ArticlePDF Available

Abstract and Figures

Significance: Exercise-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production activates multiple intracellular signaling pathways through genomic and nongenomic mechanisms that are responsible for the beneficial effects of exercise in muscle. Beyond the positive effect of exercise on skeletal muscle cells, other tissues such as white and brown adipose, liver, central nervous system, endothelial, heart, and endocrine organ tissues are also responsive to exercise. Recent Advances: Crosstalk between different cells is essential to achieve homeostasis and to promote the benefits of exercise through paracrine or endocrine signaling. This crosstalk can be mediated by different effectors that include the secretion of metabolites of muscle contraction, myokines, and exosomes. During the past 20 years, it has been demonstrated that contracting muscle cells produce and secrete different classes of myokines, which functionally link muscle with nearly all other cell types. Critical Issues: The redox signaling behind this exercise-induced crosstalk is now being decoded. Many of these widespread beneficial effects of exercise require not only a complex ROS-dependent intramuscular signaling cascade but simultaneously, an integrated network with many remote tissues. Future Directions: Strong evidence suggests that the powerful beneficial effect of regular physical activity for preventing (or treating) a large range of disorders might also rely on ROS-mediated signaling. Within a contracting muscle, ROS signaling may control exosomes and myokines secretion. In remote tissues, exercise generates regular and synchronized ROS waves, creating a transient pro-oxidative environment in many cells. These new concepts integrate exercise, ROS-mediated signaling, and the widespread health benefits of exercise.
Crosstalk between muscle and other tissues. Skeletal muscle contraction increases glucose oxidation rates in an exercise intensity-dependent manner and stimulates the conversion of pyruvate into lactate via LDH. Lactate is mainly produced by fast-twitch muscles during exercise and is released in muscles undergoing contraction to the blood circulation through specific transporters (such as MCT). Once in circulation, lactate can be taken up by many tissues, such as liver, WAT, brain, heart, and kidney. In the liver, lactate is converted into pyruvate by PDH, causes an increase in the levels of NADH + , and stimulates several intracellular metabolic pathways. Robust ATP hydrolysis produces ADP, which is converted into ATP and AMP by AK. AMP deamination yields hypoxanthine, which is released into the circulation. Xanthine oxidase converts hypoxanthine into urate and also produces superoxide, leading to redox-mediated signaling in the liver. Urate is a potent antioxidant molecule that is released into the circulation. The proposed crosstalk between muscle and liver involves spatially and temporally synchronized ROS production and ROS scavenging to ensure that correct ROS-mediated signaling occurs within the whole body during and after exercise. In the left panel, intestinal NADH-dependent ROS production is proposed as a mechanism that may use NADH derived from lactate oxidation by NAD(P)H oxidase to produce ROS in a microbiota-dependent way. ADP, adenosine diphosphate; AK, adenylate kinase; AMP, adenosine monophosphate; ATP, adenosine triphosphate; LDH, lactate dehydrogenase; MCT, monocarboxylate transporter; PDH, pyruvate dehydrogenase; WAT, white adipose tissue. Color images are available online.
… 
Content may be subject to copyright.
Redox Signaling in Widespread Health Benefits of Exercise
Ruy A. Louzada,
1,2
Jessica Bouviere,
1
Leonardo P. Matta,
1
Joao Pedro Werneck-de-Castro,
3
Corinne Dupuy,
2
Denise P. Carvalho,
1
and Rodrigo S. Fortunato
1
Abstract
Significance: Exercise-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production activates multiple intracellular
signaling pathways through genomic and nongenomic mechanisms that are responsible for the beneficial effects
of exercise in muscle. Beyond the positive effect of exercise on skeletal muscle cells, other tissues such as white
and brown adipose, liver, central nervous system, endothelial, heart, and endocrine organ tissues are also
responsive to exercise.
Recent Advances: Crosstalk between different cells is essential to achieve homeostasis and to promote the
benefits of exercise through paracrine or endocrine signaling. This crosstalk can be mediated by different
effectors that include the secretion of metabolites of muscle contraction, myokines, and exosomes. During the
past 20 years, it has been demonstrated that contracting muscle cells produce and secrete different classes of
myokines, which functionally link muscle with nearly all other cell types.
Critical Issues: The redox signaling behind this exercise-induced crosstalk is now being decoded. Many of
these widespread beneficial effects of exercise require not only a complex ROS-dependent intramuscular
signaling cascade but simultaneously, an integrated network with many remote tissues.
Future Directions: Strong evidence suggests that the powerful beneficial effect of regular physical activity for
preventing (or treating) a large range of disorders might also rely on ROS-mediated signaling. Within a
contracting muscle, ROS signaling may control exosomes and myokines secretion. In remote tissues, exercise
generates regular and synchronized ROS waves, creating a transient pro-oxidative environment in many cells.
These new concepts integrate exercise, ROS-mediated signaling, and the widespread health benefits of exercise.
Antioxid. Redox Signal. 00, 000–000.
Keywords: ROS, exercise, myokines, redox signaling
Introduction
Reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as superoxide
(O
2
-
), hydroxyl (OH
), and the nonfree radical species,
H
2
O
2
, are small radical or nonradical molecules derived from
molecular oxygen (O
2
) (142). Superoxide and nitric oxide
seem to be the primary free radicals generated by different
sources in contracting skeletal muscle during and immedi-
ately after exercise (84, 129, 130). ROS have a critical role as
signaling molecules that are necessary for skeletal muscle
force development and to achieve the adaptive responses to
physical exercise (64, 133). A more detailed description of
how physical exercise increases skeletal muscle ROS gen-
eration and the role of ROS-mediated signaling for muscular
exercise adaptations has been extensively reviewed by others
(63, 84, 129, 130).
In 1961, the term ‘‘exercise factors’’ was used to define a
group of factors delivered by contracting muscles that were
able to lower glycemia (62). Nowadays, metabolites, lipid
peroxidation products, extracellular ROS, myokines, and
exosomes are the main suggested mechanisms through which
muscle cells communicate with remote cells. These factors
1
Institut of Biophysics Carlos Chagas Filho, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
2
Universite
´Paris-Sud, Orsay, UMR 8200 CNRS and Institut Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, France.
3
Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, Florida, USA.
ANTIOXIDANTS & REDOX SIGNALING
Volume 00, Number 00, 2020
ªMary Ann Liebert, Inc.
DOI: 10.1089/ars.2019.7949
1
Downloaded by UNIV OF MIAMI MILLER SCH MED Package NERL from www.liebertpub.com at 04/27/20. For personal use only.
that are modulated by exercise, in a chronic perspective, are
directly related to the benefits of physical exercise under
different physiological and pathophysiological conditions. In
this review, we will focus on the effects of physical exercise
beyond skeletal muscle, providing an overview about the
communication between contracting muscles and remote
tissues through ROS-mediated mechanisms.
Hypothetical Model of ROS Waves
The ROS waves hypothesis is based on the ability of
physical exercise to increase ROS production in contracting
muscles and its later spread to remote tissues. A hypothetical
model is proposed in Figure 1 to summarize the probable
mechanisms through which contracting skeletal muscle
communicates with remote tissues, leading to changes in
redox-mediated signaling pathways that operate the wide-
spread health beneficial effects of exercise. A first phase of
ROS waves after exercise occurs in contracting muscle and
promotes multiple post-translational modifications of ami-
noacids in many kinases and phosphatases (e.g., AMPK,
CaMK, PTEN, PPIA, etc.) that are crucial for the local
stimulus of muscular glucose uptake, mitochondrial biogen-
esis, and antioxidant capacity. Further, skeletal muscles also
produce ROS in the extracellular milieu that leads to macro-
molecules oxidation, such as lipid peroxidation. Interestingly,
lipid peroxidation products can act as signaling molecules.
Myokines and exosomes might be released from skeletal
muscle in response to intracellular ROS stimulated by phys-
ical exercise. Once in blood circulation, these mediators
change the function of remote tissues during and after exercise
periods. Further, the second phase of ROS waves might
stimulate many similar redox-sensible signaling pathways in
noncontracting tissues that promote widespread responses to
physical exercise (Fig. 1B).
In 1978, Dillard et al. found that expired pentane, an index
of lipid peroxidation, increased during aerobic physical ex-
ercise (42). One year later, Brady et al. demonstrated that
lipid peroxidation levels were higher in the skeletal muscle
and liver of rats immediately after swimming (22). Probably,
this was the first indirect demonstration of the ability of
physical exercise to increase ROS generation, but the tissue
involved in their production was only revealed 3 years later.
Davies et al. showed by using electron paramagnetic resonance
that skeletal muscle and liver ROS production are increased
immediately after exhaustive exercise (36). Nowadays, it is
well known that skeletal muscle contractile activity leads to
ROS generation, which is related to biomolecule oxidation, not
only in skeletal muscle but also in other tissues (114, 130).
Electrical stimulation of the hind limb muscle in adult mice
was found to increase malonaldehyde levels in serum and liver
and decrease liver glutathione and protein thiol content (34),
suggesting that the ROS generated by skeletal muscle could
oxidize extracellular molecules also in noncontracting tissues,
such as the liver. In humans, the venous concentration of ox-
idized glutathione was foundto increase after physical exercise
in an intensity-dependent manner (35, 114).
The redox communication between contracting muscle
and remote tissues can be mediated by several mechanisms:
(i) lactate conversion to pyruvate in almost every cell, which
increases NADH levels; (ii) purines released by contracting
muscle that serve as substrates for xanthine oxidase; (iii)
myokines; (iv) ROS gradient reaching adjacent cells; (v) lipid
peroxidation products; and (vi) exosomes secretion. The
oxidative environment induced in remote tissues by physical
exercise is probably related to protein modification in their
cysteine residues, which cause structural and functional
FIG. 1. Exercise-induced ROS waves illustration. (A)
Contracting muscle creates an oxidative environment through
consecutive ROS spikes. The first ROS wave is produced
mainly by skeletal muscle Nox2, induces activation of ROS-
mediated signaling pathways, and promotes correct folding of
newly born proteins. Skeletal muscle releases signals to re-
mote tissues in many ways during muscle contraction. For
example, metabolites released by skeletal muscle can be ta-
ken up and metabolized in remote tissues, an event that can
stimulate ROS production. Moreover, myokines can also
control the production of ROS in remote tissues. Products of
lipid peroxidation (HODE and HNE) produced during skel-
etal muscle contraction are capable of binding to nuclear
receptors in remote cells in which these compounds can then
regulate gene expression. Finally, exosomes released by the
muscles undergoing contraction might stimulate signaling
pathways in remote tissues. ROS production in remote tissues
after contraction is proposed as a second ROS wave. (B) First
and second ROS waves induced by physical exercise in a
temporal perspective. During skeletal muscle contraction, the
first ROS wave within skeletal muscle occurs during exercise
and can spread to remote tissues. At the end of exercise,
contracting muscle causes a decrease in ROS production,
whereas remote tissues present the second ROS wave, leading
to activation of ROS-mediated signaling pathways. 13-
HODE, 13-hydroxyoctadecadienoic acid; 4-HNE, 4-hydro-
xynonenal; Nox2, NADPH oxidase 2; ROS, reactive oxygen
species. Color images are available online.
2 LOUZADA ET AL.
Downloaded by UNIV OF MIAMI MILLER SCH MED Package NERL from www.liebertpub.com at 04/27/20. For personal use only.
modifications (Fig. 1) and increased oxidation markers that
are detected after exercise in noncontracting tissues. More-
over, several myokines released during physical exercise
control the expression of genes in an ROS-dependent man-
ner, as well as the activity of transcription factors, such as
peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coacti-
vator 1-alpha (PGC-1a), nuclear factor erythroid 2-related
factor 2 (Nrf2), and nuclear factor-kappa B (33, 90, 123, 142).
Adaptations and Benefits of Redox Signaling
Due to Exercise
The expression of PGC-1aduring physical exercise is
dependent on a tightly, fine-tuned redox-mediated signal
(87), and boosting PGC-1ahas been related to protection
against several pathological conditions, such as sarcopenia,
insulin resistance, and cancer-induced cachexia (68). PGC-
1ais responsible for many of the beneficial effects of
exercise in muscle due to its ability to orchestrate the tran-
scription of both nuclear and mitochondrial DNA, promoting
a balanced expression of mitochondrial proteins and anti-
oxidant defenses against exacerbated ROS production. Im-
portantly, an accumulation of PGC-1aafter each bout of
exercise is indispensable to achieve these beneficial effects
(47, 53, 70).
Many of the intracellular actors involved in obtaining the
beneficial effects of exercise contain redox sensible regions
that are directly affected by ROS. The crucial requirement of
optimal ROS signaling is clearly observed by the effect of
antioxidants in hampering many important adaptations that
are related to endurance training, such as an increase in ex-
ercise capacity (21, 64), mitochondrial biogenesis (153),
muscular glucose uptake, improvement in insulin sensitivity
(133), and the increase of lean mass after resistance training
(17).
Several chronic exercise adaptations are dependent on
ROS produced by skeletal muscle in response to an acute
exercise session. Transient increases in ROS induced through
bouts of acute exercise stimulate Nrf2 activation. Nrf2 is the
master regulator of antioxidant defenses, a transcription
factor that regulates the expression of more than 200 cyto-
protective genes (44). Regular aerobic exercise in rodent
models has consistently been shown to activate Nrf2 sig-
naling in multiple tissues, including skeletal muscle (111),
kidney (122), brain (162), liver (135), and myocardium (145),
which leads to the upregulation of endogenous antioxidant
defenses and an overall greater ability to counteract the
damaging effects of oxidative stress.
Regarding protein quality control, exercise might be im-
portant to the correct folding of proteins, due to the creation
of an oxidative redox potential needed to oxidize the free
sulfhydryl groups of cysteine leading to disulfide bonds for-
mation that stabilize the protein conformation (Fig. 1) (166).
Antioxidant administration before exercise (64, 133) pre-
vents some of the most important exercise responses, prob-
ably by maintaining the intracellular environment in an
inappropriate reduced state. This reduced state may impair
the correct folding of born proteins (166). Loss of protein
folding regulation leads to an accumulation of unfolded or
misfolded proteins inside the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
lumen and drives ER stress (ERS), which accentuates the
progression of many diseases, including Alzheimer’s. Unlike
almost all other cellular locations that have reducing redox
potentials, the typical ER has the oxidative redox potential
that is necessary to form disulfide bonds. It has been reported
that the ER of insulin-resistant rodents contains much higher
proportions of unfolded polypeptides and fewer disulphide
bonds than normal endoplasmic reticula, which is associated
with the loss of protein folding regulation (116).
Interestingly, exercise reduces negative outcomes in Alz-
heimer’s disease, including the accumulation of misfolded
proteins (159). The unfolded protein response (UPR) is in-
duced within contracting muscle cells and plays an important
role in cell protection from stress, mainly through an essential
chaperoning system (50). Exercise seems to improve many
ERS-related pathologies, such as diabetes mellitus, neurode-
generative diseases, sarcopenia, or cardiovascular alterations
(81, 91, 169) and PGC-1a, the redox sensible master gene
involved in the beneficial effects of exercise, interacts with
ATF6a to regulate the UPR in muscle (169). Many proteins
included in the axis that regulates UPR activation (e.g.,
PERK, eIF2a, ATF4, CHOP, IRE1, XBP1, BiP, and ATF-6)
are regulated in both muscle and remote tissues after ex-
ercise training. For example, exercise training upregulates
ER chaperones, such as binding immunoglobulin protein
(BiP) in mouse muscle (39, 110), liver (31), and brain (89,
96). In summary, both acute and chronic exercise seems to
activate UPR signaling to alleviate ERS-related patholo-
gies (50).
A tight regulation of UPR is also crucial to the correct
folding of tumor suppressor proteins (79, 166). An exercise-
mediated control of tumor suppressor proteins has been
proposed to be one plausible mechanism for the lower inci-
dence of cancer in regular physically active individuals (113,
166). Indeed, a tumor suppressor protein might be delivered
from contracting muscle or synthetized directly in different
tissues by ROS-mediated signaling that is induced by phys-
ical exercise (Fig. 1A). Another possible mechanism is re-
lated to decreased insulin resistance in trained individuals,
since insulin resistance seem to be positively related to tumor
development (3). Once again, notably, such hypotheses fit
well with the association of being actively healthy and the
lower incidence of cancer (83).
