of study, the Lower Mureş Valley, is situated at the boundary
connecting the Western Carpathians and the Pannonian Plain, nowadays between the borders of Romania, Serbia
and Hungary. The time frame of the study is the Bronze Age as a whole, conventionally dated from 2700/2600 to
900/800 BC.
To attain a diachronic perspective on violent conflicts, we cataloged, ranked and contextualized a series of
discoveries, such as weapons, fortifications, or traces of physical trauma on human remains from the period under
study. Through the analysis of such evidence, we argue that during the Bronze Age, our region of interest went
through a series of significant changes regarding the social perspective on warfare. These can be correlated with
the deep social and economic changes of the European Bronze Age. Furthermore, we took notice that such an
intense, devastating violent conflict, like the siege of Sântana, could only have taken place in the context of the
Late Bronze Age.
Satellite remote sensing has become a valuable tool in archaeology, allowing the monitoring of existing and discovery of new sites, and to study their surroundings. In an attempt to identify unknown Late Bronze Age (LBA) archaeological sites in the Serbian Banat region (southern Carpathian Basin), remote sensing techniques for site detection were applied using Sentinel-2 data. A multi-temporal analysis was performed, and the spectral signatures of soil marks from five known LBA settlements were analysed to determine the best conditions for the identification of archaeological features. Several principal component analyses (PCA), band combinations and vegetation indices were calculated. The vegetation indices results from soil marks at known sites demonstrated the impact of settlement characteristics (compositions, subsurface anomalies) on vegetation growth. Applying this further to identify new sites from the satellite data, one hundred and two possible archaeological locations, ranging from only a few hectares to 100 ha, were identified in Banat and Bačka, to the east and west of the Tisza River. Of the sixty-one possible sites identified in Banat, a sample was visited and their chronology confirmed, proving once again the enormous capabilities of Sentinel-2 data analyses for site detection.
Satellite remote sensing has become a valuable tool in archaeology, allowing the monitoring of existing and discovery of new sites, and to study their surroundings. In an attempt to identify unknown Late Bronze Age (LBA) archaeological sites in the Serbian Banat region (southern Carpathian Basin), remote sensing techniques for site detection were applied using Sentinel-2 data. A multi-temporal analysis was performed, and the spectral signatures of soil marks from five known LBA settlements were analysed to determine the best conditions for the identification of archaeological features. Several principal component analyses (PCA), band combinations and vegetation indices were calculated. The vegetation indices results from soil marks at known sites demonstrated the impact of settlement characteristics (compositions, subsurface anomalies) on vegetation growth. Applying this further to identify new sites from the satellite data, one hundred and two possible archaeological locations, ranging from only a few hectares to 100 ha, were identified in Banat and Bačka, to the east and west of the Tisza River. Of the sixty-one possible sites identified in Banat, a sample was visited and their chronology confirmed, proving once again the enormous capabilities of Sentinel-2 data analyses for site detection.
The lack of radiocarbon measurements of funerary contexts is a major shortcoming of the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age of the Eastern Carpathian Basin, especially in the Banat region. The present batch of samples tries to address these drawbacks, by detailing sampling strategies, employed pre-treatment and by providing a robust and coherent dataset of radiocarbon measurements. Implications of the new radiocarbon dates is discussed from a supra-regional perspective, while keeping aspects of typo-chronology, circulation of goods, and social nuances of employment of Bronze Age bronzes in the forefront. Ten burials were selected from four Banatian burial grounds according to the occurrence of metal finds in the funerary inventories. Beyond establishing a broad frame of absolute chronology for these sites of interment, the radiocarbon data provide reliable arguments for the precise attribution of metal discoveries. In addition, the data allow us to challenge some previously stated chronological assignments.
Desfășurarea unor mari proiecte investiționale a dus localității Pecica, jud. Arad, pe lângă numeroase beneficii economice, și o mai bună cunoaștere a realităților de ordin arheologic. Pe parcursul ultimilor 10 ani, nu mai puțin de 13 situri au fost investigate prin cercetari arheologice preventive. Suprafețele săpate de-a lungul vremii în diferite situri cumuleaza 234.532 m2 (aprox. 23,5 ha).
