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Impact of Himalayan Singing Bowls Meditation Session on Mood and Heart Rate Variability

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  • Wellness Space

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Introduction Scientific evidence has demonstrated the psychological and physiological benefits of meditation. Sound vibrations also improve emotional wellbeing while enhancing the physiological parameters. There is an opportunity to explore the psychological and physiological benefits of Himalayan Singing Bowls (HSB) sound bath meditation, i.e. meditation assisted with sound vibrations. Aim of the Study The study explored changes in mood and Heart Rate Variability (HRV) parameters after a HSB Sound Bath Meditation on healthy individuals. The primary objectives of the study were to understand if a 40 minute long seated HSB Sound Bath Meditation results in significant improvement (a) in positive affect and negative affect, as measured by Positive And Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) and (b) in physiological parameters, as measured by Heart Rate Variability. The secondary objective of the study was to understand the impact on various moods as measured by Profile Of Mood States (POMS) Survey. Methods The psychological parameters included changes in Positive and Negative Affect (measured on 77 individuals using PANAS) and changes in specific, positive and negative moods (measured on 17 individuals using POMS) before and after the meditation session. The physiological parameters included HRV parameters such as Heart Rate (HR), Stress Index (SI) and Root Mean Square of Standard Deviation (RMSSD) measuring during the entire session on 15 individuals using the EmWave Pro device. HRV data analysis was conducted with Kubios HRV Premium and all the data was analyzed using paired T-Test. Results All the subjects after meditation showed statistically significant improvement in Positive Affect (mood) and a reduction in Negative Affect (mood). The HRV parameters showed a trend demonstrating overall relaxation with a statistically significant reduction in HR, Stress Index and an increase in RMSSD in the last 5 minutes as compared to the first 5 minutes. Consistent with changes in positive, negative mood and HRV, all the participants showed statistically significant reduction in tension, anger, fatigue, depression and confusion. In terms of positive mood, there was a statistically significant improvement in esteem related affect and an increase (but not statistically significant) in vigor. Conclusion The findings demonstrate that seated HSB Sound Bath Meditation session has a positive impact on the mood related measures. The physiological changes measured during the meditation using HRV parameters indicated a consistent reduction in Heart Rate throughout the meditation and a reduction in overall sympathetic tone and an increase in parasympathetic tone. Thus, HSB can be used to improve both psychological and physiological parameters even after one 40 min session. Future work in this area could explore comparison with a control group and a longer study duration consisting of multiple sessions.
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Impact of Himalayan Singing Bowls Meditation Session on Mood and Heart Rate Variability
Saharsh Panchal1, Fariburz Irani2, Gunjan Y Trivedi3,*
1Public Health Specialist, Intern, Society for Energy & Emotions, Wellness Space, Ahmedabad, India
2Psychology Major, School of Liberal Studies, PDPU and Intern, Society for Energy & Emotions, Wellness Space,
Ahmedabad, India
3Co-founder, Society for Energy & Emotions, Wellness Space, Ahmedabad, India
Abstract
Introduction: Scientific evidence has established the benefits of meditation and sound vibrations on emotional
and physiological health.
Aim of the Study: The study explored changes in mood and Heart Rate Variability (HRV) after HSB Sound Bath
Meditation on healthy individuals. The objectives of the study were to understand if a 40-minute-long seated
HSB Sound Bath Meditation results in changes (a) in mood measured via Positive And Negative Affect Scale
(PANAS) and Abbreviated Profile of Mood States (POMS) Survey and (b) in physiological parameters, as
measured by HRV.
Methods: The psychological parameters were measured with PANAS (N=77) and Abbreviated POMS, (N=17).
The physiology was measured with HRV parameters such as Heart Rate (HR), Stress Index (SI) and Root Mean
Square of Standard Deviation (RMSSD) using the EmWave Pro device (N=15). HRV data analysis was conducted
with Kubios HRV Premium and analyzed using a paired T-Test.
Results: All the subjects after meditation showed improvement in Positive Affect (PA) and a reduction in
Negative Affect (NA). The HRV parameters showed a trend showing overall relaxation with a significant
reduction in HR, SI and an increase in RMSSD. Consistent with changes in positive, negative mood and HRV, all
the participants showed a reduction in tension, anger, fatigue, depression and confusion and improvement in
esteem related affect and vigor.
Conclusion: The findings show that seated HSB Sound Bath Meditation session has a positive impact on mood-
related measures and physiology. Future work in this area could explore comparison with a control group and a
longer study duration comprising multiple sessions.
Research Arcle
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHOTHERAPY PRACTICE AND RESEARCH
ISSN NO: 2576-612X
DOI: 10.14302/issn.2574-612X.ijpr-20-3213
Corresponding author: Gunjan Y Trivedi, Co-founder, Society for Energy & Emotions, Wellness Space,
Ahmedabad, India, Email: gunjan@wellness-space.net
Keywords: Singing Bowl, Himalayan Singing Bowls (HSB), Meditation, Sound Bath Meditation, Heart Rate
Variability (HRV), Stress, Mood, Emotions, Sound Healing
Received: Feb 15, 2020 Accepted: Mar 13, 2020 Published: Mar 23, 2020
Editor: Elbaih zico, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt.
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Introduction
Scientific evidence has demonstrated the
negative impact of emotional stress on the mind and the
body [1, 2]. Stress doesnt just impact the nervous
system and endocrine system but also results in the
impairment of the immune system, cognitive function
and an increased risk for chronic disease [3, 4]. One
pathway impacted by stress is the autonomic nervous
system, specifically, increased activity of the sympathetic
nervous system (fight-or-flight) and decreased
activity of the parasympathetic nervous system
(rest-digest) [5, 6]. Meditation, in general, has
demonstrated a significant positive impact on the
nervous system, i.e. parasympathetic nervous system,
thereby, reducing overall stress [7]. Studies of the
meditation practices (especially, mindfulness-based
stress relaxation), Yoga Nidra (A form of Yogic
relaxation), and singing bowl meditation show a
significant impact on the mood and overall well-being,
with improved physiological homeostasis and reduction
in anxiety and stress [8, 9, 10, 11, 16, 13].
Many ancient cultures use sound as part of
prayers, rituals, meditative practices or other activities.