Lipid Peroxidation as a Mediator of Crosstalk
Between Different Tissues
Over the past three decades, an extensive body of literature
has shown the role of lipid peroxidation, not only in the
pathophysiology of diseases but also in cell biology and
human health (9). Lipid peroxidation is a process in which
oxidants attack lipids containing carboncarbon double
bond(s) and involve hydrogen abstraction from a carbon,
with oxygen insertion resulting in lipid peroxyl radicals and
hydroperoxides (27). Increased ROS production can lead to
membrane lipid peroxidation and different cell fate, de-
pending on the cellular metabolic state and repair ability (9).
Products of lipid peroxidation (at low rates) can mediate
cell to cell communication during exercise. NADPH oxidase
2 (NOX2) is expressed at the sarcolemma of skeletal muscle,
and it seems to be the main source of ROS during contractile
activities that produce superoxide in the extracellular me-
dium (74, 77, 138). It is believed that superoxide is rapidly
converted into H
2
O
2
, which is more stable and membrane
REDOX SIGNALING IN WIDESPREAD EFFECTS OF EXERCISE 3
Downloaded by UNIV OF MIAMI MILLER SCH MED Package NERL from www.liebertpub.com at 04/27/20. For personal use only.
permeable, acting as a signaling molecule. However, super-
oxide production near the sarcolema might increase the
oxidation of extracellular lipids/lipoproteins, converting
linonelic acid into 13-hydroxyoctadecadienoic acid (13-
HODE) and cholesterol into oxysterol, which is able to
activate transcription factors such as peroxisome proliferator-
activated receptor gamma and liver X receptor alpha,
respectively (41). Apart from this, 4-Hydroxynonenal (4-HNE)
is another product of lipid peroxidation that can activate
transcription factors. It was demonstrated that 4-HNE acti-
vates Nrf2, increasing mitochondriogenesis and antioxidant
defense (95). Interestingly, Nrf2 is activated after physical
exercise in several tissues, including the brain, kidney, and
testis (44). Once products of lipid peroxidation are increased
in the blood after physical exercise (66), it is possible that
they can communicate with skeletal muscle and with other
distant cells in the body (Fig. 2).
Metabolites Acting as Communicating Molecules
Through ROS-Dependent Mechanisms
A growing body of evidence suggests that different me-
tabolites produced during muscle contraction are secreted
during physical exercise. Interestingly, these metabolic
products can act like chemical mediators between cells (20).
Lactate is a very well-known metabolite produced by glucose
oxidation during muscle contraction that has been suggested
as a candidate molecule to communicate muscle with remote
cells. Formerly, it was believed that lactate was a waste
product of glycolysis, even referred to be the cause of fa-
tiguing muscle during physical exercise (24). The role of
lactate has changed from a possibly bad intermediate mole-
cule in muscle physiology to an important messenger mole-
cule during physical exercise (1). Nowadays, many
physiological functions are attributed to lactate, such as
slowing muscular fatigue (117), increasing force production
(92), and serving as a high-energy rich carbon skeleton for
many crucial biochemical processes within cells (24, 140).
The biochemical aspect of lactate production and its
physiological role were extensively reviewed by Brooks (24).
In brief, there are three main proposed functions for lactate,
as follows: (i) as an energy source, (ii) a major gluconeogenic
precursor after exercise, mainly due to a shuttle between the
skeletal muscle and the liver (the Cori cycle), and (iii) a
‘‘lactormone,’’ able to mediate autocrine, paracrine, and
endocrine communication (24). New information regarding a
shuttle between contracting muscle and microbiota has just
become available, which suggests that intestinal microbiota
are able to metabolize lactate and, thus, influence the exercise
capacity (143). Besides, a potential mechanism showing that
lactate might be able to stimulate ROS-mediated signaling
has also been proposed (Fig. 3).
FIG. 2. Lipid peroxidation
as a mediator of skeletal
muscle-remote tissue cross-
talk. NADPH oxidase is pro-
posed as the main source of
ROS during contractile activity
and due to its transmembrane
location, ROS production is
very close to the phospholipids
of the membrane. Circulating
lipids and membrane phos-
pholipids can be attacked by
extracellular-produced ROS to
form lipid peroxidation inter-
mediates that can interact with
nuclear receptors in remote
tissues and modulate gene ex-
pression. Color images are
available online.
4 LOUZADA ET AL.
Downloaded by UNIV OF MIAMI MILLER SCH MED Package NERL from www.liebertpub.com at 04/27/20. For personal use only.
Intracellular lactate levels increase during physical ex-
ercise in an intensity dependent way. Lactate can cross the
sarcolemma and reach blood circulation through mono-
carboxylate transporters ( MCTs). Serum lactate can be
uptaken by a wide range of cells such as contracting skel-
etal muscles themselves (16), heart (59), brain (132), liver
(48), kidney (112), astrocytes, or neurons (126). It is be-
lieved that slow-twitch skeletal muscle fibers and liver are
the most important tissues for the removal of lactate from
blood (Fig. 3) (60), and the expression of MCTs is crucial
for the uptake of lactate from circulation. Moreover,
functional mitochondria are fundamental for lactate to be
oxidized (12, 24).
As proposed by Hashimoto and Brooks, lactate may act as
a communicating mediator called ‘‘lactormone’’ that couples
contracting muscle to other tissues (69). Supporting this hy-
pothesis, intraperitoneal l-lactate administration was found
to increase mitochondrial content in diverse mouse tissues
such as liver and brain (46), as well as PGC-1aand un-
coupling protein 3 expression in gastrocnemius (90). Because
these events are also observed after physical exercise, the
transitory increase in blood lactate during physical exercise
can contribute to the widespread health adaptations that occur
in remote tissues. Recently, it was demonstrated that lactate
was able to upregulate transforming growth factor beta2
(TGF-b2) in white adipose tissue. Further, TGF-b2 was se-
creted by adipose tissue in response to physical exercise,
which is related to the improvement of glucose tolerance.
Interestingly, the administration of a lactate-lowering agent
dichloroacetate during exercise training decreased circulat-
ing TGF-b2 levels and reduced exercise-stimulated im-
provements in glucose tolerance (154).
A hypothetical model is proposed in Figure 1, which shows
the probable redox-mediated mechanisms through which
contracting skeletal muscle communicates with remote tis-
sues. ROS might be involved in lactate action in different
tissues. Indeed, lactate increases the expression of genes in-
volved in lactate transport and mitochondrial oxidation in an
ROS-dependent manner (69), although the source of ROS has
not been defined. Recently, it has been shown that lactate-
mediated increase in PGC1-aexpression was blunted by
N-acetyl cysteine pretreatment in skeletal muscle (90, 115).
Figure 3 illustrates the hypothetical sources of ROS that can
be activated by lactate: mitochondria, xanthine oxidase, and
NAD(P)H oxidase. During lactate oxidation, NADH is gen-
erated, increasing mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation,
FIG. 3. Crosstalk between muscle and other tissues. Skeletal muscle contraction increases glucose oxidation rates in an
exercise intensity-dependent manner and stimulates the conversion of pyruvate into lactate via LDH. Lactate is mainly
produced by fast-twitch muscles during exercise and is released in muscles undergoing contraction to the blood circulation
through specific transporters (such as MCT). Once in circulation, lactate can be taken up by many tissues, such as liver,
WAT, brain, heart, and kidney. In the liver, lactate is converted into pyruvate by PDH, causes an increase in the levels of
NADH
+
, and stimulates several intracellular metabolic pathways. Robust ATP hydrolysis produces ADP, which is con-
verted into ATP and AMP by AK. AMP deamination yields hypoxanthine, which is released into the circulation. Xanthine
oxidase converts hypoxanthine into urate and also produces superoxide, leading to redox-mediated signaling in the liver.
Urate is a potent antioxidant molecule that is released into the circulation. The proposed crosstalk between muscle and liver
involves spatially and temporally synchronized ROS production and ROS scavenging to ensure that correct ROS-mediated
signaling occurs within the whole body during and after exercise. In the left panel, intestinal NADH-dependent ROS
production is proposed as a mechanism that may use NADH derived from lactate oxidation by NAD(P)H oxidase to produce
ROS in a microbiota-dependent way. ADP, adenosine diphosphate; AK, adenylate kinase; AMP, adenosine monophosphate;
ATP, adenosine triphosphate; LDH, lactate dehydrogenase; MCT, monocarboxylate transporter; PDH, pyruvate dehydro-
genase; WAT, white adipose tissue. Color images are available online.
REDOX SIGNALING IN WIDESPREAD EFFECTS OF EXERCISE 5
Downloaded by UNIV OF MIAMI MILLER SCH MED Package NERL from www.liebertpub.com at 04/27/20. For personal use only.
which can increase ROS production. Another potential
mechanism may be the use of NADH derived from lactate
oxidation by NAD(P)H oxidase to produce ROS. This hy-
pothesis is supported by experiments in Drosophila in which
lactate stimulates intestinal NADH-dependent ROS produc-
tion (82). A dysbiosis marked by overgrowth of Lactobacillus
plantarum in the fly gut increases lactate production and
promotes over-proliferation of intestinal stem cells. Using
this model, the authors proposed that lactate is a key element
for communication between microbes and intestinal cells,
and that NADH produced by oxidation of lactate derived
from bacteria could be a substrate for NAD(P)H oxidase to
increase ROS production (82). In this context, it would be
interesting to test whether the same process occurs after ex-
ercise.
Lactate also seems to exert a free radical scavenger func-
tion, able to act as an antioxidant in some specific conditions
as heart ischemia, since the perfusion with a lactate solution
protects the tissue from oxidative damage (65). These newly
proposed functions of lactate, acting as a free radical scav-
enger and as a signaling molecule, are illustrated in Figure 3.
A purine cycle also intermediates the crosstalk between
contracting muscle and liver. Mostly in the liver, inosine and
hypoxanthine derived from the muscle can be converted into
uric acid by xanthine oxidase (71). This cycle might be a
potential mechanism by which exercise promotes (paradox-
ically) a pro-oxidant effect due to xanthine oxidase in the
liver, and an increase of urate, a powerful antioxidant in
circulation (114). In fact, increased plasma total antioxidant
capacity has been observed after high-intensity exercise (71).
The circulating urate can be taken up by different cells and,
after a recovery period after exercise, converted into allantoin
(73). During this process, there is a scavenger of the hydroxyl
radical, hydroperoxide, and lipid peroxidation (37). Inter-
estingly, urate is taken up preferentially by the contracting
muscle, and not by the resting ones (72). Although the
mechanism is not well understood, urate might be useful for
protecting the contracting muscle from oxidative damage
once its exogenous administration reduces exercise-induced
oxidative stress (165).
Based on this intimate co-operation between muscle and
liver, we propose synchronized and tightly regulated ROS-
mediated signaling in remote tissues that might be dependent
on the products of muscle contraction and liver processing.
This crosstalk is a well-organized network that synchronizes
contracting muscle and other remote tissues to ensure optimal
redox-mediated signaling during exercise and recovery (as
illustrated in the hypothetical schema in Fig. 1). For example,
lactate is produced and released into blood circulation,
reaching multiple different tissues, then altering the metab-
olism, and finally promoting an ROS-mediated signaling.
Simultaneously, intense ATP hydrolyses, mostly found dur-
ing intense exercise, promote the release of inositol and
hypoxanthine, which mostly reaches its peak after exercise.
Once in the liver, urate is produced from hypoxanthine and
released into circulating blood, delivering a potent antioxi-
dant and probably counteracting the peaks of ROS produc-
tion. This hypothetical possibility elaborates the fine-tuning
process required for the exchange of purines and lactates that
are derived from contracting muscle and is dictated by the
intensity of exercise. When this fascinating and natural
communication is perturbed, a disaccord in redox-mediated
signaling can lead to impaired function in many tissues and
blunt the widespread health benefits of exercise.
H
2
O
2
Gradient as a Chemoattracting Agent
Supporting Skeletal Muscle Regeneration
In skeletal muscle, cooperation between immune and
muscular cells is observed during muscular regeneration. The
recruitment of neutrophils and monocytes from blood cir-
culation is mediated by chemoattracting molecules that are
secreted by many cells (e.g., endothelial cells, satellites cells,
and immune-resident cells) at the lesion site. Multiple factors
such as C-C motif ligand 2/monocyte chemoattractant
protein-1 (MCP1) and tumor necrosis factor alpha are known
to attract monocytes and to differentiate them into macro-
phages, respectively (128), orchestrating the process of
myogenesis (32, 94, 137). H
2
O
2
gradient also serves as a
chemoattracting agent. In the zebrafish model, an H
2
O
2
gradient generated by the DUOX enzyme (after tissue injury)
recruits leucocytes to the site of the lesion to promote wound
healing (118). Moreover, H
2
O
2
production seems to be cru-
cial to promote progenitor cell proliferation during acute
kidney lesions (33). In these two examples, the inhibition of
H
2
O
2
generation abolished the regenerative process. In
mammals, the role of DUOX1 in the recruitment of immune
cells was demonstrated in lung inflammatory response, which
was found to be crucial to the regenerative process (30, 67).
Thus, one can speculate that exercise-induced H
2
O
2
gener-
ation in skeletal muscle cells could create a gradient to attract
supportive cells to participate in exercise responses.
After eccentric exercise, there is a peak in pro-
inflammatory CD68
+
macrophages infiltration at 48 h (100,
102) that switches to anti-inflammatory CD163
+
macro-
phages after 72 h (57, 131). Given that ROS are produced and
released into the blood from skeletal muscle (11, 34, 84), one
can hypothesize that these molecules participate in the re-
cruitment of immune cells to support cellular regeneration
after damaging exercise. In fact, DUOX1 is expressed in
muscular progenitor cells and its expression declines during
myogenesis (139), suggesting that DUOX1 could be a source
of ROS from satellite muscular progenitor cells to commu-
nicate to other cells through an H
2
O
2
gradient, as observed
during zebrafish and mammalian lung and kidney injury.
Myokines and Its ROS-Dependent Regulation:
Communicating the Contracting Muscle
to the Whole Body
After contractile activity, skeletal muscle cells increase the
production and release of several molecules such as cytokines
or other small proteins (*5–20 kDa) and proteoglycan pep-
tides that show autocrine, paracrine, and/or endocrine effects.
Several well-known cytokines (e.g., IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-15,
etc.) have been shown to be secreted by skeletal muscle
during physical exercise and, as a result, they are referred to
as myokines (123). Myokines are involved in exercise-
associated metabolic changes and not only in muscle but also
in other tissues such as heart, adipose tissue, liver, pancreas
bone, and brain. Myokines play important roles in metabolic
changes that are induced by physical exercise. They also
participate in tissue regeneration and repair, immunomodula-
tion. and cell differentiation (124). The interconnections be-
tween contracting muscle and practically all cells are complex
6 LOUZADA ET AL.
Downloaded by UNIV OF MIAMI MILLER SCH MED Package NERL from www.liebertpub.com at 04/27/20. For personal use only.
and not a completely deciphered system. Currently, several
myokines have been described to be stimulated by physical
exercise, including IL-6 (121), Irisin (19), IL-15 (146), FGF21
(156), LIF (23), and MCP1 (28). Interestingly,the PGC-1aand
Akt/mTOR pathways seem to be involved in myokine secre-
tion, and both of them are redox-sensitive intracellular path-
ways (Fig. 4). The most well-studied myokines are IL-6 and
Irisin (121).
Skeletal muscle IL-6 secretion increases after a single bout
of physical exercise (124), which induces liver glucose out-
put (52). IL-6 secretion during physical exercise is not related
to tissue damage or pro-inflammatory processes (124, 142,
150), and it seems to be regulated by intracellular calcium
levels (167). It was demonstrated that the administration of a
cocktail of antioxidants containing Vitamins A, C, and E
(161) or Vitamin C and E (54) before a single bout of physical
exercise attenuated IL-6 secretion in humans. L-NAME, a
nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor, also attenuated the
increase in IL-6 mRNA levels in response to exercise (151).