Ținând cont de numeroasele cercetări de care a beneficiat arealul localităţii Pecica de-a lungul timpului putem spune cu certitudine că ea reprezintă o zonă bine cunoscută, cu un important patri-moniu arheologic. Tocmai din acest considerent, dorim ca prin prezenta contribuţie să oferim atât publicului larg, cât şi celui ştiinţific un rezumat al investigaţiilor noastre arheologice desfăşurate pe teritoriul localităţii Pecica. Considerăm acest demers ca punct de plecare al viitoarelor proiecte, fie că acestea vor valorifica publicistic siturile deja săpate, fie că vor consta în descoperirea şi investi-garea de noi obiective. Totodată această contribuţie este menită să ducă la recunoaşterea din partea comunităţii locale a importantei moşteniri arheologice prezente în zona Pecicăi.
Lucrarea de față, monografia arheologică și istorică a localității Pecica, a fost organizată astfel încât sa constituie în primul rând un instrument de lucru, util pentru toți cei interesați de arheologia zonei. Prima parte este dedicată prezentarii cronologice a descoperirilor efectuate în aceasta micro-regiune. Discursul este organizat astfel încât fiecare subcapitol aferent unei etape cronologice sa fie centrat pe contextualizarea siturilor, detaliat prezentate în partea a doua a capitolului. Am decis ca partea cea mai consistentă să înfăţişeze siturile descope¬rite până la finalul anului 2021. Pentru fiecare dintre acestea a fost întocmită o fişă, astfel încât să fie prezentate cele mai importante informaţii. Accentul a fost pus pe istoricul cercetărilor, însoţit de o descriere a descoperirilor. Fişa este însoţită de o consistentă ilustraţie, care constă în hărţi, modele digitale de elevație, fotografii sau desene ale unor contexte relevante, ale unor artefacte, dar şi foto¬grafii din timpul săpăturilor. Bogata ilustraţie de care dispune textul este menită să vină în ajutorul cititorului, care astfel poate vizualiza mult mai uşor descrierile situaţiilor arheologice.
This study aims to investigate potential archaeological proxies at a large Bronze Age fortification in Hungary, namely the Csanádpalota-Juhász T. tanya site, using open-access satellite data. Available Sentinel-2 images acquired between April 2017 and September 2022 were used. More than 700 images (727) were initially processed and filtered, accounting at the end of more than 400 (412) available calibrated Level 2A Sentinel images over the case study area. Sentinel-2 images were processed through image analysis. Based on pan-sharpened data, the visibility of crop marks was improved and enhanced by implementing orthogonal equations. Several crop marks, some still unknown, were revealed in this study. In addition, multi-temporal phenological observations were recorded on three archaeological proxies (crop marks) within the case study area, while an additional area was selected for calibration purposes (agricultural field). Phenological observations were performed for at least four complete phenological cycles throughout the study period. Statistical comparisons between the selected archaeological proxies were applied using a range of vegetation indices. The overall results indicated that phenological observations could be used as archaeological proxies for detecting the formation of crop marks.
The Central and Southern Balkans
played a significant role in the introduction
and development of social complexity in
Europe. This is indicated by buildings, burials,
and artifacts. During the Neolithic period, the first
glimpses of communal differences appeared and
eventually developed into tribal elites and hierarchical
tribal kingdoms in the Chalcolithic (Copper Age),
Bronze Age, and Iron Age. These prehistoric stages witnessed a variety
of technological, economic, and social changes that
permitted the advancement and differentiation of
individuals and groups. They distinguished themselves
from one another by decorated structures, prestigious
objects, and lavish funerary rituals that signified the
different statuses or roles they held in society. In this
chapter, we provide an overview of these changes from
the end of the seventh to the middle of the first
millennium BC, focusing specifically on the central
southern parts of the Balkans.
New scientific research and major discoveries on
the eastern border of the Carpathian Basin—including
the Early Bronze Age burial mounds, the multi-layered
settlements of the Middle Bronze Age, the
Late Bronze Age mega-forts, and an Early Iron Age
center—permit us to paint a more nuanced picture
of a world of peace and war. Following Early and
Middle Bronze Age sociopolitical developments, the
Late Bronze Age saw the rise of powerful hierarchical
leaders who commanded the construction and regular
maintenance of massive earthen fortifications and
many times ordered formal armies with professional
soldiers supplied with specialized weaponry to perform
large-scale sieges.