This includes the use of instruments such as Gongs,
Singing Bowls, Bells, Didgeridoo or human voice in the
form of mantra or just simple vibrations as in case of
Yogic practice of Bhramari Pranayama. Research in the
area of singing bowls has also reported a positive
impact on the psychological and physiological
parameters [12, 13]. The physics of Singing Bowls and
Gongs have been reported in various papers to
understand the mechanism involved [14, 15]. There is
an opportunity to enhance the understanding of the
impact of singing bowls on the mind and the body.
Review of literature identified the opportunity to study
the mind-body impact of a seated meditation session
with Himalayan Singing Bowls. Earlier studies have
either focused only on the psychological measurements
or worked with subjects in supine positions and even
compared with a control group (silence) [16, 13]. Most
of the studies involved 60 minutes long sessions with
only one study measuring the impact of a short duration
session of around 20 mins [16]. The psychological
impact of the previous research indicates some
inconsistency with one study showing a decrease in both
positive affect and negative affect using PANAS while
demonstrating a reduction in heart rate and blood
pressure and another has shown a reduction in Positive
Affect while combining sound with relaxation
though both studies show a reduction in negative
moods [13, 18]. This indicates an opportunity to
understand the mood changes (including the impact on
specific moods) along with physiological changes during
a single session of HSB seated meditation [17, 18].
Based on the outcome of this study, further work can
focus on the longer term measures with the addition of
the control group.
Objectives
The primary objective of the study was to (a)
validate that seated single 40 mins long HSB Sound Bath
Meditation session has a statistically significant impact
on the mood (positive affect and negative affect, as
measured by PANAS survey) and (b) physiology (as
measured by HRV parameters such as HR, RMSSD, and
SI). The secondary objective was to do a preliminary
assessment of specific changes in positive and negative
affect parameters (as measured by POMS). The study
methodology is captured in Figure 1.
Materials and Methods
Participants and Design
This study was conducted across two months at
a Wellness Center where free group meditation with
Himalayan Singing Bowls is offered twice a month to
anyone who is interested. The participants who
volunteered to join the study signed informed consent.
Ethics committee approval was not required since the
free meditation is open to the public and the
interventions were non-invasive, consistent with earlier
work in this area [13, 18]. A room with good soundproof
interiors was used while maintaining 25 Degree
Centigrade temperature (Figure 2). This ensured the
minimum impact of outside sound and a pleasant indoor
temperature. The exclusion criteria included the
presence of (a) chronic disease (b) epilepsy (c)
pacemaker in the body and (d) metal parts due to any
surgery inside the body.
Total 105 subjects signed the informed consent
form for PANAS forms, 21 subjects signed POMS form
and 20 subjects agreed to undergo the measurements of
HRV. Those who agreed for PANAS and POMS
completed the self-administered survey 5 minutes before
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and 5 minutes after the meditation and individuals who
agreed to wear the HRV device wore it throughout the
meditative practice lasting 40 minutes.
Protocol
The meditation took place from sharp 7:00 PM
to 7:40 PM, twice a month and on the dates
communicated in advance. The participants were
instructed to sit in a cross-legged meditative posture on
a meditation chair that provides back support. After
completing the signed consent, the participants were
given brief instructions specifying the duration of the
meditation (exactly 40 mins) and required to focus the
attention on the sound vibrations of the singing bowl or
observe their breath - especially when their mind gets
diverted. The meditation is conducted by a trained
therapist with the use of (a) 7 handmade singing bowls
ranging from 18cm to 29cm diameter and (b) one
Ting-Sha (as shown in Figure 3) [19]. No gongs or other
music or sound instruments were used. Participants
were instructed to do three humming sounds at the
beginning and end of the meditation and throughout the
process, they are requested to keep the eyes closed
while maintaining the attention on observation of the
sound vibrations or their own breath. No other
instructions are given. In the beginning, after the three
humming sounds, the participants were instructed to
follow the session leaders instruction on progressive
muscle relaxation (PMR), lasting maximum 3 mins
requesting the participants to relax all body parts
starting with toes, legs and so on. For the balance of the
session, only the sound vibrations of the bowls and
Ting-Sha were used, i.e. No more verbal instructions
were provided. As mentioned earlier, the sessions ended
with three humming sounds. At the end of the session,
the participants were requested to slowly observe the
changes in the mind and the body and open the eyes
when they were comfortable. The lights in the room
were closed throughout the meditation. During the
mediation, the sound vibrations of the bowl followed a
simple pattern of maintaining a gap of about 4-5
seconds between the successive hitting of the bowl and
periodically, all the bowls were hit a bit faster to create
louder sound from all bowls together (every 8-10
minutes). The bowls were hit by a hammer and the
rimming used a wooden stick covered by leather at one
end. The entry to the room was closed throughout the
practice and air conditioning was maintained at a
constant temperature (Figure 2 shows the room). The
bowls (shown in Figure 3) were placed in one corner of
a long room with a seating capacity of 20 individuals.
Data Measurement & Analysis
The psychological parameters were captured
using PANAS and abbreviated POMS forms. The HRV
data were collected to measure physiological parameters
using the Emwave Pro device (HeartMath, LLC) with PPG
(Photoplethysmogram) ear sensor during the entire
session. The HRV data was analyzed using Kubios HRV
premium software on a Windows 10 PC. The features
available in Kubios HRV Premium software (version
3.3.0) were used to export the parameters in a. txt file
Figure 1. The study methodology
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Figure 3. Himalayan Singing Bowls (N=7) deployed for the study
Figure 2. The location of the study and the set-up of the bowls
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which included Heart Rate, Stress Index and RMSSD.
Each .txt file was tabulated and analyzed using Microsoft
Excel pivot table. The data was integrated for each of
the 5 minutes of the 40 minute long sessions. Microsoft
Excel features, specifically function TTEST, were used to
do statistical analysis of the data. The analysis used
Paired T-test to compare the changes between various
intervals for each method (details are captured in the
results).
77 out of the 105 subjects who filled up PANAS
forms properly were included in the study. 17
participants completed the abbreviated POMS forms to
assess Tension (TEN), Anger (ANG), Fatigue (FAT),
Depression (DEP), Confusion(CON), Esteem Related
Affect (ERA) and Vigor (VIG). All the forms were filled by
the participant before and after the meditation and
entered into Microsoft Excel sheet for further analysis.
15 participants completed the full HRV recording during
the meditation process to measure the physiological
parameters like heart rate, and stress index, etc.