In addition, it has been suggested that NOX enzymes are
involved in IL-6 secretion by skeletal muscle during physical
exercise, since apocynin, an NOX inhibitor, attenuated this
phenomenon, which also occurred in a gp91phox knockout
animal (75).
IL-6, secreted by contracting skeletal muscle during re-
sistance training, seems to activate satellite cells through
the activation of STAT3, which is crucial for hypertrophy
(144). It has not been investigated whether this action is
dependent on ROS-mediated signaling; however, ROS can
stimulate STAT3 via a modification on its Tyr 7055 and
Cys 253 (147). Further, IL-6 stimulates ROS production in
plenty of different cell types (163), so it is possible that
ROS can act as an intermediate in the effect of IL-6 in
remote tissues during exercise. For instance, increased in-
sulin sensitivity and fatty acid oxidation that is stimulated
by IL-6 (26) might, in part, be dependent on the activation
of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) by ROS (157).
Also, the stimulus of muscle glucose uptake after exercise
might be through a similar mechanism (61). The interplay
betweenIL-6andAMPKhasalsobeenconrmedindif-
ferent tissues (88).
Irisin was first described as a myokine with the ability to
induce a browning phenotype in white adipose tissue, raising
basal metabolic rates (Fig. 5) (19). Several studies showed
that irisin promotes widespread effects in remote tissues,
preventing oxidative stress and tissue damage. Nrf2 activates
a well-known antioxidant pathway that protects against var-
ious pathological conditions (43, 97, 99), and its activation
seems to correlate with the antifibrotic and antioxidative ef-
fects of irisin (33, 45, 171). For instance, irisin treatment
protects hepatocytes in vitro from overproduction of ROS
that is induced by H
2
O
2
(13). Moreover, irisin mediates part
of the protective effect of dexmedetomidine in livers under
intestinal ischemia/reperfusion damages via decreasing in-
flammasome markers and ROS production (51). In addition,
irisin is known to decrease several pro-inflammatory cyto-
kines and increase antioxidant defenses (e.g., SOD and GPX)
in hepatocytes through Nrf2 upregulation (45). In endothelial
cells, irisin stimulates angiogenesis via AKT/mTOR/S6K1/
Nrf2 signaling, which reduces the higher ROS content in-
duced by oxidized LDL (Fig. 5) (171).
A major role of oxidative stress in fibrosis development is
caused by over-activated Smad-3 signaling (18) that leads to
exacerbated ROS production (14). Mechanistically, irisin-
induced Nrf2 activation in cardiac cells suppresses the ROS
generation that is induced by angiotensin II, which is triggered
by TGF-b1 in fibroblasts (33). Moreover, irisin was found to
prevent heart remodeling (98) and reduce blood pressure of
spontaneously hypertensive rats through endothelial cells
oxidative stress reduction via AMPK and NO signaling (56).
In a type 2 diabetes mice model,irisin ameliorated endothelial
function by reducing the overproduction of superoxide and
peroxynitrite (172). However, in endothelial cells, irisin also
reverted the oxidative stress induced by advanced glycation
end products by decreasing endothelial NOS activity and
therefore, preventing the endothelial damage that is secondary
to inflammasome overactivation (40).
In macrophages, irisin was found to increase proliferation
and phagocytosis ability (105) and protected these cells
against oxidative stress damage via upregulation of antioxi-
dant defenses, even under LPS stimulation (106). Given the
undeniable implication of macrophages in the development
and progression of many diseases, a direct action of exercise-
induced irisin on macrophages could contribute to the
widespread beneficial effects of exercise. Some of these ef-
fects are illustrated in Figure 5.
Previous studies have suggested that myokines mediate the
beneficial effects of exercise in brain function (Fig. 5). Under
an ischemia/reperfusion stroke, brain cells experiment a
glucose/oxygen deprivation that triggers an intense ROS
FIG. 4. Myokines and ROS dependence. The most studied myokines are illustrated and their ROS dependence is
highlighted. IL-6, IL-8, and IL-15 are regulated by ROS. The control of several myokines relies on the activation of human
PGC-1aand AKT/mTOR signaling, but their dependence on redox signaling has not yet been completely investigated.
AKT/mTOR, protein kinase B/mechanistic target of rapamycin; IL, interleukin; PGC-1a, peroxisome proliferator-activated
receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha. Color images are available online.
REDOX SIGNALING IN WIDESPREAD EFFECTS OF EXERCISE 7
Downloaded by UNIV OF MIAMI MILLER SCH MED Package NERL from www.liebertpub.com at 04/27/20. For personal use only.
production that can lead to an irreversible injury. Using
in vitro model, irisin protected neuron cells from oxidative
stress via decreasing the higher ROS production and in-
flammation through increased SOD expression, consequently
protecting neurons from stroke-induced apoptosis (127).
In 1944, one of the first reports suggested that exercise
reduced tumor growth and progression in mice (136). Since
then, there are several evidences showing that a healthy
lifestyle hinders the development of several types of cancer
and regular exercise can protect from a large range of dis-
eases (49, 119, 134). However, the precise mechanisms are
still unclear. Regarding the effect of exercise on tumor
growth, there are many conflicting results that have been
obtained from rodent experiments. Recent studies have
shown that exercise may decrease tumor growth if tumor-
bearing mice were trained 4 weeks before inoculation with
B16 melanoma cells (125), whereas another study suggested
avoiding free access to exercise because they observed in-
creased tumor growth and decreased lifespan in a model of
intramuscular tumor inoculation (8). Despite the gap of
knowledge about the mechanisms of actions involved in this
process, regular exercise has been recommended as a sup-
plementary therapy for cancer patients (83). Based on exist-
ing evidence, some public health organizations have issued
physical activity guidelines also for cancer prevention. Re-
garding the large number of studies conducted on physical
activity and cancer prevention, most of them have an in-
complete description of physical activity (such as type, in-
tensity, duration, and metabolic responses).
Mechanistically, an antiproliferative effect of serum col-
lected from mice after moderate exercise intensity (50% of
maximal exercise capacity), but not from mice submitted to
high-intensity swimming exercise (50% and 80% of maximal
capacity, respectively), confirms the idea that a mix of
myokines are secreted that are able to affect tumor cells,
reducing tumor growth (2). However, another study showed
that high-intensity training (corresponding to 85% of VO
2
max) was able to promote a reduction in tumor mass (10). By
screening 28 potential candidate molecules upregulated in
serum after swimming exercise, Oncostatin M has emerged
as a candidate for reducing mammary cancer cells growth
(78). Another candidate able to prevent the initiation of a
tumor was the ‘‘Secreted Protein Acidic and Rich in Cy-
steine’’ (SPARC). The level of circulating SPARC increased
in mice and humans after a single bout of exercise. Low-
intensity exercise induces SPARC expression and secretion
that reduces the formation of aberrant crypt foci and prevents
the onset of colon cancer (6). SPARC expression seems to be
induced by low and moderate exercise programs (149) and is
mainly secreted by slow-twitch fibers instead of fast-twitch
fibers after resistance exercise (Fig. 5) (148). Apart from its
possible direct action as an antitumor molecule, SPARC also
FIG. 5. Crosstalk between
skeletal muscle and other
tissues. The regular practice
of physical exercise promotes
widespread health benefits
that can prevent and treat
many diseases. Most of the
desirable effects of physical
exercise are mediated by
myokines that can facilitate
communication of contract-
ing muscles with remote tis-
sues. The mechanism of
action of many myokines re-
lies directly or indirectly on
redox signaling. Color ima-
ges are available online.
8 LOUZADA ET AL.
Downloaded by UNIV OF MIAMI MILLER SCH MED Package NERL from www.liebertpub.com at 04/27/20. For personal use only.
seems to mimic some of the beneficial effects of exercise on
glucose metabolism via AMPK activation (5).
Therefore, myokines secreted by the muscles may mediate
the beneficial effects of exercise on tumor development.
Although it is a promising and innovative theme, the effects
of contracting muscle myokines (e.g., IL-6, Irisin, FGF21,
Oncostatin M, SPARC, etc.) on tumor growth and progres-
sion using xenograph and inoculated rodent models are still
relatively unknown.
Extracellular Vesicles Released After Exercise
and Physiological Perspectives
Other important products secreted by skeletal muscle
during contraction are extracellular vesicles that include
exosomes and microvesicles (also known as shedding vesi-
cles, ectosome). Exosomes are complex 20–100-nm vesicles
formed by the inward budding of endosomal membranes to
form large multivesicular bodies. These vesicles are released
out of the cell when the multivesicular body fuses with the
plasma membrane. The exosome is characterized by soluble
and membrane-bound proteins, lipids, metabolites, DNA,
and RNA (mRNA, miRNAs, and other small regulatory
RNAs) that are involved in a protective lipid bilayer that can
modify signaling pathways and protein expression in remote
tissues (160).
Physical exercise considerably increases the metabolic
demands of the body. and the vesicle trafficking of metabolic
mediators might be a tool through which tissues can share
resources during this physiological situation. Using quanti-
tative proteomic techniques and intravital imaging experi-
ments, Whitham et al. demonstrated that skeletal muscle
contraction stimulates extracellular vesicle release and pro-
vides the means for tissue crosstalk during exercise (168).
Although the temporal aspects of exosome and small vesicle
biogenesis and transport in exercise are unknown, it has been
demonstrated that the release of exosomes is associated with
increases in the levels of intracellular calcium (141). Because
motor neuron stimulation of skeletal muscle fibers leads to a
rapid release of Ca
2+
from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (109),
it is plausible that a transient Ca
2+
increase during skeletal
muscle contraction is likely involved in exosome release.
ROS seems to be involved in the secretion of extracellular
vesicles since pro-oxidant conditions seem to induce their
release (15). In addition, NADPH oxidase and NOS-2 in-
hibitors reduced the production and release of neutrophil
microvesicles (158). Further, tumor and senescent cells have
altered redox balances with elevated ROS levels, which is
related to the higher number of microvesicles secreted by
these cells (29, 80). From an exercise perspective, more re-
search is necessary to elucidate the relationship between in-
creases in ROS production during skeletal muscle contraction
and microvesicle release (Fig. 1). However, some evidence
suggests that disrupted ROS-mediated signaling caused by
NAD(P)H oxidase inhibition (75), or aging, through exac-
erbated ROS generation (107), can affect the nature of exo-
somes (e.g., heat shock proteins [HSPs] expression),
delivering and potentially hampering the widespread bene-
ficial effect of exercise.
HSPs, for example, can be transferred between two cells
(170) and participate in the maintenance of protein homeo-
stasis (155). Previous studies suggested that Hsp70 secretion
is mediated by ATP-binding cassette transporter (ABCA1)
transmembrane transporters (4). Further, three other mecha-
nisms can also be related to Hsp70 release, such as: (i) cell
lysis with consequent release of cytoplasmic content; (ii) cell
surface blebbing and Hsp70 release in microvesicles to the
extracellular fluid; and (iii) through endolysosomes (58, 103,
104). HSPs are molecular chaperones that facilitate protein
folding and maintain protein structure and function during
cellular stress. HSPs are involved in a wide range of cellular
processes that are perturbed by oxidative stress, such as
protein folding, apoptosis, and inflammation (85, 86). As
recently discussed (108), the intercellular communication via
exosomes might compensate for the imbalance in HSP levels
in almost every cell (155). For example, differentiated neu-
rons seem to be dependent on a transfer of HSP from other
cells to maintain their cytoprotection against stress (101). It
has been demonstrated that intercellular HSP transfer occurs
by exosomes after exercise (93, 164), raising the idea that this
intercellular communication is critical to ensure an integrated
stress response across different tissues (160a). The exosomes
secreted after acute exercise have higher levels of HSPs (55,
168). On the contrary, muscle denervation alters the content
of exosomes (38), suggesting a crucial role for contractile
activity on exosome content and secretion.
Alzheimer’s is a neurodegenerative disease in which there
is a prevalent protein folding disorder in the brain, and the
HSP response in some neurons becomes reduced (25). It has
been extensively demonstrated that HSP is involved in pro-
tein homeostasis in the brain, and an accumulation of mis-
folded proteins (b-amyloid peptides) contributes to the
progression of this neurodegenerative disease (7). Interest-
ingly, an increase in HSP70 expression improves cognition
function and reduces amyloid-bpeptide levels in Alzhei-
mer’s model mice (152). Based on the mechanisms men-
tioned earlier, it is tempting to suggest that HSP transfer
through exosomes, which follows exercise, could retard or
even prevent the development of brain diseases; and this
hypothesis is illustrated in Figure 5.
Conclusions
The widespread beneficial effects of physical exercise are
mediated by multiple soluble factors that interfere with a
variety of signaling pathways, and the decoding of these
pathways is a challenge for basic and translational research.
Fascinatingly, optimal ROS-mediated signaling is necessary
to achieve the beneficial effects of exercise. In a common
way, exercise-secreted mediators seem to operate via PGC-
1aand Nrf2, two redox sensible pathways that promote
healthier conditions globally.
Recently, attention has focused on the mechanisms of
action of new myokines. Many exercise responses and ad-
aptations may be dictated by the (un)balance of ‘‘cytokines
cocktail,’’ defined as a net balance between deleterious
hampering molecules and benefit enhancing molecules. Un-
derstanding how aging and obesity blunt some of these ex-
ercise adaptations and proposing a multiple and combined
therapeutic strategy that will optimize the beneficial effect of
exercise in many diseases is a critical issue in exercise bi-
ology. In addition, the ROS-rich environment that is created
after exercise is not exclusively restricted to contracting
muscle. Understanding the processes by which the beneficial
REDOX SIGNALING IN WIDESPREAD EFFECTS OF EXERCISE 9
Downloaded by UNIV OF MIAMI MILLER SCH MED Package NERL from www.liebertpub.com at 04/27/20. For personal use only.
effects of exercise occurs is, therefore, a prerequisite to de-
fining how lack of exercise contributes to a poor quality of
life and high incidence of disease. Therefore, further studies
designed to decipher the mechanism of action of myokines
are indispensable to understand the redox code that underlies
the beneficial effects of exercise and, thus, will expand the
therapeutic strategies for many diseases.
Authors’ Contributions
All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and in-
tellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for pub-
lication. R.A.L., J.B., and L.P.M. wrote the article; D.P.C.,
C.D., and J.P.W-.d.-C. revised the article; and R.A.L. and
R.S.F. designed the outline of the article and wrote the article.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank Sapiens scientific illus-
trations for the design of the figures.
Funding Information
The study was supported by research grants from CNPq,
Fundac¸ao Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo a Pesquisa do
Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ), and Coordenac¸a
˜ode
Aperfeic¸oamento de Pessoal de Nı
´vel Superior (CAPES).
References
1. Allen D and Westerblad H. Lactic acid—the latest
performance-enhancing drug. Science 305: 1112–1113,
2004.
2. Almeida PWM, Gomes-Filho A, Ferreira AJ, Rodrigues
CEM, Dias-Peixoto MF, Russo RC, Teixeira MM, Cassali
GD, Ferreira E, Santos IC, Garcia AMC, Silami-Garcia E,
Wisløff U, and Pussieldi GA. Swim training suppresses
tumor growth in mice. J Appl Physiol 107: 261–265, 2009.
3. Amin MN, Hussain MS, Sarwar MS, Rahman Moghal
MM, Das A, Hossain MZ, Chowdhury JA, Millat MS, and
Islam MS. How the association between obesity and in-
flammation may lead to insulin resistance and cancer.
Diabetes Metab Syndr 13: 1213–1224, 2019.
4. Andrei C, Dazzi C, Lotti L, Torrisi MR, Chimini G, and
Rubartelli A. The secretory route of the leaderless protein
interleukin 1beta involves exocytosis of endolysosome-
related vesicles. Mol Biol Cell 10: 1463–1475, 1999.
5. Aoi W, Hirano N, Lassiter DG, Bjo
¨rnholm M, Chibalin
AV, Sakuma K, Tanimura Y, Mizushima K, Takagi T,
Naito Y, Zierath JR, and Krook A. Secreted protein acidic
and rich in cysteine (SPARC) improves glucose tolerance
via AMP-activated protein kinase activation. FASEB J 33:
10551–10562, 2019.