In order to address the origins of southern Balkan Iron Age societies—the Illyrians, Paeonians, Dardanians, Thracians, and Macedonians and the extent of their hierarchical organization, we must first address the nature and evolution of their political systems. How were they organized? How was power shared or exercised among and between individuals? Was one’s power and standing based on military prowess, religion, control of trade, all of these, or none?
The globalizing connections that defined the European Bronze Age in the second millennium BC either ended or abruptly changed in the decades around 1200 BC. The impact of climate change at 3.2 ka on such social changes has been debated for the eastern Mediterranean. This paper extends this enquiry of shifting human–climate relationships during the later Bronze Age into Europe for the first time. There, climate data indicate that significant shifts occurred in hydroclimate and temperatures in various parts of Europe ca. 3.2 ka. To test potential societal impacts, I review and evaluate archaeological data from Ireland and Britain, the Nordic area, the Carpathian Basin, the Po Valley, and the Aegean region in parallel with paleoclimate data. I argue that 1200 BC was a turning point for many societies in Europe and that climate played an important role in shaping this. Although long-term trajectories of sociopolitical systems were paramount in defining how and when specific societies changed, climate change acted as a force multiplier that undermined societal resilience in the wake of initial social disjunctures. In this way, it shaped, often detrimentally, the reconfiguration of societies. By impacting more directly on social venues of political recovery, realignment, and reorganization, climate forces accentuate societal crises and, in some areas, sustained them to the point of sociopolitical collapse.
The Carpathian Basin was a highly influential centre of metalworking in the 2nd mil. BC. Nevertheless, despite the abundance of metal objects from the Late Bronze Age, the scarcity of contextually associated metalworking remains representing distinct phases of the metalworking cycle from this region is striking. Here, we explore Late Bronze Age metalworking through the lens of a uniquely complete metalworking assemblage from the site of Șagu from contexts spanning the sixteenth to early thirteenth century BC. This material provides insights into changes in craft organisation following socio-political change after the collapse of Middle Bronze Age tell-centred communities. Our approach combines analytical and experimental data together with contextual analysis of technical ceramics (crucible, mould, and furnace fragments) to reconstruct the metalworking chaîne opératoire and place Șagu in its broader cultural context. Analyses demonstrate clear technological choices in ceramic paste recipes and strong interlinkages between metallurgy and other crafts practised on site, from domestic pottery production to building structures. Experimental replications reveal important intrinsic and experiential aspects of metallurgical activities at Șagu. Evidence on the spatial organisation of metallurgical workflows (routine sequence of actions and decisions) suggests they incorporated a high degree of visibility, which marks a distinct change in the use of craft space compared to the context of densely occupied Middle Bronze Age tells nearby. Combined, our archaeometric, experimental, and contextual results illustrate how changes in metalworking activities in the Late Bronze Age Carpathian Basin were deeply embedded in an ideological shift in the aftermath of the breakdown of Middle Bronze Age tells and the emergence of new social structures.
The new radiocarbon dates from the Late Bronze Age settlement in Șagu-Site A1_1 offer a new perspective on the emergence and distribution of channelled pottery. The association of radiocarbon dates with pottery coming from clear contexts proves that channelled pottery appeared in significant amounts as early as the 16th century BC. is circumstance also has an impact on the inner chronology of the Cruceni-Belegiš pottery, with the new available data outlining once more the lack of a clear definition regarding the evolution of this pottery style. At the same time, this early dating of the channelled pottery uncovered in Șagu leads to a reassessment of the origin and distribution patterns of this pottery decoration technique within the entire eastern Carpathian Basin.
Alleged “Aegean migrations” have long been seen as underlying major
transformations in lifeways and identity in the Balkans in the 12th-11th
centuries BC. Revisiting the material culture and settlement changes in the
north-south “routeway” of the Velika Morava-Južna Morava-Vardar/Axios river
valleys, this paper evaluates developments within local communities. It is
argued that mobility played an important role in social change, including an
element of inward migration from the north. We argue that rather than an
Aegean end point, these river valleys themselves were the destination of
migrants. The prosperity this stimulated within those communities led to
increased networks of personal mobility that incorporated elements from
communities from the wider Carpathians and the north of Greece over the
course of two centuries.