Demographics of the subjects and the number
of subjects attended the various data collection
methods, i.e. PANAS, POMS, and HRV recorded are
captured in Table 1.
PANAS is a self-report psychometric
questionnaire that can be used across a diverse sample
group, measures two segments or moods of an
individual. Each segment has 10 terms in which the
subject can rate from 1 to 5. Eventually, we can
measure the positive and negative affect of the subject
before and after any intervention [20, 21]. PANAS has
been widely used in the areas ranging from overall
mood change in areas ranging from clinical studies
involving patients as well as in the areas involving
healthy individuals doing various activities such as
creative work [22]. PANAS has also been used to
measure psychological changes in mood in studies
related to meditation and also singing bowls. While
PANAS provides valuable insight about the mood,
additional validation of the changes in mood via
physiological data could add more credibility to the
overall conclusion [23, 24]. The abbreviated POMS is a
simple and effective self-reported questionnaire to
understand changes in specific moods [18]. The
expectation was to understand the specific impact on
positive and negative mood with the use of PANAS and
additionally understand the changes in specific moods
with the help of abbreviated POMS.
HRV is a beat-to-beat interval between
successive heartbeats (also known as RR or NN interval)
and indicates a physiological state. It has been used to
evaluate the impact of the singing bowl during supine
position13 17. HRV is also emerging as a meaningful
marker of autonomic nervous system imbalance, stress,
metabolic syndrome and chronic disease. For this study,
we used (a) Heart Rate (b) RMSSD (The RMSSD reflects
the beat-to-beat variance in heart rate and is the
primary time domain measure used to estimate the
vagally-mediated changes reflected in HRV) and (c)
Stress Index (The Baevskys stress index is a rather
widely used index of cardiovascular system stress and is
strongly linked to sympathetic nervous activity).
Together, these three physiological measures provide an
understanding of the relaxation process as compared to
heart rate alone and provide a more comprehensive
perspective about the changes in the autonomic nervous
system. Specifically, changes heart rate and stress
index could provide an indicator of the reduction in
sympathetic nervous system activity. The increase in
RMSSD denotes a pronounced parasympathetic nervous
system activity [28].
Results
Pre and post meditation data of PANAS for 77
enrolled participants showed a statistically significant
increase in the positive affect (pre=33.25, post=36.26,
p<0.00) and a statistically significant reduction in the
negative affect (pre=19.92, post= 14.21, p<0.00)
(Table 2).
The above results confirm the primary objective
(a) of the study that there is a statistically significant
reduction in negative affect and a similar increase in
positive affect.
HRV Parameters
Table 3 shows the key HRV parameters
captured every 5 minutes during the Seated HSB Sound
Bath Meditation for 15 individuals (Mean Age=37.20,
SD=12.69). Paired T-Test calculations between the first
(0-5 min) and the last interval (35-40 min) of the
meditation indicates a statistically significant change in
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Mean PA SD PA Mean PA SD PA p-value Mean NA SD NA Mean NA SD NA p-value
n
Before Before After After PA* Before Before After After NA*
77 33.25 7.42 36.26 6.80 0.00 19.92 6.68 14.21 4.08 0.00
Table 2. PANAS Change in Positive Affect and Negative Affect for all participants with * denoting statistically
significant changes (for both PA and NA).
Time Mean HR* Mean RMSSD* Mean Stress Index*
0-5 min 79.99 38.17 11.53
5-10 min 79.08 36.48 12.42
10-15 min 78.06 40.12 12.58
15-20 min 77.81 40.29 12.24
20-25 min 77.56 39.69 11.75
25-30 min 77.07 42.62 11.27
30-35 min 76.44 44.79 10.98
35-40 min 78.17 55.98 9.65
Table 3. Changes in key HRV parameters during the meditation (* denotes a statistically
significant change in the parameter during 35-40 min as compared to 0-5 min, despite
the use of PMR during 0-5 mins).
PANAS HRV POMS
n Mean Age SD n Mean Age SD n Mean Age SD
Male 36 35.53 13.78 9 35.00 13.19 8 29.25 7.83
Female 41 38.49 12.60 6 38.67 12.92 9 35.78 11.13
Total 77 37.10 13.16 15 37.20 12.69 17 32.71 10.13
Table 1. Demographics of the individuals who participated in various measurements
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(a) Heart Rate (b) RMSSD and (c) Stress index. As
captured earlier, the Baevskys stress index is a rather
widely used index of cardiovascular system stress
and is strongly linked to sympathetic nervous
activity [16]. Hence, reduced Heart Rate and Stress
index indicate a statistically significant reduction in
sympathetic nervous system activity. The RMSSD
reflects the beat-to-beat variability in heart rate and is
the primary time domain measure used to estimate the
vagally-mediated changes reflected in HRV [28]. The
trend of these key parameters is shown in Figure 4.
These results indicate (a) overall stress level increases in
the early part of the meditation and eventually begins to
reduce after about 15 mins and continues the downward
trend, consistent with other changes i.e. an increasing
trend in RMSSD (b) overall heart rate, however,
continues to reduce every 5 minute interval. From
statistical perspective, the p-value of Heart Rate, RMSSD
and Stress index show statistically significant changes
when we compare the last 5 minutes of the meditation
with the first 5 minutes. A significant increase in RMSSD
denotes a likely increase in parasympathetic tone while a
reduction in heart rate and stress index indicates a
likely decrease in the sympathetic tone of the
participants - when we compare the first 5 minutes with
the last 5 minutes. The trend (Figure 4) also validates
this.
The above results confirm the primary objective
(b) of the study that there are statistically significant
changes in physiological i.e. HRV parameters towards
the end of the meditation as compared to the beginning.
Abbreviated POMS
Analysis of Abbreviated Profile Of Mood States
(POMS) questionnaire show all specific variables except
vigor show a significant difference between pre- and
post-meditation (Table 4). All the negative moods show
a statistically significant decrease while Esteem Related
Affect shows statistically significant improvement. Vigor
score showed an increase, however, it was not
statistically significant (p=0.31). A possible explanation
for why Vigor could be that while meditating, people are
likely to become increasingly relaxed. Moreover, the
intervention does not provide any guided imagery that
could cause excitement and active feeling. These could
be the reasons why we believe that Vigor may have not
increased significantly.