6. Aoi W, Naito Y, Takagi T, Tanimura Y, Takanami Y,
Kawai Y, Sakuma K, Hang LP, Mizushima K, Hirai Y,
Koyama R, Wada S, Higashi A, Kokura S, Ichikawa H,
and Yoshikawa T. A novel myokine, secreted protein
acidic and rich in cysteine (SPARC), suppresses colon
tumorigenesis via regular exercise. Gut 62: 882–889,
2013.
7. Arispe N and De Maio A. Memory loss and the onset of
Alzheimer’s disease could be under the control of extra-
cellular heat shock proteins. J Alzheimers Dis 63: 927–
934, 2018.
8. Assi M, Derbre
´F, Lefeuvre-Orfila L, Saligaut D, Stock N,
Ropars M, and Re
´billard A. Maintaining a regular phys-
ical activity aggravates intramuscular tumor growth in an
orthotopic liposarcoma model. Am J Cancer Res 7: 1037–
1053, 2017.
9. Ayala A, Mun
˜oz MF, and Argu
¨elles S. Lipid peroxidation:
production, metabolism, and signaling mechanisms of
malondialdehyde and 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal. Oxid Med
Cell Longev 2014: 360438, 2014.
10. Bacurau AVN, Belmonte MA, Navarro F, Moraes MR,
Pontes FL, Pesquero JL, Arau
´jo RC, and Bacurau RFP.
Effect of a high-intensity exercise training on the metab-
olism and function of macrophages and lymphocytes of
walker 256 tumor-bearing rats. Exp Biol Med 232: 1289–
1299, 2007.
11. Bailey DM, Young IS, McEneny J, Lawrenson L, Kim J,
Barden J, and Richardson RS. Regulation of free radical
outflow from an isolated muscle bed in exercising hu-
mans. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 287: H1689–
H1699, 2004.
12. Baker SK, Mccullagh KJA, and Bonen A. Training
intensity-dependent and tissue-specific increases in lactate
uptake and MCT-1 in heart and muscle. J Appl Physiol 84:
987–994, 1998.
13. Batirel S, Bozaykut P, Mutlu Altundag E, Kartal Ozer N,
and Mantzoros CS. The effect of Irisin on antioxidant
system in liver. Free Radic Biol Med 75: S16, 2014.
14. Bendall JK, Cave AC, Heymes C, Gall N, and Shah AM.
Pivotal role of a gp91phox-containing NADPH oxidase in
angiotensin II-induced cardiac hypertrophy in mice. Cir-
culation 105: 293–296, 2002.
15. Benedikter BJ, Weseler AR, Wouters EFM, Savelkoul
PHM, Rohde GGU, and Stassen FRM. Redox-dependent
thiol modifications: implications for the release of extra-
cellular vesicles. Cell Mol Life Sci 75: 2321–2337, 2018.
16. Bergman BC, Butterfield GE, Wolfel EE, Lopaschuk GD,
Casazza GA, Horning MA, and Brooks GA. Muscle net
glucose uptake and glucose kinetics after endurance
training in men. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 277:
E81–E92, 1999.
17. Bjørnsen T, Salvesen S, Berntsen S, Hetlelid KJ, Stea TH,
Lohne-Seiler H, Rohde G, Haraldstad K, Raastad T, Køpp
U, Haugeberg G, Mansoor MA, Bastani NE, Blomhoff R,
Stølevik SB, Seynnes OR, and Paulsen G. Vitamin C and
E supplementation blunts increases in total lean body
mass in elderly men after strength training. Scand J Med
Sci Sports 26: 755–763, 2016.
18. Black D, Lyman S, Qian T, Lemasters JJ, Rippe RA, Nitta
T, Kim JS, and Behrns KE. Transforming growth factor
beta mediates hepatocyte apoptosis through Smad3 gen-
eration of reactive oxygen species. Biochimie 89: 1464–
1473, 2007.
19. Bostro
¨m P, Wu J, Jedrychowski MP, Korde A, Ye L, Lo
JC, Rasbach KA, Bostro
¨m EA, Choi JH, Long JZ, Kaji-
mura S, Zingaretti MC, Vind BF, Tu H, Cinti S, Højlund
K, Gygi SP, and Spiegelman BM. A PGC1-a-dependent
myokine that drives brown-fat-like development of white
fat and thermogenesis. Nature 481: 463–468, 2012.
20. Bourdeau Julien I, Sephton CF, and Dutchak PA. Meta-
bolic networks influencing skeletal muscle fiber compo-
sition. Front Cell Dev Biol 6: 125, 2018.
21. Braakhuis AJ, Hopkins WG, and Lowe TE. Effects of
dietary antioxidants on training and performance in fe-
male runners. Eur J Sport Sci 14: 160–168, 2014.
10 LOUZADA ET AL.
Downloaded by UNIV OF MIAMI MILLER SCH MED Package NERL from www.liebertpub.com at 04/27/20. For personal use only.
22. Brady PS, Brady LJ, and Ullrey DE. Selenium, vitamin E
and the response to swimming stress in the rat. J Nutr 109:
1103–1109, 1979.
23. Broholm C, Mortensen OH, Nielsen S, Akerstrom T,
Zankari A, Dahl B, and Pedersen BK. Exercise induces
expression of leukaemia inhibitory factor in human skel-
etal muscle. J Physiol 586: 2195–2201, 2008.
24. Brooks GA. The science and translation of lactate shuttle
theory. Cell Metab 27: 757–785, 2018.
25. Calderwood SK and Murshid A. Molecular chaperone
accumulation in cancer and decrease in Alzheimer’s dis-
ease: the potential roles of HSF1. Front Neurosci 11: 1–8,
2017.
26. Carey AL, Steinberg GR, Macaulay SL, Thomas WG,
Holmes AG, Ramm G, Prelovsek O, Hohnen-Behrens C,
Watt MJ, James DE, Kemp BE, Pedersen BK, and Feb-
braio MA. Interleukin-6 increases insulin-stimulated glu-
cose disposal in humans and glucose uptake and fatty acid
oxidation in vitro via AMP-activated protein kinase.
Diabetes 55: 2688–2697, 2006.
27. Catala
´A and Dı
´az M. Editorial: impact of lipid perox-
idation on the physiology and pathophysiology of cell
membranes. Front Physiol 7: 423, 2016.
28. Catoire M, Mensink M, Kalkhoven E, Schrauwen P, and
Kersten S. Identification of human exercise-induced
myokines using secretome analysis. Physiol Genomics 46:
256–267, 2014.
29. Chandrasekaran A, Idelchik MDPS, and Melendez JA.
Redox control of senescence and age-related disease.
Redox Biol 11: 91–102, 2017.
30. Chang S, Linderholm A, Franzi L, Kenyon N, Grasberger
H, and Harper R. Dual oxidase regulates neutrophil re-
cruitment in allergic airways. Free Radic Biol Med 65:
38–46, 2013.
31. Chapados NA and Lavoie J-M. Exercise training increases
hepatic endoplasmic reticulum (er) stress protein expres-
sion in MTP-inhibited high-fat fed rats. Cell Biochem
Funct 28: 202–210, 2010.
32. Chazaud B. Inflammation during skeletal muscle regen-
eration and tissue remodeling: application to exercise-
induced muscle damage management. Immunol Cell Biol
94: 140–145, 2016.
33. Chen RR, Fan XH, Chen G, Zeng GW, Xue YG, Liu XT,
and Wang CY. Irisin attenuates angiotensin II-induced
cardiac fibrosis via Nrf2 mediated inhibition of ROS/
TGFb1/Smad2/3 signaling axis. Chem Biol Interact 302:
11–21, 2019.
34. Close GL, Kayani AC, Ashton T, McArdle A, and Jackson
MJ. Release of superoxide from skeletal muscle of adult
and old mice: an experimental test of the reductive hotspot
hypothesis. Aging Cell 6: 189–195, 2007.
35. Cuevas MJ, Almar M, Garcı
´a-Glez JC, Garcı
´a-Lo
´pez D,
De Paz JA, Alvear-Ordenes I, and Gonza
´lez-Gallego
J. Changes in oxidative stress markers and NF-kappaB
activation induced by sprint exercise. Free Radic Res 39:
431–439, 2005.
36. Davies KJA, Quintanilha AT, Brooks GA, and Packer
L. Free radicals and tissue damage produced by exercise.
Biochem Biophys Res Commun 107: 1198–1205, 1982.
37. Davies KJA, Sevanian A, Muakkassah-Kelly SF, and
Hochstein P. Uric acid-iron ion complexes. A new aspect
of the antioxidant functions of uric acid. Biochem J 235:
747–754, 1986.
38. De Gasperi R, Hamidi S, Harlow LM, Ksiezak-Reding H,
Bauman WA, and Cardozo CP. Denervation-related al-
terations and biological activity of miRNAs contained in
exosomes released by skeletal muscle fibers. Sci Rep 7:
12888, 2017.
39. Deldicque L, Cani PD, Delzenne NM, Baar K, and
Francaux M. Endurance training in mice increases the
unfolded protein response induced by a high-fat diet. J
Physiol Biochem 69: 215–225, 2013.
40. Deng X, Huang W, Peng J, Zhu TT, Sun XL, Zhou XY,
Yang H, Xiong JF, He HQ, Xu YH, and He YZ. Irisin
alleviates advanced glycation end products-induced in-
flammation and endothelial dysfunction via inhibiting
ROS-NLRP3 inflammasome signaling. Inflammation 41:
260–275, 2018.
41. Di Meo S, Napolitano G, and Venditti P. Mediators of
physical activity protection against ROS-linked skeletal
muscle damage. Int J Mol Sci 20: 1–38, 2019.
42. Dillard CJ, Litov RE, Savin WM, Dumelin EE, and
Tappel AL. Effects of exercise, vitamin E, and ozone on
pulmonary function and lipid peroxidation. J Appl Physiol
45: 927–932, 1978.
43. Divya T, Dineshbabu V, Soumyakrishnan S, Sureshkumar
A, and Sudhandiran G. Celastrol enhances Nrf2 mediated
antioxidant enzymes and exhibits anti-fibrotic effect
through regulation of collagen production against
bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis. Chem Biol Inter-
act 246: 52–62, 2016.
44. Done AJ and Traustado
´ttir T. Nrf2 mediates redox adap-
tations to exercise. Redox Biol 10: 191–199, 2016.
45. Du J, Fan X, Yang B, Chen Y, Liu KX, and Zhou J. Irisin
pretreatment ameliorates intestinal ischemia/reperfusion
injury in mice through activation of the Nrf2 pathway. Int
Immunopharmacol 73: 225–235, 2019.
46. E L, Lu J, Selfridge JE, Burns JM, and Swerdlow RH.
Lactate administration reproduces specific brain and liver
exercise-related changes. J Neurochem 127: 91–100,
2013.
47. Egan B, Carson BP, Garcia-Roves PM, Chibalin AV,
Sarsfield FM, Barron N, McCaffrey N, Moyna NM,
Zierath JR, and O’Gorman DJ. Exercise intensity-
dependent regulation of peroxisome proliferator-activated
receptor ccoactivator-1amRNA abundance is associated
with differential activation of upstream signalling kinases
in human skeletal muscle. J Physiol 588: 1779–1790,
2010.
48. Emhoff CAW, Messonnier LA, Horning MA, Fattor JA,
Carlson TJ, and Brooks GA. Gluconeogenesis and hepatic
glycogenolysis during exercise at the lactate threshold. J
Appl Physiol 114: 297–306, 2013.
49. Eschke RCKR, Lampit A, Schenk A, Javelle F, Steindorf
K, Diel P, Bloch W, and Zimmer P. Impact of physical
exercise on growth and progression of cancer in rodents-a
systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Oncol 9: 35,
2019.
50. Este
´banez B, De Paz JA, Cuevas MJ, and Gonza
´lez-
Gallego J. Endoplasmic reticulum unfolded protein re-
sponse, aging and exercise: an update. Front Physiol 9:
1744, 2018.
51. Fan X, Du J, Wang MH, Li JM, Yang B, Chen Y, Dai JC,
Zhang C, and Zhou J. Irisin contributes to the hepato-
protection of dexmedetomidine during intestinal ischemia/
reperfusion. Oxid Med Cell Longev 2019: 7857082, 2019.
REDOX SIGNALING IN WIDESPREAD EFFECTS OF EXERCISE 11
Downloaded by UNIV OF MIAMI MILLER SCH MED Package NERL from www.liebertpub.com at 04/27/20. For personal use only.
52. Febbraio MA, Hiscock N, Sacchetti M, Fischer CP, and
Pedersen BK. Interleukin-6 is a novel factor mediating
glucose homeostasis during skeletal muscle contraction.
Diabetes 53: 1643–1648, 2004.
53. Feng H, Kang C, Dickman JR, Koenig R, Awoyinka I,
Zhang Y, and Ji LL. Training-induced mitochondrial ad-
aptation: role of peroxisome proliferator-activated recep-
tor ccoactivator-1a, nuclear factor-jB and b-blockade.
Exp Physiol 98: 784–795, 2013.
54. Fischer CP, Hiscock NJ, Penkowa M, Basu S, Vessby B,
Kallner A, Sjo
¨berg LB, and Pedersen BK. Supplementa-
tion with vitamins C and E inhibits the release of
interleukin-6 from contracting human skeletal muscle. J
Physiol 558: 633–645, 2004.
55. Fru
¨hbeis C, Helmig S, Tug S, Simon P, and Kra
¨mer-
Albers E-M. Physical exercise induces rapid release of
small extracellular vesicles into the circulation. J Extra-
cell Vesicles 4: 28239, 2015.
56. Fu J, Han Y, Wang J, Liu Y, Zheng S, Zhou L, Jose PA,
and Zeng C. Irisin lowers blood pressure by improvement
of endothelial dysfunction via AMPK-Akt-eNOS-NO
pathway in the spontaneously hypertensive rat. JAm
Heart Assoc 5, 2016.
57. Furrer R and Handschin C. Optimized engagement of
macrophages and satellite cells in the repair and regen-
eration of exercised muscle. In: Hormones, Metabolism
and the Benefits of Exercise, edited by Spiegelman
B. Chamcham: Springer, 2017.
58. Gastpar R, Gehrmann M, Bausero MA, Asea A, Gross C,
Schroeder JA, and Multhoff G. Heat shock protein 70
surface-positive tumor exosomes stimulate migratory and
cytolytic activity of natural killer cells. Cancer Res 65:
5238–5247, 2005.
59. Gertz EW, Wisneski JA, Stanley WC, and Neese RA.
Myocardial substrate utilization during exercise in hu-
mans. Dual carbon-labeled carbohydrate isotope experi-
ments. J Clin Invest 82: 2017–2025, 1988.
60. Gladden LB. Muscle as a consumer of lactate. Med Sci
Sports Exerc 32: 764–771, 2000.
61. Glund S, Deshmukh A, Yun CL, Moller T, Koistinen HA,
Caidahl K, Zierath JR, and Krook A. Interleukin-6 directly
increases glucose metabolism in resting human skeletal
muscle. Diabetes 56: 1630–1637, 2007.
62. Goldstein MS. Humoral nature of the hypoglycemic factor
of muscular work. Diabetes 10: 232–234, 1961.
63. Gomes EC, Silva AN, and Oliveira MRD. Oxidants, an-
tioxidants, and the beneficial roles of exercise-induced
production of reactive species. Oxid Med Cell Longev
2012: 756132, 2012.
64. Gomez-Cabrera MC, Domenech E, Romagnoli M, Ardu-
ini A, Borras C, Pallardo FV, Sastre J, and Vin
˜a J. Oral
administration of vitamin C decreases muscle mitochon-
drial biogenesis and hampers training-induced adaptations
in endurance performance. Am J Clin Nutr 87: 142–149,
2008.
65. Groussard C, Morel I, Chevanne M, Monnier M, Cillard J,
and Delamarche A. Free radical scavenging and antioxi-
dant effects of lactate ion: an in vitro study. J Appl Physiol
89: 169–175, 2000.