The widespread societal collapse that occurred in the Lower Mureș Basin in the Late Bronze Age following the destruction of mega-sites during the 13th century BC is largely mirrored in the dwindling number of settlements, prestige goods, and metal finds. The same period is also associated with the spread of Gáva pottery. Apparently, the respective pottery style has been subject to thorough investigation; however, ceramic analyses and 14C data are quite scarce. We are publishing here a pottery assemblage from contexts located in the Lower Mureș Basin, where Gáva pottery style was discovered. Besides illustrating representative potsherds, we have analyzed their style and added 14C data when available. The results of the study proper and comparative analyses with other assemblages suggest a different perspective from certain approaches to Gáva culture as a unitary phenomenon. Starting from the stylistic features of the pottery, we have attempted at offering a regional perspective without overlooking the distinctive characteristics of a much wider area. Moreover, 14C data and previous studies on LBA II pottery enable us to argue that several well-known features of the Gáva pottery style can be identified, at least in the Lower Mureș Basin, as early as the 14th-13th century BC and even earlier, with some dating back to the 15th century BC.
After the abandonment of some of the Middle Bronze Age tell settlements, a series of developments and transformations lead to the construction of mega-forts in the Lower Mureș Region during the 15th c. BC, followed by their subsequent destruction/demise during the 13th c. BC. While most investigations in the aforementioned region have focused on the evolution of the most representative sites, a large number of artefacts, especially the pottery assemblage, have not yet been analysed in detail. The current paper aims to fill this gap by presenting a detailed analysis combining the available radiocarbon dates, the contexts from where these samples were taken, and the associated pottery finds. In this way we could establish time intervals expressed in absolute dates that frame the evolution of certain pottery shapes, decoration techniques and ornamental motifs. As a result of this analysis, it became clear that certain characteristics of the Middle Bronze Age pottery have been perpetuated during the Late Bronze Age. Another important observation was the widespread use of channelled pottery as early as the 16th c. BC within some communities from this region. On the other hand, other communities in the area make extensive use of incised decoration until the 14th c. BC. As a result, two different stylistic areas could be observed in the Lower Mureș Region. The results obtained in this paper underline the drawbacks of traditional relative chronologies based on the evolution of certain artefact types. Therefore, a chronological scheme based on major events taking place in the Lower Mureș Region, established following the analysis of a series of radiocarbon dates, is put forward in this paper.
Warfare in Bronze Age Society takes a fresh look at warfare and its role in reshaping Bronze Age society. The Bronze Age represents the global emergence of a militarized society with a martial culture, materialized in a package of new efficient weapons that remained in use for millennia to come. Warfare became institutionalized and professionalized during the Bronze Age, and a new class of warriors made their appearance. Evidence for this development is reflected in the ostentatious display of weapons in burials and hoards, and in iconography, from rock art to palace frescoes. These new manifestations of martial culture constructed the warrior as a 'Hero' and warfare as 'Heroic'. The case studies, written by an international team of scholars, discuss these and other new aspects of Bronze Age warfare. Moreover, the essays show that warriors also facilitated mobility and innovation as new weapons would have quickly spread from the Mediterranean to northern Europe.
The paper presents the findings of the field work on targets that appear on satellite and airplane images performed by authors in Câmpia Aradului, town area Curtici, in 2015.
The results are the discovery of four settlements, probably fortified, dating largely from Copper Age – Late Bronze Age – Hallstatt:
● Macea-Topila 2 (about 0.9 ha), 46°22'22"N, 21°21'28"E, at about 3.8 km southeast of the Macea church, and at around 300 m south of the Macea Topila tell settlement;
● Curtici NW complex, 46°23'N, 21°15'E: Curtici 1 (about 55 ha) at about 6.8 km, Curtici 2 (about 5 ha) about 6 km, Curtici 3 (about 7 ha) at about 5.6 km northwest of the Curtici Orthodox Church "Sfântul Mucenic Dimitrie" in the yard;
● Curtici 4 (about 3 ha), 46°18'40"N, 21°16'51"E, at about 4 km SW of the same church;
● Sânpaul E (about 2.2 ha), 46°15'26"N, 21°17'14"E, at about 3 km SW of the Şofronea Orthodox Church and 1.8 km est of Sânpaul Catholic Church.
In all these areas were found numerous traces of habitation: fragments of pottery, fragments of mills, traces of ash over large areas.