Discussion
The study explored the mind-body impact of a
single session of seated HSB sound bath meditation. The
results indicate significant changes i.e. reduction in
negative affect and an increase in positive affect. Unlike
the previous study, this study method has generated a
positive trend in PANAS with an increase in PA and a
decrease in NA18. It is likely that a longer duration
intervention may have contributed to the positive
impact on the mood since as shown in Figure 4, the HRV
changes during the initial 15 minutes indicate some
activation of sympathetic activation due to an increase in
stress index along with a decrease in RMSSD. However,
after the initial 15 minutes, the overall trend in HRV has
changed denoting an increase in parasympathetic
nervous system activity along with a decrease in
sympathetic activity. While this trend in HRV data does
not directly explain the changes in the mood, it still
shows a more relaxed body which may have triggered
the beneficial changes in the mood.
The findings are significant since both the mind
and the body changes are positive and demonstrate a
significant psychological and physiological benefit of
such a session. Such sessions can be very useful for
individuals keen to reduce stress and improve overall
mood. Applications could also include individuals facing
sleep disruption or an inability to relax or generalized
anxiety. Such practice, on a regular basis, could speed
up the relaxation response, known to have a profound
impact on the mind and the body5. Some creative
possibilities for applying sound bath meditation could
include pre-surgery relaxation for subjects as well as
health care professionals, individuals suffering from
depressive mood, anxiety and so on.
Conclusions
This study demonstrates a significant
psychological and physiological impact of a 40 min long
seated Himalayan Singing Bowls meditation, validated
not just through a questionnaire, but also using Heart
Rate Variability measures throughout the session to
understand the impact on the overall physiological
measurement of stress and autonomic nervous system.
This intervention can help in the reduction of anxiety
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Figure 4. Changes in HRV parameters. Parameters with * indicate a statistically significant change
(during 35-45 min as compared to 0-5 min). The X-axis shows the time into the meditative practice. Y-axis
shows the three parameters, i.e. HR, RMSSD (Primary, left) and Stress Index (Secondary, right)
n
Pre- Meditation Post- Meditation
p value
Measures Mean SD Mean SD %
Change
Tension 17 7.06 2.68 3.76 2.75 -47% 0.00*
Anger 17 4.88 3.43 2.12 2.34 -57% 0.00*
Fatigue 17 6.24 3.58 2.41 2.35 -61% 0.00*
Depression 17 6.82 4.45 2.47 2.83 -64% 0.00*
Confusion 17 7.82 4.42 5.12 3.41 -35% 0.00*
Esteem Related Affect 17 14.35 2.74 16.29 2.71 14% 0.01*
Vigor 17 8.00 3.37 8.41 3.00 5% 0.31
Table 4. Summary of POMS data before and after meditation. Parameters with * indicate a statistically
significant change
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and depressive mood and provide mind-body relaxation.
A more detailed study, involving a randomized
trial with a control group, would substantiate the long
term benefits of such an intervention. Future work
could explore if an individual session would be more
effective as compared to a group session and whether
such intervention would have an equal impact on
healthy individuals as compared to individuals who have
metabolic syndrome components or chronic diseases
such as hypertension or diabetes.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the help
from Mr. Rajan Shah and Mrs. Dhwani Shah of Wellness
Space for data management, analysis and Ms. Rene
Shah (student volunteer) for help in administering
forms.
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... For all these aspects, music and sound are used as a therapeutic approach to help people improve their mental health and overall wellbeing. Meditation has also demonstrated a significant positive impact on mood and general wellbeing, with improved physiological homeostasis and reduced anxiety and stress [27]. ...
... However, it should be noted that LF:HF is affected by respiration and heart rate independently of autonomic nerve activity [87]. The mean square of successive RR interval differences (RMSSD) and HF oscillations reflect vagal inputs to the heart, where an increase or decrease in these values corresponds to an increase or decrease in vagal functioning [27,83,87]. The standard deviation (SD) of the normal-normal range indicates the total variability of heart rate and, among HRV measurements, is the one most influenced by sympathetic activity [87]. ...
... Prior studies that monitored singing bowls and other auditory stimulation reported similar effects on HRV, e.g. see [6,27,86,92,[94][95][96]144]. ...
Preprint
Music and sounds activate numerous physiological effects associated with the functioning of the autonomic nervous system and involved in the maintenance of homeostasis. As such, sound interventions can play an important role in supporting human wellbeing. Physiological responses are dependent on the sound type and frequency, as well as the spatial conditions and the presence of the subject in the acoustic environment. To arrive at a more articulate understanding of these dependencies, response of subjects (n=44) to sound reproduction of two different singing bowls with fundamental frequencies at 73 Hz and 110 Hz in spatial projection of nine different geometric shapes were monitored by acoustic and physiological measurement. Contrary to other studies, we find no discrete effects related to the sound type or frequency. Observed effects indicating focused attention, relaxation and improved homeostasis were consistently dependent on the combination of sound frequency and spatial condition. Notably, we observe that the 73 Hz stimulus induced significant changes in the Gamma band of Electroencephalography (EEG) in projection of a Tetrahedron and Cube, while the 110 Hz stimulus induced significant changes in the Theta and Beta bands for the same shapes. Discrete effects of spatial shapes were observed in the Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) of subjects. Arousal was significantly decreased during projection of a Cube, Icosahedron and Dodecahedron and significantly increased during Pyramid, Tetrahedron and Sphere, regardless of the frequency. Discrete effects of stimulus duration were observed in GSR and Electromyography (EMG) of subjects, regardless of the frequency and spatial condition. Arousal and muscle tension were significantly increased during the first 15 minutes and decreased until 40 minutes of exposure. We observe highly significant deviations in projected sound waves in the presence of a subject. The localized amplitude difference of sound waves was highly correlated to localization and power of significant changes in brain activity of subjects, while the phase shift of sound wave frequency was predictive of the frequency of brain activity. Significant expressions of Heart Rate (HR) and Heart Rate Variability (HRV) of subjects were highly correlated to the mean, variability and standard deviation of amplitude difference and phase shift of the fundamental frequency and the average across frequencies. We present a model in the form of a transfer function that accurately predicts various physiological expressions in response to sound stimuli on the basis of observed sound wave deviations. We discuss the benefits of such a model and the future work necessary to develop the model to its full predictive capacity.
... For all these aspects, music and sound are used as a therapeutic approach to help people improve their mental health and overall wellbeing. Meditation has also demonstrated a significant positive impact on mood and general wellbeing, with improved physiological homeostasis and reduced anxiety and stress [27]. ...