66. Groussard C, Rannou-Bekono F, Machefer G, Chevanne
M, Vincent S, Sergent O, Cillard J, and Gratas-
Delamarche A. Changes in blood lipid peroxidation
markers and antioxidants after a single sprint anaerobic
exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 89: 14–20, 2003.
67. Habibovic A, Hristova M, Heppner DE, Danyal K, Ather
JL, Janssen-Heininger YMW, Irvin CG, Poynter ME,
Lundblad LK, Dixon AE, Geiszt M, and van der Vliet
A. DUOX1 mediates persistent epithelial EGFR activa-
tion, mucous cell metaplasia, and airway remodeling
during allergic asthma. JCI Insight 1: e88811, 2016.
68. Handschin C and Spiegelman B. The role of exercise and
PGC1alpha in inflammation and chronic disease. Nature
454: 463–469, 2008.
69. Hashimoto T and Brooks GA. Mitochondrial lactate oxi-
dation complex and an adaptive role for lactate produc-
tion. Med Sci Sports Exerc 40: 486–494, 2008.
70. Hawley JA, Hargreaves M, Joyner MJ, and Zierath JR.
Integrative biology of exercise. Cell 159: 738–749, 2014.
71. Hellsten Y, Richter EA, Kiens B, and Bangsbo J. AMP
deamination and purine exchange in human skeletal
muscle during and after intense exercise. J Physiol 520:
909–920, 1999.
72. Hellsten Y, Sjo
¨din B, Richter EA, and Bangsbo J. Urate
uptake and lowered ATP levels in human muscle after
high-intensity intermittent exercise. Am J Physiol En-
docrinol Metab 274: E600–E606, 1998.
73. Hellsten Y, Tullson PC, Richter EA, and Bangsbo
J. Oxidation of urate in human skeletal muscle during
exercise. Free Radic Biol Med 22: 169–174, 1997.
74. Henrı
´quez-Olguı
´n C, Boronat S, Cabello-Verrugio C,
Jaimovich E, Hidalgo E, and Jensen TE. The emerging
roles of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
oxidase 2 in skeletal muscle redox signaling and metab-
olism. Antioxid Redox Signal 31: 1371–1410, 2019.
75. Henrı
´quez-Olguı
´nC,Dı
´az-Vegas A, Utreras-Mendoza Y,
Campos C, Arias-Caldero
´n M, Llanos P, Contreras-Ferrat
A, Espinosa A, Altamirano F, Jaimovich E, and Valla-
dares DM. NOX2 inhibition impairs early muscle gene
expression induced by a single exercise bout. Front Phy-
siol 7: 282, 2016.
76. This reference has been deleted.
77. Henrı
´quez-Olguin C, Knudsen JR, Raun SH, Li Z, Dal-
bram E, Treebak JT, Sylow L, Holmdahl R, Richter EA,
Jaimovich E, and Jensen TE. Cytosolic ROS production
by NADPH oxidase 2 regulates muscle glucose uptake
during exercise. Nat Commun 10: 4623, 2019.
78. Hojman P, Dethlefsen C, Brandt C, Hansen J, Pedersen L,
and Pedersen BK. Exercise-induced muscle-derived cy-
tokines inhibit mammary cancer cell growth. Am J Physiol
Endocrinol Metab 301: 504–510, 2011.
79. Huang H, Liu H, Liu C, Fan L, Zhang X, Gao A, Hu X,
Zhang K, Cao X, Jiang K, Zhou Y, Hou J, Nan F, and Li
J. Disruption of the unfolded protein response (UPR) by
lead compound selectively suppresses cancer cell growth.
Cancer Lett 360: 257–268, 2015.
80. Huber V, Fais S, Iero M, Lugini L, Canese P, Squarcina P,
Zaccheddu A, Colone M, Arancia G, Gentile M, Seregni
E, Valenti R, Ballabio G, Belli F, Leo E, Parmiani G, and
Rivoltini L. Human colorectal cancer cells induce T-cell
death through release of proapoptotic microvesicles: role
in immune escape. Gastroenterology 128: 1796–1804,
2005.
81. Hulmi JJ, Hentila
¨J, DeRuisseau KC, Oliveira BM, Pa-
paioannou KG, Autio R, Kujala UM, Ritvos O, Kainu-
lainen H, Korkmaz A, and Atalay M. Effects of muscular
dystrophy, exercise and blocking activin receptor IIB li-
gands on the unfolded protein response and oxidative
stress. Free Radic Biol Med 99: 308–322, 2016.
12 LOUZADA ET AL.
Downloaded by UNIV OF MIAMI MILLER SCH MED Package NERL from www.liebertpub.com at 04/27/20. For personal use only.
82. Iatsenko I, Boquete JP, and Lemaitre B. Microbiota-
derived lactate activates production of reactive oxygen
species by the intestinal NADPH oxidase Nox and short-
ens Drosophila lifespan. Immunity 49: 929–942.e5, 2018.
83. Irwin ML, Smith AW, McTiernan A, Ballard-Barbash R,
Cronin K, Gilliland FD, Baumgartner RN, Baumgartner
KB, and Bernstein L. Influence of pre- and postdiagnosis
physical activity on mortality in breast cancer survivors:
the health, eating, activity, and lifestyle study. J Clin
Oncol 26: 3958–3964, 2008.
84. Jackson MJ. Control of reactive oxygen species produc-
tion in contracting skeletal muscle. Antioxid Redox Signal
15: 2477–2486, 2011.
85. Kalmar B and Greensmith L. Activation of the heat shock
response in a primary cellular model of motoneuron
neurodegeneration-evidence for neuroprotective and neu-
rotoxic effects. Cell Mol Biol Lett 14: 319–335, 2009.
86. Kalmar B and Greensmith L. Induction of heat shock
proteins for protection against oxidative stress. Adv Drug
Deliv Rev 61: 310–318, 2009.
87. Kang C, O’Moore KM, Dickman JR, and Ji LL. Exercise
activation of muscle peroxisome proliferator-activated
receptor-ccoactivator-1asignaling is redox sensitive.
Free Radic Biol Med 47: 1394–1400, 2009.
88. Kelly M, Keller C, Avilucea PR, Keller P, Luo Z, Xiang
X, Giralt M, Hidalgo J, Saha AK, Pedersen BK, and
Ruderman NB. AMPK activity is diminished in tissues of
IL-6 knockout mice: the effect of exercise. Biochem
Biophys Res Commun 320: 449–454, 2004.
89. Kim Y, Park M, Boghossian S, and York DA. Three
weeks voluntary running wheel exercise increases endo-
plasmic reticulum stress in the brain of mice. Brain Res
1317: 13–23, 2010.
90. Kitaoka Y, Takeda K, Tamura Y, and Hatta H. Lactate
administration increases mRNA expression of PGC-1a
and UCP3 in mouse skeletal muscle. Appl Physiol Nutr
Metab 41: 695–698, 2016.
91. Kong G, Jiang Y, Sun X, Cao Z, Zhang G, Zhao Z, Zhao
Y, Yu Q, and Cheng G. Irisin reverses the IL-6 induced
epithelial-mesenchymal transition in osteosarcoma cell
migration and invasion through the STAT3/Snail signal-
ing pathway. Oncol Rep 38: 2647–2656, 2017.
92. Kristensen M, Albertsen J, Rentsch M, and Juel C. Lactate
and force production in skeletal muscle. J Physiol 562:
521–526, 2005.
93. Lancaster GI and Febbraio MA. Mechanisms of stress-
induced cellular HSP72 release: implications for exercise-
induced increases in extracellular HSP72. Exerc Immunol
Rev 11: 46–52, 2005.
94. Le Moal E, Pialoux V, Juban G, Groussard C, Zouhal H,
Chazaud B, and Mounier R. Redox control of skeletal
muscle regeneration. Antioxid Redox Signal 27: 276–310,
2017.
95. Levonen AL, Landar A, Ramachandran A, Ceaser EK,
Dickinson DA, Zanoni G, Morrow JD, and Darley-Usmar
VM. Cellular mechanisms of redox cell signalling: role of
cysteine modification in controlling antioxidant defences
in response to electrophilic lipid oxidation products.
Biochem J 378: 373–382, 2004.
96. Li F, Liu BB, Cai M, Li JJ, and Lou S-J. Excessive en-
doplasmic reticulum stress and decreased neuroplasticity-
associated proteins in prefrontal cortex of obese rats and
the regulatory effects of aerobic exercise. Brain Res Bull
140: 52–59, 2018.
97. Li J, Ichikawa T, Villacorta L, Janicki JS, Brower GL,
Yamamoto M, and Cui T. Nrf2 protects against mala-
daptive cardiac responses to hemodynamic stress. Arter-
ioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 29: 1843–1850, 2009.
98. Li RL, Wu SS, Wu Y, Wang XX, Chen HY, juan Xin J, Li
H, Lan J, Xue KY, Li X, Zhuo CL, Cai YY, He JH, Zhang
HY, Tang CS, Wang W, and Jiang W. Irisin alleviates
pressure overload-induced cardiac hypertrophy by induc-
ing protective autophagy via mTOR-independent activa-
tion of the AMPK-ULK1 pathway. J Mol Cell Cardiol
121: 242–255, 2018.
99. Li X, Han D, Tian Z, Gao B, Fan M, Li C, Li X, Wang Y,
Ma S, and Cao F. Activation of cannabinoid receptor type
II by AM1241 ameliorates myocardial fibrosis via Nrf2-
mediated inhibition of TGF-b1/Smad3 pathway in myo-
cardial infarction mice. Cell Physiol Biochem 39: 1521–
1536, 2016.
100. MacNeil LG, Baker SK, Stevic I, and Tarnopolsky MA.
17b-estradiol attenuates exercise-induced neutrophil in-
filtration in men. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
300: R1443–R1451, 2011.
101. Maguire G. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis as a protein
level, non-genomic disease: therapy with S2RM exosome
released molecules. World J Stem Cells 9: 187–202, 2017.
102. Mahoney DJ, Safdar A, Parise G, Melov S, Fu M, Mac-
Neil L, Kaczor J, Payne ET, and Tarnopolsky MA. Gene
expression profiling in human skeletal muscle during re-
covery from eccentric exercise. Am J Physiol Regul Integr
Comp Physiol 294: R1901–R1910, 2008.
103. Mambula SS and Calderwood SK. Heat induced release of
Hsp70 from prostate carcinoma cells involves both active
secretion and passive release from necrotic cells. Int J
Hyperthermia 22: 575–585, 2006.
104. Mambula SS and Calderwood SK. Heat shock protein 70
is secreted from tumor cells by a nonclassical pathway
involving lysosomal endosomes. J Immunol 1950 177:
7849–7857, 2006.
105. Mazur-Bialy AI. Irisin acts as a regulator of macrophages
host defense. Life Sci 176: 21–25, 2017.
106. Mazur-Bialy AI, Kozlowska K, Pochec E, Bilski J, and
Brzozowski T. Myokine irisin-induced protection against
oxidative stress in vitro. Involvement of heme oxygenase-
1 and antioxidazing enzymes superoxide dismutase-2 and
glutathione peroxidase. J Physiol Pharmacol 69: 117–125,
2018.
107. McArdle A and Jackson MJ. The role of attenuated redox
and heat shock protein responses in the age-related decline
in skeletal muscle mass and function. Essays Biochem 61:
339–348, 2017.
108. McArdle A, Pollock N, Staunton CA, and Jackson MJ.
Aberrant redox signalling and stress response in age-
related muscle decline: role in inter- and intra-cellular
signalling. Free Radic Biol Med 132: 50–57, 2019.
109. Melzer W, Rios E, and Schneider MF. Time course of
calcium release and removal in skeletal muscle fibers.
Biophys J 45: 637–641, 1984.
110. Memme JM, Oliveira AN, and Hood DA. Chronology of
UPR activation in skeletal muscle adaptations to chronic
contractile activity. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 310:
C1024–C1036, 2016.
111. Merry TL and Ristow M. Nuclear factor erythroid-derived
2-like 2 (NFE2L2, Nrf2) mediates exercise-induced mi-
tochondrial biogenesis and the anti-oxidant response in
mice. J Physiol 594: 5195–5207, 2016.
REDOX SIGNALING IN WIDESPREAD EFFECTS OF EXERCISE 13
Downloaded by UNIV OF MIAMI MILLER SCH MED Package NERL from www.liebertpub.com at 04/27/20. For personal use only.
112. Meyer C, Dostou JM, Welle SL, and Gerich JE. Role of
human liver, kidney, and skeletal muscle in postprandial
glucose homeostasis. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab
282: E419–E427, 2002.
113. Molenaar RJ and van Noorden CJ. Type 2 diabetes and
cancer as redox diseases? Lancet Lond Engl 384: 853,
2014.
114. Morales-Alamo D and Calbet JAL. Free radicals and
sprint exercise in humans. Free Radic Res 48: 30–42,
2014.
115. Nalbandian M, Radak Z, and Takeda M. N-acetyl-L-
cysteine prevents lactate-mediated PGC1-alpha expres-
sion in C2C12 myotubes. Biology 8: 44, 2019.
116. Nardai G, Stadler K, Papp E, Korcsma
´ros T, Jakus J, and
Csermely P. Diabetic changes in the redox status of the
microsomal protein folding machinery. Biochem Biophys
Res Commun 334: 787–795, 2005.
117. Nielsen OB, De Paoli F, and Overgaard K. Protective
effects of lactic acid on force production in rat skeletal
muslce. J Physiol 536: 161–166, 2001.
118. Niethammer P, Grabher C, Look AT, and Mitchison TJ.
A tissue-scale gradient of hydrogen peroxide mediates
rapidwounddetectioninzebrash.Nature 459: 996–
999, 2009.
119. Nilsson MI, Bourgeois JM, Nederveen JP, Leite MR,
Hettinga BP, Bujak AL, May L, Lin E, Crozier M, Ru-
siecki DR, Moffatt C, Azzopardi P, Young J, Yang Y,
Nguyen J, Adler E, Lan L, and Tarnopolsky MA. Lifelong
aerobic exercise protects against inflammaging and can-
cer. PLoS One 14: e0210863, 2019.
120. This reference has been deleted.
121. Ostrowski K, Rohde T, Zacho M, Asp S, and Pedersen
BK. Evidence that interleukin-6 is produced in human
skeletal muscle during prolonged running. J Physiol 508:
949–953, 1998.
122. Pala R, Orhan C, Tuzcu M, Sahin N, Ali S, Cinar V,
Atalay M, and Sahin K. Coenzyme Q10 supplementation
modulates NFjB and Nrf2 pathways in exercise training.
J Sports Sci Med 15: 196–203, 2016.
123. Pedersen BK, Akerstro
¨m TCA, Nielsen AR, and Fischer
CP. Role of myokines in exercise and metabolism. J Appl
Physiol (1985) 103: 1093–1098, 2007.
124. Pedersen BK and Febbraio MA. Muscle as an endocrine
organ: focus on muscle-derived interleukin-6. Physiol Rev
88: 1379–1406, 2008.
125. Pedersen L, Idorn M, Olofsson GH, Lauenborg B, Noo-
kaew I, Hansen RH, Johannesen HH, Becker JC, Pedersen
KS, Dethlefsen C, Nielsen J, Gehl J, Pedersen BK, Thor
Straten P, and Hojman P. Voluntary running suppresses
tumor growth through epinephrine- and IL-6-dependent
NK cell mobilization and redistribution. Cell Metab 23:
554–562, 2016.
126. Pellerin L, Pellegri G, Bittar PG, Charnay Y, Bouras C,
Martin JL, Stella N, and Magistretti PJ. Evidence sup-
porting the existence of an activity-dependent astrocyte-
neuron lactate shuttle. Dev Neurosci 20: 291–299, 1998.
127. Peng J, Deng X, Huang W, Yu J-H, Wang J-X, Wang J-P,
Yang S-B, Liu X, Wang L, Zhang Y, Zhou X-Y, Yang H,
He Y-Z, and Xu F-Y. Irisin protects against neuronal in-
jury induced by oxygen-glucose deprivation in part de-
pends on the inhibition of ROS-NLRP3 inflammatory
signaling pathway. Mol Immunol 91: 185–194, 2017.