The Iron Age in temperate Europe is characterized by the emergence of hillforts. While such sites can be highly variable, they also share many characteristics, implying cultural linkages across a wide geographical area. Yet, the interpretation of hillforts has increasingly seen significant divergence in theoretical approaches in different European countries. In particular, Iron Age studies in Britain have progressively distanced themselves from those pursued in continental Europe. This article attempts to address this issue by analysing the evidence from two of the best-known hillforts in Europe: Danebury in Wessex, southern England, and the Heuneburg in Baden-Württemberg, south-western Germany. The article highlights a number of key similarities and differences in the occupational sequences of these sites. While the differences indicate that the hillforts are the creation of very different Iron Age societies, the synergies are argued to be a consequence of communities evincing similar responses to similar problems, particularly those resulting from the social tensions that develop when transforming previously dispersed rural societies into increasingly centralized forms.
The role of 3D modelling in archaeology is increasing exponentially, from fieldwork to architecture to material culture studies. For the study of archaeological objects the roles of digital and print models for public engagement has been much considered in recent literature. For model makers, focus has typically been placed on exceptional and visually striking objects with inherent appeal. In contrast, this paper explores some of the potential roles for 3D digital models for routine artefact research and publication. Particular emphasis is placed on the challenges this technology raises for archaeological theory and practice. Following a consideration of how 3D models relate to established illustration and photographic traditions, the paper evaluates some of the unique features of 3D models, focussing on both positive and negative aspects of these. This is followed by a discussion of the role of potential research connections between digital and craft models in experimental research. Our overall objective is to emphasise a need to engage with the ways in which this gradual development has begun to change aspects of longestablished workflows. In turn, the increasing use of this technology is argued to have wider ramifications for the development of archaeology, and material culture studies in particular, as a discipline that requires reflection.
Since 2015 until nowadays, one aim of the ArheoVest Association was focused on
field check of numerous chromatic anomalies related to various archaeological structures observed
on satellite and aerial images within western plains of Romania. One particular area is
located near the Variaș and Satchniez villages from Timiș County, RO , 35 km north-west of
Timișoara, the largest city within the county. The results highlights the existence of a large ensemble
of fortified settlements, close to above mentioned villages (Variaș: Odaia Jupanschi -
c. 154 ha; Pământ Alb - c. 47 ha; Iarcu Mic - c. 22, 5 ha; Satchinez: Râtul Popii - c. 50 ha), connected
to a linear fortification system (c. 20 km) called “Römer Schantze”. Based on some logical
arguments, even though the following research has just started, we consider this linear earthworks
to be rather related to the Late Bronze Age than to the roman or post-Roman period. Most of
the fortified settlements have a morphological connection with the “Römer Schantze” linear earthworks.
The archaeological material found inside the enclosures (pottery, mill fragments, and
ash traces over large areas) dates the fortifications back to the Late Bronze Age. The lack of
archaeological material is observed inside the smaller enclosure of Variaș-Odaia Jupanschi
fortification only, situation similar which Cornești-Iarcuri and Lovrin-Bugeac.
The “old” archaeobotanical analysis of charred plant remains hand-picked in the 1970’s from several pit-features at Early Iron Age Kalakača in Vojvodina, northern Serbia was conducted by Willem van Zeist and published by Predrag Medović. This work provided first information on the archaeobotany of the site and the plant material deposited in the semi- or fully-subterranean structures whose function has remained more-or-less enigmatic. These features were in the past filled with a mass of fragments of, primarily, large ceramic vessels, chunks of (burnt) daub, large quantities of animal bone, and burnt plant matter. The “new” archaeobotanical work at Kalakača included sampling and flotation in the field, and subsequent analysis of a fraction of the samples. The paper explores the composition of the two datasets from Kalakača, separately and combined; it identifies the spectra of crop and wild plants and discusses the quantitative representation of the crops. The paper concludes by broadly comparing the integrated crop record from this site with the crop datasets from few other Early Iron Age sites in Serbia in order to get a preliminary picture of the choice of cultivated crops and possible preferences for certain crop types.
Slightly biconical shaped bowls, the upper cone (rim and shoulder) of which
is decorated with horizontal and slanted facets or slanted channels, as well
as semi-globular bowls of inverted rim decorated with horizontal facets or
slanted channels are characteristic of the end of Bronze Age and mark the
beginning of Iron Age in many cultural groups within the Balkan Peninsula.