... However, it should be noted that LF:HF is affected by respiration and heart rate independently of autonomic nerve activity [87]. The mean square of successive RR interval differences (RMSSD) and HF oscillations reflect vagal inputs to the heart, where an increase or decrease in these values corresponds to an increase or decrease in vagal functioning [27,83,87]. The standard deviation (SD) of the normal-normal range indicates the total variability of heart rate and, among HRV measurements, is the one most influenced by sympathetic activity [87]. ...
... Prior studies that monitored singing bowls and other auditory stimulation reported similar effects on HRV, e.g. see [6,27,86,92,[94][95][96]144]. ...
Preprint
Full-text available
Music and sounds activate numerous physiological effects associated with the functioning of the autonomic nervous system and involved in the maintenance of homeostasis. As such, sound interventions can play an important role in supporting human wellbeing. Physiological responses are dependent on the sound type and frequency, as well as the spatial conditions and the presence of the subject in the acoustic environment. To arrive at a more articulate understanding of these dependencies, response of subjects (n=44) to sound reproduction of two different singing bowls with fundamental frequencies at 73 Hz and 110 Hz in spatial projection of nine different geometric shapes were monitored by acoustic and physiological measurement. Contrary to other studies, we find no discrete effects related to the sound type or frequency. Observed effects indicating focused attention, relaxation and improved homeostasis were consistently dependent on the combination of sound frequency and spatial condition. Notably, we observe that the 73 Hz stimulus induced significant changes in the Gamma band of Electroencephalography (EEG) in projection of a Tetrahedron and Cube, while the 110 Hz stimulus induced significant changes in the Theta and Beta bands for the same shapes. Discrete effects of spatial shapes were observed in the Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) of subjects. Arousal was significantly decreased during projection of a Cube, Icosahedron and Dodecahedron and significantly increased during Pyramid, Tetrahedron and Sphere, regardless of the frequency. Discrete effects of stimulus duration were observed in GSR and Electromyography (EMG) of subjects, regardless of the frequency and spatial condition. Arousal and muscle tension were significantly increased during the first 15 minutes and decreased until 40 minutes of exposure. We observe highly significant deviations in projected sound waves in the presence of a subject. The localized amplitude difference of sound waves was highly correlated to localization and power of significant changes in brain activity of subjects, while the phase shift of sound wave frequency was predictive of the frequency of brain activity. Significant expressions of Heart Rate (HR) and Heart Rate Variability (HRV) of subjects were highly correlated to the mean, variability and standard deviation of amplitude difference and phase shift of the fundamental frequency and the average across frequencies. We present a model in the form of a transfer function that accurately predicts various physiological expressions in response to sound stimuli on the basis of observed sound wave deviations. We discuss the benefits of such a model and the future work necessary to develop the model to its full predictive capacity.
... The peak of the HRV RR was at minute 30 (T3), a time point at which EEG outcomes were also more evident. Interestingly, our HRV trajectories resemble those observed in previous studies in which a single TSB treatment session of 20 or 40 min was able to promote RR indexed by HRV parameters and self-reported mood, also showing the peak of relaxation at T3 (30 min) [53,54]. These results might indicate that the time of exposure seems to be relevant for the induced RR effects; however, the impact of the sound frequency of the TSB at this moment (T3) cannot be ruled out. ...
... Moreover, both TSB and PMR reduced self-reported anxiety scores, with this effect being more evident in the TSB group. Our results are in line with previous reports that showed similar TSB relaxation-inducing effects from a single treatment session [53,54]. We believe that this acute effect is a relevant feature of TSB treatment and complements the findings reported by TSB longitudinal studies [17,31,32,34]. ...
Article
Full-text available
The prevalence of anxiety has increased dramatically due to COVID-19, so effective preventive interventions are welcome. The main objective of our study was to compare the acute relaxation response (RR) induced by Tibetan singing bowl (TSB) sound-based treatment against progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) and a control waiting list group (CWL) in a single treatment session in an adult nonclinical anxious population. In this cross-sectional randomized control trial, 50 participants selected based on high state anxiety were randomly assigned to one of the experimental groups. Pre/post self-reported anxiety, electroencephalographic activity (EEG), and heart rate variability (HRV) were recorded at baseline (T1), minute 15 (T2), minute 30 (T3), and minute 45 (T4). The TSB group showed significant reductions in alpha power (from T2 to T4) and increased HRV (from T3 to T4) compared with the PMR and CWL groups. Moreover, TSB and PMR both showed significant reductions in self-reported anxiety compared with CWL, with this effect being more evident in the TSB group. We concluded that a single session of TSB treatment was able to induce a more evident psychological/physiological relaxation response compared with PMR and CWL. TSB could be a relevant acute intervention in stressful situations or crisis intervention and while waiting for conventional interventions.
... Tibetan Singing Bowls (TSB) meditation has been used to address cognition, emotion, and physical health. Previous studies have shown that TSB or meditation influences mood, reduces anxiety [1], and enhances spiritual and mental wellbeing [2] as well as promotes a more mindful, meditative state of consciousness [3]- [5] and reduces the chaotic activities of both the brain and heart [6]. However, the majority of studies have reported data of bio-signal responses in individuals, whereas the underlying processes through which TSB affects mental states and impacts physiological responses may be a function of group complexity matching. ...
... The intervention of a singing bowl massage found its questionnaire [294] was reported after a 40-minutelong sound meditation with singing bowls [295]. In the presented study, participants also reported to feel more vitalized, which is in accordance with another study determining that subjective sleepiness was lower after a 20-minute relaxation in during singing bowl sound compared to a silent relaxation (p=.041) [296]. ...