128. Pillon NJ, Bilan PJ, Fink LN, and Klip A. Cross-talk be-
tween skeletal muscle and immune cells: muscle-derived
mediators and metabolic implications. Am J Physiol En-
docrinol Metab 304: E453–E463, 2013.
129. Powers SK and Jackson MJ. Exercise-induced oxidative
stress: cellular mechanisms and impact on muscle force
production. Physiol Rev 88: 1243–1276, 2008.
130. Powers SK, Radak Z, and Ji LL. Exercise-induced oxi-
dative stress: past, present and future. J Physiol 594:
5081–5092, 2016.
131. Przybyla B, Gurley C, Harvey JF, Bearden E, Kortebein P,
Evans WJ, Sullivan DH, Peterson CA, and Dennis RA.
Aging alters macrophage properties in human skeletal
muscle both at rest and in response to acute resistance
exercise. Exp Gerontol 41: 320–327, 2006.
132. Quistorff B, Secher NH, and Van Lieshout JJ. Lactate
fuels the human brain during exercise. FASEB J 22: 3443–
3449, 2008.
133. Ristow M, Zarse K, Oberbach A, Klo
¨ting N, Birringer M,
Kiehntopf M, Stumvoll M, Kahn CR, and Blu
¨her
M. Antioxidants prevent health-promoting effects of
physical exercise in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
106: 8665–8670, 2009.
134. Rogers CJ, Colbert LH, Greiner JW, Perkins SN, and
Hursting SD. Physical activity and cancer prevention.
Sports Med 38: 271–296, 2008.
135. Rojo de la Vega M and Zhang DD. NRF2 induction for
NASH treatment: a New Hope rises. Cell Mol Gastro-
enterol Hepatol 5: 422–423, 2018.
136. Rusch HP and Kline BE. The effect of exercise on the
growth of a mouse tumor. Cancer Res 4: 116–118, 1944.
137. Saclier M, Cuvellier S, Magnan M, Mounier R, and
Chazaud B. Monocyte/macrophage interactions with
myogenic precursor cells during skeletal muscle regener-
ation. FEBS J 280: 4118–4130, 2013.
138. Sakellariou GK, Vasilaki A, Palomero J, Kayani A, Zibrik
L, McArdle A, and Jackson MJ. Studies of mitochondrial
and nonmitochondrial sources implicate nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase(s) in the increased
skeletal muscle superoxide generation that occurs during
contractile activity. Antioxid Redox Signal 18: 603–621,
2013.
139. Sandiford SD, Kennedy KA, Xie X, Pickering JG, and Li
SS. Dual oxidase maturation factor 1 (DUOXA1) over-
expression increases reactive oxygen species production
and inhibits murine muscle satellite cell differentiation.
Cell Commun Signal 12: 1–15, 2014.
140. San-Milla
´n I and Brooks GA. Reexamining cancer me-
tabolism: lactate production for carcinogenesis could be
the purpose and explanation of the Warburg effect. Car-
cinogenesis 38: 119–133, 2017.
141. Savina A, Furla
´n M, Vidal M, and Colombo MI. Exosome
release is regulated by a calcium-dependent mechanism in
K562 cells. J Biol Chem 278: 20083–20090, 2003.
142. Scheele C, Nielsen S, and Pedersen BK. ROS and myo-
kines promote muscle adaptation to exercise. Trends En-
docrinol Metab 20: 95–99, 2009.
143. Scheiman J, Luber JM, Chavkin TA, MacDonald T, Tung
A, Pham LD, Wibowo MC, Wurth RC, Punthambaker S,
Tierney BT, Yang Z, Hattab MW, Avila-Pacheco J, Clish
CB, Lessard S, Church GM, and Kostic AD. Meta-omics
analysis of elite athletes identifies a performance-
enhancing microbe that functions via lactate metabolism.
Nat Med 25: 1104–1109, 2019.
144. Serrano AL, Baeza-Raja B, Perdiguero E, Jardı
´M, and
Mun
˜oz-Ca
´noves P. Interleukin-6 is an essential regulator
14 LOUZADA ET AL.
Downloaded by UNIV OF MIAMI MILLER SCH MED Package NERL from www.liebertpub.com at 04/27/20. For personal use only.
of satellite cell-mediated skeletal muscle hypertrophy.
Cell Metab 7: 33–44, 2008.
145. Shanmugam G, Challa AK, Devarajan A, Athmanathan B,
Litovsky SH, Krishnamurthy P, Davidson CJ, and Raja-
sekaran NS. Exercise mediated Nrf2 signaling protects the
myocardium from isoproterenol-induced pathological re-
modeling. Front Cardiovasc Med 6: 68, 2019.
146. Shin KO, Bae JY, Woo J, Jang KS, Kim KS, Park JS, Kim
IK, and Kang S. The effect of exercise on expression of
myokine and angiogenesis mRNA in skeletal muscle of
high fat diet induced obese rat. J Exerc Nutr Biochem 6:
91–98, 2015.
147. Sobotta MC, Liou W, ouml Cker SS, Talwar D, Oehler M,
Ruppert T, Scharf AND, and Dick TP. Peroxiredoxin-2
and STAT3 form a redox relay for H2O2 signaling. Nat
Chem Biol 11: 64–70, 2014.
148. Son JS, Kim JH, Kim HJ, Yoon DH, Kim JS, Song HS,
and Song W. Effect of resistance ladder training on
SPARC expression in skeletal muscle of hindlimb im-
mobilized rats. Muscle Nerve 53: 951–957, 2016.
149. Songsorn P, Ruffino J, and Vollaard NBJ. No effect of
acute and chronic supramaximal exercise on circulating
levels of the myokine SPARC. Eur J Sport Sci 17: 447–
452, 2017.
150. Starkie RL, Rolland J, Angus DJ, Anderson MJ, and
Febbraio MA. Circulating monocytes are not the source of
elevations in plasma IL-6 and TNF-alpha levels after
prolonged running. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 280: C769–
C774, 2001.
151. Steensberg A, Keller C, Hillig T, Frøsig C, Wojtaszewski
JFP, Pedersen BK, Pilegaard H, and Sander M. Nitric
oxide production is a proximal signaling event controlling
exercise-induced mRNA expression in human skeletal
muscle. FASEB J 21: 2683–2694, 2007.
152. Sun Y, Zhang J-R, and Chen S. Suppression of Alzhei-
mer’s disease-related phenotypes by the heat shock pro-
tein 70 inducer, geranylgeranylacetone, in APP/PS1
transgenic mice via the ERK/p38 MAPK signaling path-
way. Exp Ther Med 14: 5267–5274, 2017.
153. Sylow L, Kleinert M, Richter EA, and Jensen TE.
Exercise-stimulated glucose uptake—regulation and im-
plications for glycaemic control. Nat Rev Endocrinol 13:
133–148, 2017.
154. Takahashi H, Alves CRR, Stanford KI, Middelbeek RJW,
Pasquale Nigro null, Ryan RE, Xue R, Sakaguchi M,
Lynes MD, So K, Mul JD, Lee M-Y, Balan E, Pan H,
Dreyfuss JM, Hirshman MF, Azhar M, Hannukainen JC,
Nuutila P, Kalliokoski KK, Nielsen S, Pedersen BK, Kahn
CR, Tseng Y-H, and Goodyear LJ. TGF-b2 is an exercise-
induced adipokine that regulates glucose and fatty acid
metabolism. Nat Metab 1: 291–303, 2019.
155. Takeuchi T, Suzuki M, Fujikake N, Popiel HA, Kikuchi
H, Futaki S, Wada K, and Nagai Y. Intercellular chaper-
one transmission via exosomes contributes to maintenance
of protein homeostasis at the organismal level. Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A 112: E2497–E2506, 2015.
156. Tanimura Y, Aoi W, Takanami Y, Kawai Y, Mizushima
K, Naito Y, and Yoshikawa T. Acute exercise increases
fibroblast growth factor 21 in metabolic organs and cir-
culation. Physiol Rep 4: e12828, 2016.
157. Thirupathi A and de Souza CT. Multi-regulatory network
of ROS: the interconnection of ROS, PGC-1 alpha, and
AMPK-SIRT1 during exercise. J Physiol Biochem 73:
487–494, 2017.
158. Thom SR, Bhopale VM, and Yang M. Neutrophils gen-
erate microparticles during exposure to inert gases due to
cytoskeletal oxidative stress. J Biol Chem 289: 18831–
18845, 2014.
159. Um HS, Kang EB, Leem YH, Cho IH, Yang CH, Chae
KR, Hwang DY, and Cho JY. Exercise training acts as a
therapeutic strategy for reduction of the pathogenic phe-
notypes for Alzheimer’s disease in an NSE/APPsw-
transgenic model. Int J Mol Med 22: 529–539, 2008.
160. Valadi H, Ekstro
¨m K, Bossios A, Sjo
¨strand M, Lee JJ, and
Lo
¨tvall JO. Exosome-mediated transfer of mRNAs and
microRNAs is a novel mechanism of genetic exchange
between cells. Nat Cell Biol 9: 654–659, 2007.
160a. van Oosten-Hawle P and Morimoto RI. Transcellular
chaperone signaling: an organismal strategy for inte-
grated cell stress responses. J Exp Biol 217: 129–136,
2014.
161. Vassilakopoulos T, Karatza MH, Katsaounou P, Kollintza
A, Zakynthinos S, and Roussos C. Antioxidants attenuate
the plasma cytokine response to exercise in humans. J
Appl Physiol 94: 1025–1032, 2003.
162. Wafi AM, Yu L, Gao L, and Zucker IH. Exercise training
upregulates Nrf2 protein in the rostral ventrolateral me-
dulla of mice with heart failure. J Appl Physiol (1985)
127: 1349–1359, 2019.
163. Wajner SM, Goemann IM, Bueno AL, Larsen PR, and
Maia AL. IL-6 promotes nonthyroidal illness syndrome by
blocking thyroxine activation while promoting thyroid
hormone inactivation in human cells. J Clin Invest 121:
1834–1845, 2011.
164. Walsh RC, Koukoulas I, Garnham A, Moseley PL, Har-
greaves M, and Febbraio MA. Exercise increases serum
Hsp72 in humans. Cell Stress Chaperones 6: 386–393,
2001.
165. Waring WS, Convery A, Mishra V, Shenkin A, Webb DJ,
and Maxwell SRJ. Uric acid reduces exercise-induced
oxidative stress in healthy adults. Clin Sci 105: 425–430,
2003.
166. Watson JD. Type 2 diabetes as a redox disease. Lancet
383: 841–843, 2014.
167. Weigert C, Du
¨fer M, Simon P, Debre E, Runge H,
Brodbeck K, Ha
¨ring HU, and Schleicher ED. Upregula-
tion of IL-6 mRNA by IL-6 in skeletal muscle cells: role
of IL-6 mRNA stabilization and Ca2+-dependent mecha-
nisms. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 293: C1139–C1147,
2007.
168. Whitham M, Parker BL, Friedrichsen M, Hingst JR,
Hjorth M, Hughes WE, Egan CL, Cron L, Watt KI, Ku-
chel RP, Jayasooriah N, Estevez E, Petzold T, Suter CM,
Gregorevic P, Kiens B, Richter EA, James DE, Wojtas-
zewski JFP, and Febbraio MA. Extracellular vesicles
provide a means for tissue crosstalk during exercise. Cell
Metab 27: 237–251.e4, 2018.
169. Wu J, Ruas JL, Estall JL, Rasbach KA, Choi JH, Ye L,
Bostro
¨m P, Tyra HM, Crawford RW, Campbell KP,
Rutkowski DT, Kaufman RJ, and Spiegelman BM. The
unfolded protein response mediates adaptation to exercise
in skeletal muscle through a PGC-1a/ATF6acomplex.
Cell Metab 13: 160–169, 2011.
170. Zhan R, Leng X, Liu X, Wang X, Gong J, Yan L, Wang L,
Wang Y, Wang X, and Qian L-J. Heat shock protein 70 is
secreted from endothelial cells by a non-classical pathway
involving exosomes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 387:
229–233, 2009.
REDOX SIGNALING IN WIDESPREAD EFFECTS OF EXERCISE 15
Downloaded by UNIV OF MIAMI MILLER SCH MED Package NERL from www.liebertpub.com at 04/27/20. For personal use only.
171. Zhang M, Xu Y, and Jiang L. Irisin attenuates oxidized
low-density lipoprotein impaired angiogenesis through
AKT/mTOR/S6K1/Nrf2 pathway. J Cell Physiol 234:
18951–18962, 2019.
172. Zhu D, Wang H, Zhang J, Zhang X, Xin C, Zhang F, Lee
Y, Zhang L, Lian K, Yan W, Ma X, Liu Y, and Tao
L. Irisin improves endothelial function in type 2 diabetes
through reducing oxidative/nitrative stresses. J Mol Cell
Cardiol 87: 138–147, 2015.
Address correspondence to:
Dr. Ruy A. Louzada
Institut of Biophysics Carlos Chagas Filho
Federal University of Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro 21941-590
Brazil
E-mail: andraderuy@hotmail.com
Date of first submission to ARS Central, November 11, 2019;
date of final revised submission, February 29, 2020; date of
acceptance, March 9, 2020.
Abbreviations Used
13-HODE ¼13-hydroxyoctadecadienoic acid
4-HNE ¼4-hydroxynonenal
AK ¼adenylate kinase
AKT/mTOR ¼protein kinase B/mechanistic target
of rapamycin
AMP ¼adenosine monophosphate
AMPK ¼AMP-activated protein kinase
ATP ¼adenosine triphosphate
BiP ¼binding immunoglobulin protein
CAMK ¼Ca
2+
/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases
DUOX ¼dual oxidase
ER ¼endoplasmic reticulum
ERS ¼endoplasmic reticulum stress
FGF21 ¼fibroblast growth factor 21
GLUT4 ¼glucose transporter 4
H
2
O
2
¼hydrogen peroxide
HSPs ¼heat shock proteins
IL ¼interleukin
LIF ¼leukemia inhibitory factor
LDH ¼lactate dehydrogenase
L-NAME ¼N(G)-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester
MAPK ¼mitogen-activated protein kinase
MCP1 ¼monocyte chemoattractant protein 1
MCT ¼monocarboxylate transporter
NADH ¼nicotinamide adenine dinucleotides
NOX ¼NADPH oxidase
Nrf2 ¼nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2
O
2
¼oxygen
O
2
-
¼superoxide
OH
¼hydroxyl
PDK4 ¼pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 4
PGC-1a¼peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor
gamma coactivator 1-alpha
ROS ¼reactive oxygen species
SPARC ¼secreted protein acidic and rich
in cysteine
TGF-b¼transforming growth factor beta
16 LOUZADA ET AL.
Downloaded by UNIV OF MIAMI MILLER SCH MED Package NERL from www.liebertpub.com at 04/27/20. For personal use only.
... Oxidative muscles are characterized by increased mitochondrial density, improved antioxidant capacities, and a substrate preference for fatty acid β-oxidation for energy production [3]. The mitochondrialassociated transcriptional pathways recruited during oxidative muscle determination are upstream of the secretome response of muscle [5,6] which serve at a systemic level to increase basal metabolic rate, improve insulin sensitivity, and foster fat utilization [3,7,8]. ...
... Brief exposure to pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMFs) was previously shown to promote myogenesis in vitro and in vivo [23,24]. These low-energy magnetic fields were shown to activate the PGC-1α (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator (PGC)-1alpha) transcriptional pathway [3,23,24], classically associated with exercise-induced oxidative adaptations characterized by increased muscular mitochondriogenesis, enhanced systemic fatty acid oxidation, and improved insulin sensitivity [5,6]. Accordingly, the PEMF paradigm employed in the present study has been previously shown to produce parallel mitohormetic adaptations in cells [3,[23][24][25], animals [23], and humans [26,27]. ...