Problem of their origin, chronology and distribution is present in
archaeological literature for a long time. Many authors perceived the
significance of this ceramic shape for the chronological, ethnic and cultural
interpretation of the Late Bronze, that is, of the Early Iron Ages within the
territory of the Balkans. Pottery from the burned layers in Vardina and
Vardaroftsa sites in the north of Greece, among which there were bowls with
inverted, slanted channeled rim, was designated way back by W. Heurtley as
Danubian pottery or Lausitz ware, connecting its origin with the Danube
Basin. Anumber of conclusions have been reached upon the study of finds of
slightly biconical bowls and bowls of inverted rim, decorated with channels
or facets, from several indicative sites from Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages
within the Balkan Peninsula and south part of the Middle Europe. It has been
stated that the bowls appear first within the southwest Slovakia and
northwest Hungary in the Br D period, to spread very fast, already in the Br
D/Ha A1 period, from its home territory to the east, to the northeast Hungary
and northwest Romania. Namely, this first spreading wave into these
territories brought along only variety Ia bowls, which were further
distributed to the south, during the Ha A1 period, to the central parts of
the Balkan Peninsula and consequently it can be concluded that these bowls
are somewhat older than other varieties. In the period Br D - Ha A1, in north
Hungary, under the influence of Gava Culture, on one hand, and Čaka Culture,
on the other, appear also variety IIa bowls (turban dish), distributed to the
east with a new migration wave, in the same manner as was the case with the
first migration wave, but also to the south, along the Bakonjska Range, to
the present day Croatia and Slovenia, where, in the Ha A1/A2 periods, were
stated exclusively variety IIa bowls. Representatives of the variety Ia bowls
remained in the Pomoravlje region and Južna Morava Basin, as confirmed by a
large number of these bowls and also by other ceramic shapes of that
stylistic and typological pattern, prevailing within this region in the Ha
A1/A2 periods. First variety IIa bowls (Mediana, Kržince) appear only during
the second migration wave coming from the north of the Balkans to the central
part of the Balkan Peninsula (Ha A2 period). These bowls, however, are
particularly characteristic of Macedonia and lower Povardarje, where variety
Ia bowls were not stated at all. The second migration wave representatives,
with turban dish bowls (variety IIa), were much more aggressive as witnessed
by many burned settlements from that period in the Vranjska-Bujanovačka
Valleys and Povardarje. During Ha B-C periods, bowls of both types
(particularly variety IIa) became inevitable part of ceramic inventory of
nearly all cultural groups in the Balkan Peninsula, which could be explained
by the spread of cultural influence of the new stylistic trend, though,
however, it could be possible that migrations, which at the time were
numerous and of greater or lesser intensity, were one of the spreading causes
of this ceramic shape into the east, south and west parts of the Balkan
Peninsula in the Ha B period. Representatives of the mentioned migrations,
which were carried out in at least two larger migration waves, bringing along
bowls to the Balkan Peninsula, are protagonists of historically known
migrations from that period, known under names of Doric and Aegean
migrations. The assumed direction of these migrations coincides mainly with
the distribution direction of bowl types I and II. Migrations spreading the
bowl types I and II started in the south part of the Middle Europe, but were
initiated by the representatives of the Urnenfelder cultural complex from the
Middle Europe, as observed in certain ceramic shapes, stated together with
type I bowls and originating from cultures of the Urnenfelder complex, and in
numerous metal finds, which were produced in Middle European workshops. It is
of interest to point out that bowl movements could be followed up to the
northwest shores of the Aegean Sea, but they are not stated in the south
Trace and in Troy, thus imposing conclusion that their representatives did
not reach Troy. Consequently, their possible participation in destruction of
VIIb2 layer settlements is utterly uncertain. The migrations, however,
started chain reaction of ethnic movements in the Balkans, causing many
ethnic and cultural changes within this territory which will lead to creation
of new cultural groups to mark the developed Iron Age. To what extent bowls
of this type, particularly variety IIa, left deep trace in the Iron Age
Cultures in the central Balkans, is shown in the fact that survivals of this
variety remained within these regions even several centuries later, in late
phases of the Ha C period (VI/V century BC).