Thesis
Full-text available
Background and Objectives: This thesis was based on the hypothesis that the physics-derived theoretical framework of selforganized criticality can be applied to the neuronal dynamics of the human brain. From a consciousness science perspective, this is especially appealing as critical brain dynamics imply a vicinity a phase transition, which is associated with optimized information processing functions as well as the largest repertoire of configurations that a system explores throughout its temporal evolution. Hence, self-organised criticality could serve as a neurodynamical correlate for consciousness, which provides the possibility of deriving empirically testable neurophysiological indices suitable to characterise and quantify states of consciousness. The purpose of this work was to experimentally examine the feasibility of the self-organized criticality theory as a correlate for states of consciousness. Therefore, it was aimed at answering the following research questions based on the analysis of three 64 channel EEG datasets: (i) Can signatures of self-organized criticality be found on the level of the EEG in terms of scale-free distribution of neuronal avalanches and the presence of long-range temporal correlations (LRTC) in neuronal oscillations? (ii) Are criticality features suitable to differentiate state of consciousness in the spectrum of wakefulness? (iii) Can the neuronal dynamics be shifted towards the critical point of a phase transition associated with optimized information processing function by mindbody interventions? (iv) Can an explicit relationship with other nonlinear complexity features and power spectral density parameter be identified? (v) Do EEG-based criticality features reflect individual temperament traits? Material and Methods (1): Thirty participants highly proficient in meditation (mean age 47 years, 11 females/19 males, meditation experience of at least 5 years practice or more than 1000 h of total meditation time) were measured with 64-channel EEG during one session consisting of a task-free baseline resting, a reading condition and three meditation conditions, namely thoughtless emptiness, presence monitoring and focused attention. (2): 64-channel EEG was recorded from 34 participants (mean age 36.0 ±13.4 years, 24 females/ 10 males) before, during and after a professional singing bowl massage. Further, psychometric data was assessed including absorption capacity defined as the individual’s capacity for engaging attentional resources in sensory and imaginative experiences measured by the Tellegen-Absorption Scale (TASD), subjective changes in in body sensation, emotional state, and mental state (CSP-14) as well as the phenomenology of consciousness (PCI-K). (3): Electrophysiological data (64 channels of EEG, EOG, ECG, skin conductance, and respiration) was recorded from 116 participants (mean age 40.0 ±13.4 years, 83 females/ 33 males) – in collaboration with the Institute of Psychology, Bundeswehr University Munich - during a task-free baseline resting state. The individual level of sensory processing sensitivity was assessed using the High Sensitive Person Scale (HSPS-G). The datasets were analysed applying analytical tools from self-organized criticality theory (detrended fluctuation analysis, neuronal avalanche analysis), nonlinear complexity algorithms (multiscale entropy, Higuchi’s fractal dimension) and power spectral density. In study 1 and 2, task conditions were contrasted, and effect sizes were compared using a paired two-tailed t-test calculated across participants, and features. T-values were corrected for multiple testing using false discovery rate. To calculate correlations between the EEG features, Spearman’s rank correlation was applied after determining that the distribution was not appropriate for parametric testing by the Shapiro-Wilk test. In addition, in study 1, a discrimination analysis was carried out to determine the classification performance of the EEG features. Here, partial least squares regression and receiver operating characteristics analysis was applied. To determine whether the EEG features reflect individual temperament traits, the individual level of absorption capacity (study 2) and sensory processing sensitivity (study 3) was correlated with the EEG features using Spearman’s rank correlation. Results Signatures of self-organized criticality in the form of scale-free distribution of neuronal avalanches and long-range temporal correlations (LRTCs) in the amplitude of neural oscillations were observed in three distinct EEG-datasets. EEG criticality as well as complexity features were suitable to characterise distinct states of consciousness. In study 1, compared to the task-free resting condition, all three meditative states revealed significantly reduced longrange temporal correlation with moderate effect sizes (presence monitoring: d= -0.49, p<.001; thoughtless emptiness: d= -0.37, p<.001; and focused attention: d= -0.28, p=.003). The critical exponent was suitable to differentiate between focused attention and presence monitoring (d= -0.32, p=.02). Further, in study 2, the criticality features significantly changed during the course of the experiment, whereby values indicated a shift towards the critical regime during the sound condition. Both analyses of the first and second dataset revealed that the critical exponent was significantly negatively correlated with the sample entropy, the scaling exponent resulting from the DFA denoting the amount of long-range temporal correlations as well as Higuchi’s fractal dimension in each condition, respectively. In addition, the critical scaling exponent was found to be significantly negatively correlated with the trait absorption (Spearman's ρ= -0.39, p= .007), whereas an association between critical dynamics and the level of sensory processing sensitivity could not be verified (study 3). Conclusion The findings of this thesis suggest that neuronal dynamics are governed by the phenomena of selforganized criticality. EEG-based criticality features were shown to be sensitive to detect experimentally induced alterations in the state of consciousness. Further, an explicit relationship with nonlinear measures determining the degree of neuronal complexity was identified. Thus, self-organized criticality seems feasible as a neurodynamical correlate for consciousness with the potential to quantify and characterize states of consciousness. Its agreement with the current most influencing theories in the field of consciousness research is discussed. Keywords: Self-organised criticality, correlates of consciousness, neural dynamics, phase transition, complexity, optimal information processing, meditation, sensory processing sensitivity, EEG
... For instance, Goldsby et al. reported less tension, anger, fatigue, and depressed mood (p < 0.001) after a meditation with Tibetan singing bowl in healthy participants, and the feeling of spiritual well-being was significantly higher [13]. In addition, an improvement in positive affect and a reduction in negative affect, as captured by the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) questionnaire [24], was reported after a 40-min-long sound meditation with singing bowls [25]. In the presented study, participants also reported to feel more vitalized, which is in accordance with another study determining that subjective sleepiness was lower after a 20 min relaxation session with singing bowl sound compared to a silent relaxation (p = 0.041) [26]. ...
Article
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Background and Objectives: In recent years, singing bowl sound interventions have been progres-sively implemented in the fields of well-being, therapy and education; however, the effective-ness has only scarcely been investigated. Therefore, this study was aimed at determining neu-rophysiological effects of a singing bowl massage. Materials and Methods: In this prospective co-hort study 64-channel EEG, ECG and respiration was recorded from 34 participants (mean age 36.03 ± 13.43 years, 24 females/10 males) before, during and after a professional singing bowl massage. Further, subjective changes in well-being were assessed. EEG data were analyzed by determining the effect sizes of distinct frequency bands. Significant differences were calculated by a two-tailed t-test corrected for multiple comparisons. Heart rate variability metrics, heart rate and respiration rate were estimated and compared. Results: Overall EEG power decreased during the sound condition compared to a task-free resting state (d = −0.30, p = 0.002). After the intervention, global EEG power was further reduced (d = −0.46, p < 0.001), revealing a decrease in the beta 2 (d = −0.15, p = 0.002) and the gamma frequency band (d = −0.21, p = 0.004). The mean heart rate was significantly lower after the intervention (75.5 ± 19.8 vs. 71.5 ± 17.9, p < 0.001) and the respiration rate higher (13.5 ± 5.3 vs. 15.2 ± 6.3, p = 0.018). 91.2% of the participants felt more integrated, 97.1% more balanced and 76.5% more vitalized. Conclusions: The neurophysiological effects of a singing bowl sound massage may be interpreted as a shift towards a more mindful, meditative state of consciousness. The intervention was perceived as beneficial for the wellbe-ing.