... Accordingly, the PEMF paradigm employed in the present study has been previously shown to produce parallel mitohormetic adaptations in cells [3,[23][24][25], animals [23], and humans [26,27]. Most relevantly, as the myokine response is PGC-1α-dependent [5,6,24], it can be activated by brief PEMF exposure [23][24][25]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Briefly (10 min) exposing C2C12 myotubes to low amplitude (1.5 mT) pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMFs) generated a conditioned media (pCM) that was capable of mitigating breast cancer cell growth, migration, and invasiveness in vitro, whereas the conditioned media harvested from unexposed myotubes, representing constitutively released secretome (cCM), was less effective. Administering pCM to breast cancer microtumors engrafted onto the chorioallantoic membrane of chicken eggs reduced tumor volume and vascularity. Blood serum collected from PEMF-exposed or exercised mice allayed breast cancer cell growth, migration, and invasiveness. A secretome pre-conditioning methodology is presented that accentuates the graded anticancer potencies of both the cCM and pCM harvested from myotubes, demonstrating an adaptive response to pCM administered during early myogenesis that emulated secretome-based exercise adaptations observed in vivo. HTRA1 was shown to be upregulated in pCM and was demonstrated to be necessary and sufficient for the anticancer potency of the pCM; recombinant HTRA1 added to basal media recapitulated the anticancer effects of pCM and antibody-based absorption of HTRA1 from pCM precluded its anticancer effects. Brief and non-invasive PEMF stimulation may represent a method to commandeer the secretome response of muscle, both in vitro and in vivo, for clinical exploitation in breast and other cancers.
... Secretome release is a common response of the magnetoreception cascade [14,37,41,61,[125][126][127]. The secretome response is activated by mitochondrial oxidative stress as a limb of the systemic mitohormetic adaptive response cascade [128][129][130][131]. Given that secretome mobilization is a mitohormetic response, confusion may have arisen from the fact that inflammatory cytokine release is common to both survival-promoting (adaptive) as well as overwhelming (damaging) levels of oxidative stress [128,131], downstream of Nrf2 [131,132] and PGC-1α transcriptional pathways [128,131,[133][134][135]. ...
... The secretome response is activated by mitochondrial oxidative stress as a limb of the systemic mitohormetic adaptive response cascade [128][129][130][131]. Given that secretome mobilization is a mitohormetic response, confusion may have arisen from the fact that inflammatory cytokine release is common to both survival-promoting (adaptive) as well as overwhelming (damaging) levels of oxidative stress [128,131], downstream of Nrf2 [131,132] and PGC-1α transcriptional pathways [128,131,[133][134][135]. A notable example is the elevated serum levels of IL-6 following exercise [136], magnetic field exposure [10], and disease-associated systemic inflammation [136]. ...
... The secretome response is activated by mitochondrial oxidative stress as a limb of the systemic mitohormetic adaptive response cascade [128][129][130][131]. Given that secretome mobilization is a mitohormetic response, confusion may have arisen from the fact that inflammatory cytokine release is common to both survival-promoting (adaptive) as well as overwhelming (damaging) levels of oxidative stress [128,131], downstream of Nrf2 [131,132] and PGC-1α transcriptional pathways [128,131,[133][134][135]. A notable example is the elevated serum levels of IL-6 following exercise [136], magnetic field exposure [10], and disease-associated systemic inflammation [136]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Mitohormesis is a process whereby mitochondrial stress responses, mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS), act cumulatively to either instill survival adaptations (low ROS levels) or to produce cell damage (high ROS levels). The mitohormetic nature of extremely low-frequency electromagnetic field (ELF-EMF) exposure thus makes it susceptible to extraneous influences that also impinge on mitochondrial ROS production and contribute to the collective response. Consequently, magnetic stimulation paradigms are prone to experimental variability depending on diverse circumstances. The failure, or inability, to control for these factors has contributed to the existing discrepancies between published reports and in the interpretations made from the results generated therein. Confounding environmental factors include ambient magnetic fields, temperature, the mechanical environment, and the conventional use of aminoglycoside antibiotics. Biological factors include cell type and seeding density as well as the developmental, inflammatory, or senescence statuses of cells that depend on the prior handling of the experimental sample. Technological aspects include magnetic field directionality, uniformity, amplitude, and duration of exposure. All these factors will exhibit manifestations at the level of ROS production that will culminate as a unified cellular response in conjunction with magnetic exposure. Fortunately, many of these factors are under the control of the experimenter. This review will focus on delineating areas requiring technical and biological harmonization to assist in the designing of therapeutic strategies with more clearly defined and better predicted outcomes and to improve the mechanistic interpretation of the generated data, rather than on precise applications. This review will also explore the underlying mechanistic similarities between magnetic field exposure and other forms of biophysical stimuli, such as mechanical stimuli, that mutually induce elevations in intracellular calcium and ROS as a prerequisite for biological outcome. These forms of biophysical stimuli commonly invoke the activity of transient receptor potential cation channel classes, such as TRPC1.
... This feeding role of muscle is a manifestation of its secretome, a vast combination of regenerative, metabolic, anti-inflammatory and immunocompetence factors, released into the systemic circulation as either individual myokines (muscle-derived cytokines) [1][2][3] or vesicle-encapsulated factors [4][5][6]. Mechanistically, an upregulation in mitochondrial respiratory rate triggers the myokine response pathway [7][8][9][10], whereas extracellular calcium entry [11] as well as mitochondrial respiration [7] stimulate the release of muscular extracellular vesicles. Physical activity, or exercise, is the most common way to initiate the myokine [12,13] and extracellular vesicle [6] responses, which are, hence, blunted in the old and frail who are less capable of undertaking exercise [14][15][16]. ...
... Irisin, in turn, is produced and released by adipose in response to circulating irisin and exercise [39,51,52], acting to consolidate the exercise response via mutual secretome crosstalk. Irisin generally upregulates PGC-1α and the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) in recipient tissues [10]. In particular, the human visceral fat deposit has a preponderance to be highly inflamed and is a strong contributor to metabolic disruptions but is highly susceptible to exercise-induced browning [36]. ...
... Bioengineering 2023, 10, 956 5 of 23 tissues [10]. In particular, the human visceral fat deposit has a preponderance to be highly inflamed and is a strong contributor to metabolic disruptions but is highly susceptible to exercise-induced browning [36]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Muscle function reflects muscular mitochondrial status, which, in turn, is an adaptive response to physical activity, representing improvements in energy production for de novo biosynthesis or metabolic efficiency. Differences in muscle performance are manifestations of the expression of distinct contractile-protein isoforms and of mitochondrial-energy substrate utilization. Powerful contractures require immediate energy production from carbohydrates outside the mitochondria that exhaust rapidly. Sustained muscle contractions require aerobic energy production from fatty acids by the mitochondria that is slower and produces less force. These two patterns of muscle force generation are broadly classified as glycolytic or oxidative, respectively, and require disparate levels of increased contractile or mitochondrial protein production, respectively, to be effectively executed. Glycolytic muscle, hence, tends towards fibre hypertrophy, whereas oxidative fibres are more disposed towards increased mitochondrial content and efficiency, rather than hypertrophy. Although developmentally predetermined muscle classes exist, a degree of functional plasticity persists across all muscles post-birth that can be modulated by exercise and generally results in an increase in the oxidative character of muscle. Oxidative muscle is most strongly correlated with organismal metabolic balance and longevity because of the propensity of oxidative muscle for fatty-acid oxidation and associated anti-inflammatory ramifications which occur at the expense of glycolytic-muscle development and hypertrophy. This muscle-class size disparity is often at odds with common expectations that muscle mass should scale positively with improved health and longevity. Brief magnetic-field activation of the muscle mitochondrial pool has been shown to recapitulate key aspects of the oxidative-muscle phenotype with similar metabolic hallmarks. This review discusses the common genetic cascades invoked by endurance exercise and magnetic-field therapy and the potential physiological differences with regards to human health and longevity. Future human studies examining the physiological consequences of magnetic-field therapy are warranted.
... Even moderately aerobic E-Exe consumes a certain amount of ATP and leads to AMP accumulation, which subsequently activates the classical AMPK pathway, securing an ample energy supply [24]. AMPK activation through both pathways confer benefits to healthy individuals as well as patients with diverse diseases, DIC injury included [23,25]. It is necessary to further explore the link between DIC injury, E-Exe-derived ROS generation, AMPK pathway, and their mechanisms. ...
... Moderate aerobic endurance exercise can lead to mild mitochondriaderived ROS generation, an adaptive and beneficial response [21,23,25]. As an important redox signaling pathway, it regulates subtle changes in related pathways, enhances activities of both antioxidant and housekeeping enzymes, including those for oxidative damage repair [16], reduces excessive oxidative stress, and shields tissues and organs, particularly the myocardium, from harmful factors [21]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity (DIC) adversely impacts patients' long-term health and quality of life. Its underlying mechanism is complex, involving regulatory cell death mechanisms, such as ferroptosis and autophagy. Moreover, it is a challenge faced by patients undergoing cardiac rehabilitation. Endurance exercise (E-Exe) preconditioning effectively counters DIC injury, potentially through the adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway. However, detailed studies on this process's mechanisms are scarce. Here, E-Exe preconditioning and DIC models were established using mice and primary cultured adult mouse cardiomyocytes (PAMCs). Akin to ferrostatin-1 (ferroptosis inhibitor), rapamycin (autophagic inducer), and MitoTEMPO (mitochondrial free-radical scavenger), E-Exe preconditioning effectively alleviated Fe²⁺ accumulation and oxidative stress and improved energy metabolism and mitochondrial dysfunction in DIC injury, as demonstrated by multifunctional, enzymatic, and morphological indices. However, erastin (ferroptosis inducer), 3-methyladenine (autophagic inhibitor), adenovirus-mediated AMPKα2 downregulation, and AMPKα2 inhibition by compound C significantly diminished these effects, both in vivo and in vitro. The results suggest a non-traditional mechanism where E-Exe preconditioning, under mild mitochondrial reactive oxygen species generation, upregulates and phosphorylates AMPKα2, thereby enhancing mitochondrial complex I activity, activating adaptive autophagy, and improving myocardial tolerance to DIC injury. Overall, this study highlighted the pivotal role of mitochondria in myocardial DIC-induced ferroptosis and shows how E-Exe preconditioning activated AMPKα2 against myocardial DIC injury. This suggests that E-Exe preconditioning could be a viable strategy for patients undergoing cardiac rehabilitation.
... Recent advances in biochemical and molecular techniques have revealed that free radicals are also involved in some of the physiological adaptations that occur after exercise training. Therefore, it can be argued that the physiological effects of exercise-induced free radicals are both beneficial and detrimental, depending on the exposure period and intensity of the training, the basis of a hormetic factor [52,134,135]. ...
Article
Full-text available
A multitude of physiological processes, human behavioral patterns, and social interactions are intricately governed by the complex interplay between external circumstances and endogenous circadian rhythms. This multidimensional regulatory framework is susceptible to disruptions, and in contemporary society, there is a prevalent occurrence of misalignments between the circadian system and environmental cues, a phenomenon frequently associated with adverse health consequences. The onset of most prevalent current chronic diseases is intimately connected with alterations in human lifestyle practices under various facets, including the following: reduced physical activity, the exposure to artificial light, also acknowledged as light pollution, sedentary behavior coupled with consuming energy-dense nutriments, irregular eating frameworks, disruptions in sleep patterns (inadequate quality and duration), engagement in shift work, and the phenomenon known as social jetlag. The rapid evolution of contemporary life and domestic routines has significantly outpaced the rate of genetic adaptation. Consequently, the underlying circadian rhythms are exposed to multiple shifts, thereby elevating the susceptibility to disease predisposition. This comprehensive review endeavors to synthesize existing empirical evidence that substantiates the conceptual integration of the circadian clock, biochemical molecular homeostasis, oxidative stress, and the stimuli imparted by physical exercise, sleep, and nutrition.
... The endogenous antioxidant system neutralizes mtROS produced by mitochondria and optimal cellular function is dependent on this balance. mtROS increase dramatically during acute exercise and may induce oxidative stress when mtROS accumulation exceeds antioxidant function, which has been shown to lower exercise capacity by hindering mitochondrial function thus causing inefficient substrate utilization (Louzada et al., 2020;Palmer & Clegg, 2022;Sies & Jones, 2020). Further, physically inactive individuals demonstrate higher levels of oxidative stress at rest and during exercise compared to those who regularly exercise (Goodpaster & Sparks, 2017;Rossman et al., 2018;Rynders et al., 2018). ...
Article
Full-text available
Purpose To determine the acute effects of a mitochondrial targeting antioxidant (MitoQ) on the metabolic response during exercise. Methods Nine ( n = 9) physically inactive females (age 47 ± 22 years) performed two trials (Placebo and MitoQ) in a double‐blind randomized cross‐over design. In both trials, participants performed an exercise protocol consisting of 3‐min stages at submaximal workloads followed by a ramp protocol to volitional exhaustion. Participants received either Placebo or MitoQ (80 mg) 1 h prior to exercise. Indirect calorimetry and cardiovascular measurements were collected throughout the duration of the exercise bout. Results Submaximal metabolic and cardiovascular variables were not different between trials ( p > 0.05). V O 2max was higher ( p = 0.03) during Placebo (23.5 ± 5.7 mL kg min ⁻¹ ) compared to MitoQ (21.0 ± 6.6 mL kg min ⁻¹ ). Maximal ventilation was also higher ( p = 0.02) in Placebo (82.4 ± 17.7 L/min) compared to MitoQ (75.0 ± 16.8 L/min). Maximal cardiovascular variables and blood lactate were not different between trials ( p > 0.05). Conclusion An acute dose of MitoQ blunted V O 2max , which was primarily mediated by impairment of ventilatory function. These data suggest that the acute accumulation of exercise‐induced mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS) are necessary for maximal aerobic capacity. Further research is warranted on mtROS‐antioxidant cell signaling cascades, and how they relate to mitochondrial function during exercise.
... Exercise is becoming a more popular healthy lifestyle behavior following the understanding of the mechanisms behind the widespread health benefits associated with higher physical activity. 1 Regarding eye health and vision, physical exercise exerts numerous physiological effects which include changes in the ocular blood flow rate and perfusion pressure, choroidal thickness, retinal function, and intraocular pressure (IOP). [2][3][4][5] Since higher IOP causes mechanical compression of the optic nerve and retinal blood supply, leading to impaired axoplasmic flow and optic nerve ischemia, 6 the IOP-lowering effect of physical exercise is neuroprotective in glaucoma. ...
... Physical exercise, in general, leads to the activation of ROS (reactive oxygen species) which induce the activation of multiple intracellular signal pathways that are responsible for the benefit of exercise in muscles [68]. Physical exercise not only has a positive effect on musculoskeletal cells but also elicits positive responses in various other tissues, including adipose tissue, endothelium, the central nervous system, and endocrine organs [69]. It has been common to think that ROS produced during physical activity had a negative effect on health [70]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Bone–muscle crosstalk is enabled thanks to the integration of different molecular signals, and it is essential for maintaining the homeostasis of skeletal and muscle tissue. Both the skeletal system and the muscular system perform endocrine activity by producing osteokines and myokines, respectively. These cytokines play a pivotal role in facilitating bone–muscle crosstalk. Moreover, recent studies have highlighted the role of non-coding RNAs in promoting crosstalk between bone and muscle in physiological or pathological conditions. Therefore, positive stimuli or pathologies that target one of the two systems can affect the other system as well, emphasizing the reciprocal influence of bone and muscle. Lifestyle and in particular physical activity influence both the bone and the muscular apparatus by acting on the single system but also by enhancing its crosstalk. Several studies have in fact demonstrated the modulation of circulating molecular factors during physical activity. These molecules are often produced by bone or muscle and are capable of activating signaling pathways involved in bone–muscle crosstalk but also of modulating the response of other cell types. Therefore, in this review we will discuss the effects of physical activity on bone and muscle cells, with particular reference to the biomolecular mechanisms that regulate their cellular interactions.