A massive Late Bronze Age fortified settlement in Central Europe has been the subject of a new and exemplary investigation by excavation and site survey. This prehistoric enclosure, nearly 6km across, had a complex development, dense occupation and signs of destruction by fire. It can hardly be other than a capital city playing a role in the determinant struggles of its day — weighty and far reaching events of the European continent now being chronicled by archaeology.
Presentation of the Bronze Age in Romania, Moldova and Bulgaria. Scanned version (not searchable)
Chance discoveries of weapons, horse bones and human skeletal remains along the banks of the River Tollense led to a campaign of research which has identified them as the debris from a Bronze Age battle. The resources of war included horses, arrowheads and wooden clubs, and the dead had suffered blows indicating face-to-face combat. This surprisingly modern and decidedly vicious struggle took place over the swampy braided streams of the river in an area of settled, possibly coveted, territory. Washed along by the current, the bodies and weapons came to rest on a single alluvial surface.
Results of the recent investigations of the sites from the Transitional period between the Bronze and Iron Age in the South Morava basin are presented in this paper. On the basis of these results as well as the earlier research in this area a chronology of this period in the South Morava basin has been established. The analysis of the material, particularly pottery shows that channelled pottery of Gava - Belegiš II type (Iron Age Ib) was a prevailing feature at the beginning of the Transitional period in the entire region. It is also stated that during the Transitional period a particular culture group formed in the basin of the river Pčinja, the upper course of the Vardar, then in the Kočane-Kratovo area and in the Vranje-Bujanovac valley, which later influenced south-east Kosovo and the Leskovac area. The group was named the Pčinja cultural group, after the central part of the territory.
Middle Bronze Age Hungary provides an opportunity to investigate prehistoric `landscapes of the body', as perceptions and attitudes to the body affect burial practices and other body practices, including the wearing of dress and the use of pottery. This article explores the cultural diversity expressed by the roughly contemporary and neighbouring groups of the Encrusted Ware, Vatya, and Füzesabony Cultures. Amongst others, differences between the three groups are articulated through their burials (scattered cremations, urn burials as well as crouched inhumations) and the diverse use of material culture. At the same time, despite formal differences in the burials, the analysis shows that cremations and inhumations in this area share a number of characteristics, and it is the other practices through which the dead body is manipulated that are the primary means of expressing regional differences. Simultaneously, whilst being a means of formulating understandings of the deceased body, burial practices are also tied into subtle differences in lifestyles, daily routines and regional subsistence strategies, as the landscapes of the living provide metaphors, know-how and practical understanding.
The Bronze Age, roughly 2500 to 750 BC, was the last fully prehistoric period in Europe and a crucial element in the formation of the Europe that emerged into history in the later first millennium BC. This book focuses on the material culture remains of the period, and through them provides an interpretation of the main trends in human development that occurred during this timespan. It pays particular attention to the discoveries and theoretical advances of the last twenty years that have necessitated a major revision of received opinions about many aspects of the Bronze Age. Arranged thematically, it reviews the evidence for a range of topics in cross-cultural fashion, defining which major characteristics of the period were universal and which culture and area-specific. The result is a comprehensive study that will be of value to specialists and students, while remaining accessible to the non-specialist.
This paper explores the character of weaponry from the western and central Balkan Peninsula, a region that constitutes a crossroad between Aegean and Urnfield Bronze Age metalworking traditions. The objective is to explore how a biographic or lifecycle approach to weapons including swords, spears, axes and armour may serve to understand the social venues in which ideas about style and function were exchanged and materialised. By briefly evaluating sample datasets for taxonomic-functional analysis, metalwork wear analysis, metallography, contextual research and experimental archaeology, the paper considers some avenues through which these disparate fields of analysis on the same forms of material culture can be considered effectively in complementary ways. The paper then briefly explores the conduct of combat practices and warfare traditions relevant to the Bronze Age Balkans. Ultimately, the intention of this paper is to bring together different approaches that place material culture studies at the heart of Bronze Age warfare research.