Article
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Global stress is widespread in today’s post-pandemic world of political and economic uncertainty. Vibroacoustic technology is a vibrotactile intervention with multiple uses, but its impact on stress lacks interpretation. This research assessed if the vibroacoustic technology of a Vibroacoustic Sound Massage (VSM) can reduce psychological, physiological, and cognitive stress. The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10) and electrocardiogram (ECG) and electroencephalogram (EEG) biosignals were used to quantify results. Participants were divided into Low-Stress and High-Stress groups. The ECG results show VSM increased parasympathetic activity for all participants, with the Low-Stress group being more affected. The EEG results indicate increased concentration, reduced arousal, and increased relaxation, with participant well-being non-significantly affected, though variability in this metric was homogenised after VSM. Together, these results validate VSM as an effective support tool for stress management; however, further research is required.
Article
Singing bowl sound meditation is an ancient practice that has been used for centuries in Tibetan and Buddhist cultures as a form of healing and relaxation. The practice involves the use of singing bowls, which produce a soothing sound believed to have a powerful effect on the body's energy system, helping to balance the chakras and promote healing. Over the years, several studies have been conducted to explore the effects of singing bowl sound meditation on mood, tension, and well-being. The reasons behind the positive effects of singing bowl sound healings are not fully understood. Possible explanations include alterations in brain waves, binaural beats, and the vibrations of singing bowls interacting with the energy field surrounding the human body, known as the biofield. Studies have shown that singing bowl sound meditation can produce physiological and psychological responses, reducing negative affect and increasing positive affect, as well as improving blood pressure, heart rate, and respiratory rate. Singing bowl sound meditation may be an effective low-cost and low-technology intervention for reducing feelings of tension, anxiety, and depression while promoting spiritual well-being. However, further research is needed to determine the long-term effects of singing bowl sound meditation on physiological and psychological well-being, as well as its potential clinical applications.
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Introduction Sound vibrations have a profound impact on the body and the mind with evidence confirming reduced anxiety and increased wellbeing. The likely reason for driving the benefit is relaxation. The Himalayan Singing Bowls, used for therapeutic intervention to enhance the individual’s emotional & physical wellbeing, may facilitate faster and deeper relaxation as compared to simple, supine relaxation. Aim of the Study The study aimed to validate the hypothesis that short 20 minutes sessions to relax with the help of the Himalayan Singing Bowl (HSB) could provide better depth of relaxation as compared to Supine Silence (SS) based on the objective assessment of physiology parameters i.e. Stress Index & Heart Rate Variability (HRV). Methods Seven metal Himalayan singing bowls were used in a particular sequence learned from an expert teacher for 16 subjects. The SS group consisted of 17 subjects. The HRV data was measured by the Emwave Pro device and analyzed using Kubios HRV Premium software. The analysis compared key HRV parameters within and between the groups. Result Overall, as expected, both groups achieved relaxation as measured by changes in HRV parameters. However, further analysis confirmed a more consistent relaxation, as measured by a statistically significant reduction in stress index and an increase in HRV, for HSB group. The HSB group achieved more consistent depth of relaxation during each subsequent 5 minutes interval throughout the session as compared to SS group. Conclusion The study confirms that singing bowls sessions can be leveraged as a tool for inducing good quality relaxation response (increased parasympathetic tone, reduced stress) to facilitate healing and energy recovery in just 20 minutes and achieve significant health benefits. More comprehensive studies must be conducted to further evaluate the findings with more sample size, different methods of relaxation and varied demographics.
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Epidemiological studies show an emergence of diet- and lifestyle-related diseases; Cardio-metabolic diseases (CMD) and neuropsychiatric diseases (classified as non-communicable diseases or chronic diseases). Diet and lifestyle factors can cause adverse effects on autonomic function resulting in decreased heart rate variability (HRV). Low HRV is a risk factor for CMDs. There is a need to find out new methods of early diagnosis for prevention and treatment of these problems because the neurohormonal dysfunction could be the earliest manifestation. It is possible that HRV could be a marker for the early diagnosis of these problems, because it is characterised with increased sympathetic and reduced parasympathetic activity. Several studies indicate that increased unhealthy diet, mental stress, sedentary lifestyle, tobacco, insomnia and alcoholism may be associated with neurohormonal dysfunction, which may cause decline in HRV. Majority of the chronic diseases (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, heart attack, neuropsychiatric disease and cancer) are associated with decreased HRV. The studies also indicate that solar and geomagnetic activities may influence circadian clock and hypothalamus resulting in the oxidative stress and inflammation with alteration in HRV. It is possible that reduced HRV will correlate with various stages of autonomic dysfunction, associated with chronic diseases. Simple methods need to be developed to measure HRV for early diagnosis of neurohormonal dysfunction, which may be important for early management. This review aims to find out available evidence on the role of HRV in the early diagnosis of chronic disease (with specific focus on Type 2 diabetes) and the factors affecting HRV. Keywords: Catecholamines, chronic disease, heart rate variability, inflammation, psychosocial stress, Type 2 diabetes
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Objectives The purpose of this exploratory study was to obtain greater insight into the effects of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) and Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) on the mental health of employees. Methods Using PsycINFO, PubMed, and CINAHL, we performed a systematic review in October 2015 of studies investigating the effects of MBSR and MBCT on various aspects of employees’ mental health. Studies with a pre-post design (i.e. without a control group) were excluded. Results 24 articles were identified, describing 23 studies: 22 on the effects of MBSR and 1 on the effects of MBSR in combination with some aspects of MBCT. Since no study focused exclusively on MBCT, its effects are not described in this systematic review. Of the 23 studies, 2 were of high methodological quality, 15 were of medium quality and 6 were of low quality. A meta-analysis was not performed due to the emergent and relatively uncharted nature of the topic of investigation, the exploratory character of this study, and the diversity of outcomes in the studies reviewed. Based on our analysis, the strongest outcomes were reduced levels of emotional exhaustion (a dimension of burnout), stress, psychological distress, depression, anxiety, and occupational stress. Improvements were found in terms of mindfulness, personal accomplishment (a dimension of burnout), (occupational) self-compassion, quality of sleep, and relaxation. Conclusion The results of this systematic review suggest that MBSR may help to improve psychological functioning in employees.