Article
Full-text available
Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels are broadly implicated in the developmental programs of most tissues. Amongst these tissues, skeletal muscle and adipose are noteworthy for being essential in establishing systemic metabolic balance. TRP channels respond to environmental stimuli by supplying intracellular calcium that instigates enzymatic cascades of developmental consequence and often impinge on mitochondrial function and biogenesis. Critically, aminoglycoside antibiotics (AGAs) have been shown to block the capacity of TRP channels to conduct calcium entry into the cell in response to a wide range of developmental stimuli of a biophysical nature, including mechanical, electromagnetic, thermal, and chemical. Paradoxically, in vitro paradigms commonly used to understand organismal muscle and adipose development may have been led astray by the conventional use of streptomycin, an AGA, to help prevent bacterial contamination. Accordingly, streptomycin has been shown to disrupt both in vitro and in vivo myogenesis, as well as the phenotypic switch of white adipose into beige thermogenic status. In vivo, streptomycin has been shown to disrupt TRP-mediated calcium-dependent exercise adaptations of importance to systemic metabolism. Alternatively, streptomycin has also been used to curb detrimental levels of calcium leakage into dystrophic skeletal muscle through aberrantly gated TRPC1 channels that have been shown to be involved in the etiology of X-linked muscular dystrophies. TRP channels susceptible to AGA antagonism are critically involved in modulating the development of muscle and adipose tissues that, if administered to behaving animals, may translate to systemwide metabolic disruption. Regenerative medicine and clinical communities need to be made aware of this caveat of AGA usage and seek viable alternatives, to prevent contamination or infection in in vitro and in vivo paradigms, respectively.
Article
Exosomes are extracellular membrane vesicles that contain biological macromolecules such as RNAs and proteins. It plays an essential role in physiological and pathological processes as carrier of biologically active substances and new mediator of intercellular communication. It has been reported that myokines secreted by the skeletal muscle are wrapped in small vesicles (e.g., exosomes), secreted into the circulation, and then regulate the receptor cells. This review discussed the regulation of microRNAs (miRNAs), proteins, lipids, and other cargoes carried by skeletal muscle-derived exosomes (SkMCs-Exs) on the body and their effects on pathological states, including injury atrophy, aging, and vascular porosis. We also discussed the role of exercise in regulating skeletal muscle-derived exosomes and its physiological significance.
Article
Full-text available
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) act as intracellular compartmentalized second messengers, mediating metabolic stress-adaptation. In skeletal muscle fibers, ROS have been suggested to stimulate glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4)-dependent glucose transport during artificially evoked contraction ex vivo, but whether myocellular ROS production is stimulated by in vivo exercise to control metabolism is unclear. Here, we combined exercise in humans and mice with fluorescent dyes, genetically-encoded biosensors, and NADPH oxidase 2 (NOX2) loss-of-function models to demonstrate that NOX2 is the main source of cytosolic ROS during moderate-intensity exercise in skeletal muscle. Furthermore, two NOX2 loss-of-function mouse models lacking either p47phox or Rac1 presented striking phenotypic similarities, including greatly reduced exercise-stimulated glucose uptake and GLUT4 translocation. These findings indicate that NOX2 is a major myocellular ROS source, regulating glucose transport capacity during moderate-intensity exercise.
Article
Full-text available
Although exercise derived activation of Nrf2 signaling augments myocardial antioxidant signaling, the molecular mechanisms underlying the benefits of moderate exercise training (MET) in the heart remain elusive. Here we hypothesized that exercise training stabilizes Nrf2-dependent antioxidant signaling, which then protects the myocardium from isoproterenol-induced damage. The present study assessed the effects of 6 weeks of MET on the Nrf2/antioxidant function, glutathione redox state, and injury in the myocardium of C57/BL6J mice that received isoproterenol (ISO; 50 mg/kg/day for 7 days). ISO administration significantly reduced the Nrf2 promoter activity (p < 0.05) and downregulated the expression of cardiac antioxidant genes (Gclc, Nqo1, Cat, Gsr, and Gst-μ) in the untrained (UNT) mice. Furthermore, increased oxidative stress with severe myocardial injury was evident in UNT+ISO when compared to UNT mice receiving PBS under basal condition. Of note, MET stabilized the Nrf2-promoter activity and upheld the expression of Nrf2-dependent antioxidant genes in animals receiving ISO, and attenuated the oxidative stress-induced myocardial damage. Echocardiography analysis revealed impaired diastolic ventricular function in UNT+ISO mice, but this was partially normalized in the MET animals. Interestingly, while there was a marginal reduction in ubiquitinated proteins in MET mice that received ISO, the pathological signs were attenuated along with near normal cardiac function in response to exercise training. Thus, moderate intensity exercise training conferred protection against ISO-induced myocardial injury by augmentation of Nrf2-antioxidant signaling and attenuation of isoproterenol-induced oxidative stress.
Article
Full-text available
The human gut microbiome is linked to many states of human health and disease¹. The metabolic repertoire of the gut microbiome is vast, but the health implications of these bacterial pathways are poorly understood. In this study, we identify a link between members of the genus Veillonella and exercise performance. We observed an increase in Veillonella relative abundance in marathon runners postmarathon and isolated a strain of Veillonella atypica from stool samples. Inoculation of this strain into mice significantly increased exhaustive treadmill run time. Veillonella utilize lactate as their sole carbon source, which prompted us to perform a shotgun metagenomic analysis in a cohort of elite athletes, finding that every gene in a major pathway metabolizing lactate to propionate is at higher relative abundance postexercise. Using ¹³C3-labeled lactate in mice, we demonstrate that serum lactate crosses the epithelial barrier into the lumen of the gut. We also show that intrarectal instillation of propionate is sufficient to reproduce the increased treadmill run time performance observed with V. atypica gavage. Taken together, these studies reveal that V. atypica improves run time via its metabolic conversion of exercise-induced lactate into propionate, thereby identifying a natural, microbiome-encoded enzymatic process that enhances athletic performance.
Article
Full-text available
During exercise, skeletal muscles release cytokines, peptides, and metabolites that exert autocrine, paracrine, or endocrine effects on glucose homeostasis. In this study, we investigated the effects of secreted protein acidic and rich in cysteine (SPARC), an exercise‐responsive myokine, on glucose metabolism in human and mouse skeletal muscle. SPARC‐knockout mice showed impaired systemic metabolism and reduced phosphorylation of AMPK and protein kinase B in skeletal muscle. Treatment of SPARC‐knockout mice with recombinant SPARC improved glucose tolerance and concomitantly activated AMPK in skeletal muscle. These effects were dependent on AMPK‐γ3 because SPARC treatment enhanced skeletal muscle glucose uptake in wild‐type mice but not in AMPK‐γ3–knockout mice. SPARC strongly interacted with the voltage‐dependent calcium channel, and inhibition of calcium‐dependent signaling prevented SPARC‐induced AMPK phosphorylation in human and mouse myotubes. Finally, chronic SPARC treatment improved systemic glucose tolerance and AMPK signaling in skeletal muscle of high‐fat diet–induced obese mice, highlighting the efficacy of SPARC treatment in the management of metabolic diseases. Thus, our findings suggest that SPARC treatment mimics the effects of exercise on glucose tolerance by enhancing AMPK‐dependent glucose uptake in skeletal muscle.—Aoi, W., Hirano, N., Lassiter, D. G., Björnholm, M., Chibalin, A. V., Sakuma, K., Tanimura, Y., Mizushima, K., Takagi, T., Naito, Y., Zierath, J. R., Krook, A. Secreted protein acidic and rich in cysteine (SPARC) improves glucose tolerance via AMP‐activated protein kinase activation. FASEB J. 33, 10551–10562 (2019). www.fasebj.org
Article
Full-text available
Background: Exercise induces many physiological adaptations. Recently, it has been proposed that some of these adaptations are induced by exercise-mediated lactate production. In this study, we aimed to investigate in vitro the effect of lactate in cultured myotubes and whether antioxidants could inhibit the effect. Methods: Differentiated myotubes were cultured at different concentrations of L-lactate (0, 10, 30, 50 mM) in the absence or presence of an antioxidant, N-acetyl-L-cysteine (Nac). The temporal effect of lactate exposure in myotubes was also explored. Results: Two hours of exposure to 50 mM L-lactate and six hours of exposure to 30 or 50 mM L-lactate caused a significant increase in PGC1-alpha (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator-1α) expression in the myotubes. This up-regulation was suppressed by 2 mM Nac. Intermittent and continuous lactate exposure caused similar PGC1-alpha up-regulation. These results suggest that the increase in PGC1-alpha expression is mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS) production from lactate metabolism and that both continuous and intermittent exposure to L-lactate can cause the up-regulation.
Article
Full-text available
Intestinal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R), which is associated with high morbidity and mortality, is also accompanied with abnormal energy metabolism and liver injury. Irisin, a novel exercise-induced hormone, can regulate adipose browning and thermogenesis. The following study investigated the potential role of dexmedetomidine in liver injury during intestinal I/R in rats. Adult male Sprague–Dawley rats underwent occlusion of the superior mesenteric artery for 90 min followed by 2 h of reperfusion. Dexmedetomidine or irisin-neutralizing antibody was intravenously administered for 1 h before surgery. The results demonstrated that severe intestine and liver injuries occurred during intestinal I/R as evidenced by pathological scores and an apparent increase in serum diamine oxidase (DAO), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels. In addition, the hepatic irisin, cleaved caspase-3, Bax, and NLRP3 inflammasome components (including NLRP3, ASC, and caspase-1), protein expressions, apoptotic index, reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA), myeloperoxidase (MPO), tumor necrosis factor- (TNF-) α , and interleukin- (IL-) 6 levels increased; however, the serum irisin level and hepatic Bcl-2 protein expression and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity decreased after intestinal I/R. Interestingly, dexmedetomidine could reduce the above listed changes and increase the irisin levels in plasma and the liver in I/R rats. Dexmedetomidine-mediated protective effects on liver injury and NLRP3 inflammasome activation during intestinal I/R were partially abrogated via irisin-neutralizing antibody treatment. The results suggest that irisin might contribute to the hepatoprotection of dexmedetomidine during intestinal ischemia/reperfusion.
Article
Full-text available
Biological aging is associated with progressive damage accumulation, loss of organ reserves, and systemic inflammation ('inflammaging'), which predispose for a wide spectrum of chronic diseases, including several types of cancer. In contrast, aerobic exercise training (AET) reduces inflammation, lowers all-cause mortality, and enhances both health and lifespan. In this study, we examined the benefits of early-onset, lifelong AET on predictors of health, inflammation, and cancer incidence in a naturally aging mouse model (C57BL/J6). Lifelong, voluntary wheel-running (O-AET; 26-month-old) prevented age-related declines in aerobic fitness and motor coordination vs. age-matched, sedentary controls (O-SED). AET also provided partial protection against sarcopenia, dynapenia, testicular atrophy, and overall organ pathology, hence augmenting the ‘physiologic reserve’ of lifelong runners. Systemic inflammation, as evidenced by a chronic elevation in 17 of 18 pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines (P < 0.05 O-SED vs. 2-month-old Y-CON), was potently mitigated by lifelong AET (P < 0.05 O-AET vs. O-SED), including master regulators of the cytokine cascade and cancer progression (IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6). In addition, circulating SPARC, previously known to be upregulated in metabolic disease, was elevated in old, sedentary mice, but was normalized to young control levels in lifelong runners. Remarkably, malignant tumours were also completely absent in the O-AET group, whereas they were present in the brain (pituitary), liver, spleen, and intestines of sedentary mice. Collectively, our results indicate that early-onset, lifelong running dampens inflammaging, protects against multiple cancer types, and extends healthspan of naturally-aged mice.
Article
CHF is associated with global oxidative stress, which contributes to sympatho-excitation. Increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the brain accumulate within neurons and lead to enhanced neuronal excitability. Exercise training (ExT) is associated with a reduction of oxidative stress by upregulation of antioxidant enzymes. The link between ExT and antioxidant enzyme expression in the brain of animals with CHF is not clear. We hypothesized that ExT enhances transcription and translation of the Nuclear Factor (Erythroid derived 2)-Like 2 (Nrf2) gene, a master transcription factor that modulates antioxidant enzyme gene expression, in the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) of mice with CHF. Mice were divided into the following groups: Sham sedentary (Sham-Sed), Sham-ExT, CHF-Sed and CHF-ExT. After 8 weeks of ExT, we measured Nrf2 and NAD(P)H dehydrogenase [quinone] 1 (NQO-1) message and protein expression along with maximal exercise tolerance and urinary norepinephrine (NE) excretion. We found that Nrf2 and NQO-1 mRNA and protein expression in the RVLM were lower in CHF-Sed mice compared with Sham-Sed. ExT attenuated the CHF-induced reduction of Nrf2 and NQO-1 mRNA and protein expression in the RVLM. NE excretion was higher in CHF-Sed mice compared with Sham-Sed (666.8 ± 79.3 ng/24 h, n=6 versus 397.8 ± 43.7 ng/24 h, p=0.04). CHF-ExT mice exhibited reduced urinary NE excretion compared with CHF-Sed (360.7 ± 41.7 ng, n=4 versus 666.8 ± 79.3 ng, n=6; p=0.03). We conclude that ExT-induced upregulation of Nrf2 in the RVLM contributes to the beneficial effects of ExT on sympathetic function in the heart failure state.
Article
It is known that irisin increases total body energy expenditure, decreases body weight, and enhances insulin sensitivity. Although previous studies have demonstrated that irisin induces vascular endothelial cell (EC) angiogenesis, the molecular mechanisms underlying irisin‐induced angiogenesis under conditions reflecting atherosclerosis are not known. The aim of the present study is to investigate whether irisin could inhibit oxidized low‐density lipoprotein (oxLDL) impaired angiogenesis. We investigated the effect of irisin on angiogenesis in vitro by evaluating cell viability, cell migration, and the capacity to form capillary‐like tubes using human umbilical vein endothelial cells and human microvascular endothelial cells (HUVECs and HMEC‐1) that were treated with oxLDL. We also evaluated the effects of irisin on angiogenesis in vivo by Matrigel plug angiogenesis assay and in a chicken embryo membrane (CAM) model. Our results demonstrated that irisin increased oxLDL‐treated EC viability as well as migration and tube formation. Moreover, oxLDL inhibited angiogenic response in vivo, both in the Matrigel plug angiogenesis assay and in the CAM model, and was attenuated by irisin. Furthermore, irisin decreased apoptosis, inflammatory cytokines, and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels in oxLDL‐treated EC. In addition, we found that irisin upregulated pAkt/mTOR/Nrf2 in oxLDL‐treated EC. Both mTOR/Nrf2 shRNA and LY294002 could inhibit the protective effect of irisin. Taken together these results, they suggested that irisin attenuates oxLDL‐induced vascular injury by activating the Akt/mTOR/Nrf2 pathway. Our findings suggest that irisin attenuates oxLDL‐induced blood vessel injury.
Article
Age-associated frailty is predominantly due to loss of muscle mass and function. The loss of muscle mass is also associated with a greater loss of muscle strength, suggesting that the remaining muscle fibres are weaker than those of adults. The mechanisms by which muscle is lost with age are unclear, but in this review we aim to pull together various strands of evidence to explain how muscle contractions support proteostasis in non-muscle tissues, particularly focussed on the production and potential transfer of Heat Shock Proteins (HSPs) and how this may fail during ageing, Furthermore we will identify logical approaches, based on this hypothesis, by which muscle loss in ageing may be reduced. Skeletal muscle generates superoxide and nitric oxide at rest and this generation is increased by contractile activity. In adults, this increased generation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) activate redox-sensitive transcription factors such as nuclear factor κB (NFκB), activator protein-1 (AP1) and heat shock factor 1 (HSF1), resulting in increases in cytoprotective proteins such as the superoxide dismutases, catalase and heat shock proteins that prevent oxidative damage to tissues and facilitate remodelling and proteostasis in both an intra- and inter-cellular manner. During ageing, the ability of skeletal muscle from aged organisms to respond to an increase in ROS generation by increased expression of cytoprotective proteins through activation of redox-sensitive transcription factors is severely attenuated. This age-related lack of physiological adaptations to the ROS induced by contractile activity appears to contribute to a loss of ROS homeostasis, increased oxidative damage and age-related dysfunction in skeletal muscle and potentially other tissues.