In their recent, influential book The Rise of Bronze Age Society (2005), Kristiansen and Larsson argued that hierarchical societies formed in Europe during the Bronze Age in response to the spread from the Near East to northern Europe of elite objects and symbols. These were adopted into and transmitted through existing European institutions following identifiable paths. One of these paths traversed the eastern Mediterranean, entering continental Europe via the Aegean and Adriatic seas. In this scenario, the Late Bronze Age Mycenaean states acted as nodes of communication and transfer, shipping ideas and items up the Adriatic coast and onward to central Europe. But there is good evidence that contacts between the Aegean and the eastern Adriatic were at their strongest prior to and immediately following, not during, the Mycenaean period. In order to disentangle the complex patterns of culture contact and transmission that characterized interactions between the eastern Mediterranean and Europe in the Bronze Age, we deploy various theoretical frameworks at different analytical scales. This effort reveals dynamic processes of change and transformation at the local and regional levels, which are helpful in understanding the continental patterns synthesized by Kristiansen and Larsson.
Studies of creativity frequently focus on the modern era yet creativity has always been part of human history. This book explores how creativity was expressed through the medium of clay in the Bronze Age in the Carpathian Basin. Although metal is one of the defining characteristics of Bronze Age Europe, in the Carpathian Basin clay was the dominant material in many areas of life. Here the daily experience of people was, therefore, much more likely to be related to clay than bronze. Through eight thematic essays, this book considers a series of different facets of creativity. Each essay combines a broad range of theoretical insights with a specific case study of ceramic forms, sites or individual objects. This innovative volume is the first to focus on creativity in the Bronze Age and offers new insights into the rich and complex archaeology of the Carpathian Basin.
Purić-Ljubanj consists of 116 pristine, and 1 damaged, prehistoric tumuli located in a wider ritual landscape in the Spačva Forest Basin in eastern Croatia. Five seasons of fieldwork have revealed that this tumuli complex can be confidently identified as belonging to the Late Bronze Age period, with ceramic finds that belong to the Belegiš II group. It is a place where complex depositions related to burial practices took place. A survey of the wider landscape has revealed another 15 sites with tumuli that appear to be of a similar character to Purić-Ljubanj situated in the area of Županjska Posavina in the Spačva Basin. The numbers of tumuli at each site vary from just one to 178. At Purić-Ljubanj there are 117 tumuli, three of which have been subject to excavation.
This paper examines differences in the nature of inter-regional relations in the Neolithic, Bronze Age, and early Iron Ages, in an attempt to define the specific characteristics of Bronze-Age world systems. It distinguishes between the slow spread of innovations and the active intervention of trade networks related to the expansion of urbanism. The former dominate in the Neolithic, and similar phenomena continue to occur in later periods. Following a suggestion by Jane Schneider, a distinction is drawn between a core area of urban consumers, a periphery that is actively altered by its role as a supplier of raw materials to the core, and an outer margin that is indirectly affected through the spread of innovations. For most of prehistory, temperate Europe acted as a margin to a Near Eastern/Mediterranean core-periphery system. The formation of long-distance routes linking northern and southern Europe (successive axial routes along the Danube and Black Sea, and from Italy to Scandinavia) was critically affected by the spread of urban-eentred trading systems along the Mediterranean. The 'amber route' was an important precursor of the structures underlying the later development of European polities.
The paper reviews the rise and utility of World Systems Theory in archaeology, with particular reference to Europe and the Bronze Age. After a consideration of its origins in the 1970s and 1980s, the main aspects of the theory are discussed. The evidence that shows that the Bronze Age world was highly interconnected is presented, and the implications of a World Systems view of the period considered. In an attempt to work towards a new narrative of the European Bronze Age, a brief discussion of network methods is introduced, since these offer an alternative, ‘bottom-up’, approach to the period which, it is argued, is more appropriate to the data than the World Systems approach.
The homogeneous and circumscribed character of the Carpathian Basin makes it an ideal setting for examining the interplay
of topography and resource distribution in the development of Bronze Age social networks. Such networks include both systems
of settlement and land use, and the patterns of interconnection between communities and regions that facilitate trade and
exchange. Drawing on new excavations and increasingly common radiocarbon dates within the region, the alteration in these
networks from earlier Copper Age and Neolithic patterns can be traced. It is suggested that the substantial river systems
of the region provided the principal axes for the movement of goods during the Bronze Age and that control of these water
routes was contested among neighboring communities and polities. It is further argued that contrastive overland trade connections
also developed which, at least initially, transported distinct materials. Later, these overland connections undermined and
superseded the pre-existing riverine systems.
Keywords–Maros–Hungarian archaeology–Romanian archaeology
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