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Objectives: Positive and negative affect is a relevant facet of well-being for community-dwelling older adults. This article reports the validation of the Positive And Negative Affect Scale (PANAS), by means of confirmatory analysis.Methods: A community-dwelling cross-national sample of 1291 older adults aged 75 years-old and older voluntarily completed the PANAS. The relations between variables in the model were evaluated using structural equation based on maximum likelihood estimation. The distributional properties, cross-sample stability, internal reliability, and convergent, external and criterion-related validities of the PANAS were analyzed and found to be psychometrically acceptable.Results: Our results outcomes support for the hypothesis that the PANAS is valid and reliable in the two 10-item mood scales, hence fit for use with older adults, within a culturally diverse view of well-being.Conclusions: The psychometric properties of the PANAS are satisfactory in this older sample, and according to those of its early version. Taken together, these results substantiate the validity of this measure when applied to an older community cross-national population.
Article
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Poor mood and elevated anxiety are linked to increased incidence of disease. This study examined the effects of sound meditation, specifically Tibetan singing bowl meditation, on mood, anxiety, pain, and spiritual well-being. Sixty-two women and men (mean age 49.7 years) participated. As compared with pre-meditation, following the sound meditation participants reported significantly less tension, anger, fatigue, and depressed mood (all Ps <.001). Additionally, participants who were previously naïve to this type of meditation experienced a significantly greater reduction in tension compared with participants experienced in this meditation (P < .001). Feeling of spiritual well-being significantly increased across all participants (P < .001). Tibetan singing bowl meditation may be a feasible low-cost low technology intervention for reducing feelings of tension, anxiety, and depression, and increasing spiritual well-being. This meditation type may be especially useful in decreasing tension in individuals who have not previously practiced this form of meditation.
Article
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Sound is a physical pervasive phenomenon inducing resonance influencing cell metabolism with bodily water mediating the effects of vibration. Tibetan Singing Bowls may induce state of wellbeing in patients with cancer which can be measured. This pilot study included 12 metastatic cancer patients undergoing 6 sessions using Tibetan Bowls. Objective (electrocardiography, skin conductance and electroencephalography) and subjective measurements (QoL, Anxiety/Depression, Distress, Fatigue) were performed. End points were feasibility (recruitment, attendance, compliance to treatment) and benefits (amelioration in QoL, anxiety, distress, arousal and mental exhaustion). All 12 patients were recruited over a two-week period; 83% attended all sessions. 83% of the patients completed questionnaires to assess subjective efficacy. 59 instrumental tests were performed out of 60 sessions completed. For subjective parameters, a statistically significant difference emerged only for the Distress Thermometer (2.4 vs 5.3 p = 0.0005). Objective parameters: 1) tonic skin conductance level (SCL) decreased significantly (p = 0.0091) and phasic SCL (p = 0.0064); 2) heart rate variability (HRV) significantly increased (p = 0.0041); 3) EEG registration in anterior-frontal areas revealed changes in beta, alpha and inter-hemispheric coherence, (beta: p = 0.09; alpha p = 0.046; coherence p = 0.084). The feasibility endpoints (acceptance, attendance and compliance) were achieved; personalized programs should be offered to patients at risk of rapid worsening conditions and to subjects affected by bone metastases. A visual tool for subjective distress appears more appropriate than validated questionnaires. Useful tools for collection of objective data are SCL, HRV, and anterio-frontal EEG. Tibetan Bowls decrease anxiety, arousal, involuntary mental activity and stress. Larger trials should confirm these results.
Article
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Stress is a cognitive or emotional response made by the individual towards any situation, which demands adjustment. When the demands of the situation exceed the ability of the individual distress results, which may manifest in mental and physical symptoms of abnormality. The practice of Yoga nidra helps in building up the coping ability. The practitioner of Yoga nidra slowly becomes aware of the inherent dormant potentialities and thus prevents himself from becoming a victim of distress. As well as relaxation of yoga nidra relaxes the physical as well as mental stresses as it relaxes the whole nervous system. Stress-related disorders evolve gradually through four stages. In the first stage, psychological symptoms like anxiety and irritability arise due to over activation of the sympathetic nervous system. Yoga nidra can be consider as a highly effective practice for reducing stress on the basis of the present study as Yoga nidra releases the stress of the students of higher classes. Practice of Yoga Nidra also reduces the Anxiety of male and female subjects both. It may have positive results for the other age groups and occupations also.
Chapter
The study of consciousness within cognitive neuroscience has been dominated in recent years by investigations originating from collaborations between neuroscientific investigators and Buddhist meditation practitioners. The results have been remarkable, particularly when quantitative and qualitative research methods have been combined as they are in the neurophenomenological methodology originated by Francisco Varela. The addition of qualitative data about the experience of the subject greatly enriches the interpretive potential of quantitative data and honors the ultimate subjectivity of all phenomena, if we accept consciousness as the universal first principle as some quantum physicists now do. This remarkable progress, however, has dropped a thread of inquiry begun in the late 1960s by the Menninger Foundation in Topeka, Kansas (the United States) under the leadership of Elmer and Alyce Green. Their studies of the conscious control of involuntary processes drew on collaboration with an Indian master of yoga meditation, Swāmī Rāma of the Himālayas, which opened a number of intriguing possibilities, which have yet to be followed up in detail with the most recent research tools and methodologies. Among these is the ability to enter the deepest, non-REM delta wave sleep while maintaining awareness both internally and of one's surroundings (yoga-nidrā). The particular interest in this ability lies not only in the benefits that accrue from especially deep relaxation and an especially pure experience of mindful awareness, but also from the yogi's description of this as a way to gradually learn to enter the deepest states of meditation (samādhi) and remain there even when otherwise active in the world (turīya). This chapter is one of a series hoping to elucidate that state from both traditional and contemporary descriptions of the state of yoga-nidrā draw measurable hypotheses from these descriptions and discuss the methodological problems of conducting these investigations with sufficiently competent samples of subjects. The focus of this chapter is on training subjects who can become capable of entering the state of yoga-nidrā.