Comparative analysis of cephalofacial dimorphism among indigenous ethnic groups in Benue State, Nigeria

Abstract

The face is an important physiognomic feature in humans, and facial anthropometric variables are valuable biometric physiognomies that vary with age, sex, and ethnicity. This study aimed to establish a standard for determining the extent of sexual dimorphism and study the distribution of basic face types by comparison with other ethnic groups in Benue State and Nigeria as a whole. A sample of 450 indigenous people from the Benue State volunteered to participate in this study. The cohort included 150 Tiv, 150 Idoma, and 150 Igede people, between the age group of 18 and 35 years. Participants were randomly recruited from the entire geographical locations of the state, using the inclusion criteria. Anthropometric variables were measured using a digital sliding caliper including facial length (FL) (measured from the trichion to the gnathion) and facial width (FW) (measured as the bizygomatic width, between the right and left zygion). Cephalofacial indices were calculated from these variables. The results revealed significant differences in some of the measured variables between males and females across the various ethnic groups in Benue State, including variation in FL and FW. The comparative results for various ethnicities in Benue State (Tiv, Idoma, and Igede people) also showed a positive correlation between FL and FW, which could be used to predict cephalofacial indices among Tiv, Idoma, and Igede ethnic groups in this area. These results indicate that the dominant facial index among Idoma and Igede people was leptoprosopic (long face) while that among Tiv people is mesoprosopic (round face). The current findings could be useful for elucidating the sex differences and ancestral relationships, as well as for forensic anthropology, reconstructive surgery, and anthropometric considerations for the three ethnic groups in Benue State, Nigeria.

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Original Article
IntroductIon
Anthropometry refers to the scientific study of the
measurement of body size and proportions of living humans,
to assist in understanding human physical variation and aid
inanthropological classication.[1] Anthropometry plays a
signicantroleinorofacialsurgery,clothingandindustrial
design, ergonomics, and architecture, whereby statistical
data correlating the distribution of body dimensions in
the population can be used to enhance the products.[2]
Cephalometry is an important branch of anthropometry
involving the measurement of the head and face of a
living body or a cadaver.[1,3,4] Cephalometry is helpful in
medicine, reconstructive surgery, orthodontics, and clinical
diagnosis. Facial indices are among the most important
cephalometric parameters for person recognition and have
been used to describe racial and sexual differences.[5-8]
Face recognition is a widely used approach for person
recognition, and the human cephalometric parameters in
forensic medicine indicate the importance of anthropometry
under a range of conditions, including natural, intentional,
and accidental events (e.g., air crash, earthquake, road
andtrainaccidents,war‑related deaths,ood,and re).[9]
The viscerocranium, which houses most of the specialized
sensory organs, as well as the dentition, oral, and nasal
cavities, serves as a bony framework for the mimetic
(imitative) musculature.[10] Facial anthropometry is helpful
in medicine, clinical diagnosis, and treatment planning.[1]
Thevecategoriesoffaces,basedonprosopicindexvalues,
Comparative Analysis of Cephalofacial Dimorphism among
Indigenous Ethnic Groups in Benue State, Nigeria
Joseph Igbo Enya1, Onenson Nkanu Onen2
1Department of Anatomy, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria, 2Department of Anatomy, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria
The face is an important physiognomic feature in humans, and facial anthropometric variables are valuable biometric physiognomies that
vary with age, sex, and ethnicity. This study aimed to establish a standard for determining the extent of sexual dimorphism and study the
distribution of basic face types by comparison with other ethnic groups in Benue State and Nigeria as a whole. A sample of 450 indigenous
people from the Benue State volunteered to participate in this study. The cohort included 150 Tiv, 150 Idoma, and 150 Igede people, between
the age group of 18 and 35 years. Participants were randomly recruited from the entire geographical locations of the state, using the inclusion
criteria. Anthropometric variables were measured using a digital sliding caliper including facial length (FL) (measured from the trichion to
the gnathion) and facial width (FW) (measured as the bizygomatic width, between the right and left zygion). Cephalofacial indices were
calculatedfromthesevariables.Theresultsrevealedsignicantdifferencesinsomeofthemeasuredvariablesbetweenmalesandfemales
across the various ethnic groups in Benue State, including variation in FL and FW. The comparative results for various ethnicities in Benue
State (Tiv, Idoma, and Igede people) also showed a positive correlation between FL and FW, which could be used to predict cephalofacial
indices among Tiv, Idoma, and Igede ethnic groups in this area. These results indicate that the dominant facial index among Idoma and Igede
peoplewasleptoprosopic(longface)whilethat amongTivpeopleismesoprosopic(roundface).Thecurrentndingscouldbeuseful for
elucidating the sex differences and ancestral relationships, as well as for forensic anthropology, reconstructive surgery, and anthropometric
considerations for the three ethnic groups in Benue State, Nigeria.
Keywords: Anthropometry, Benue, dimorphism, indices, leptoprosopic, mesoprosopic
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DOI:
10.4103/jfsm.jfsm_49_19
Address for correspondence: Joseph Igbo Enya,
Department of Anatomy, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.
E‑mail: joetechnice@gmail.com
This is an open access journal, and arcles are distributed under the terms of the
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appropriate credit is given and the new creaons are licensed under the idencal terms.
For reprints contact: reprints@medknow.com
How to cite this article: Enya JI, Onen ON. Comparative analysis of
cephalofacial dimorphism among indigenous ethnic groups in Benue State,
Nigeria. J Forensic Sci Med 2020;6:12-7.
Abstract
Submitted: 16-Nov-2019 Revised: 17-Feb-2020
Accepted: 21-Feb-2020 Published: 17-Mar-2020

Enya and Onen: Comparative analysis of cephalofacial dimorphism among indigenous ethnic groups in Benue State, Nigeria
Journal of Forensic Science and Medicine ¦ Volume 6 ¦ Issue 1 ¦ January-March 2020 13
include hypereuryprosopic, euryprosopic, mesoprosopic,
leptoprosopic, and hyperleptoprosopic.[11] Anthropometric
studies have a variety of uses, including acting as the
basis for many regulations, such as the positioning and
sizing of building materials (e.g., stairs, furniture, doors,
andplumbingxtures).[12] These materials are typically
sized and positioned to be comfortable and convenient
for the average-sized person. In addition, anthropometry
is commonly used to assess the nutritional status of a
particular population, providing a technique for assessing
child developmental patterns during the 1st year of life,
monitoring growth rates and assisting in the design of
materials, equipment and anything with a standard size, such
as clothing, for a particular individual.[13] The main reason
for determining cephalofacial dimensions in forensic science
is to help law enforcement agencies in discerning personal
identity in medicolegal cases, because, in many cases,
cephalofacial dimensions are the only means of evidence
available for forensic investigation.[14] Therefore, this type
of information is vital for facial reconstruction, plastic and
oral surgeries, as well as for clinical and research purposes.
Thus, the present study aimed to establish a standard for
determining the extent of sexual dimorphism and study the
distribution of basic face types of three ethnic groups in
BenueState,Nigeria,comparingthendingswiththoseof
other ethnic groups in Benue State and Nigeria as a whole.
Methodology
This research was carried out in Benue State, Nigeria. The
state contains three major ethnic groups: Igede, Idoma, and
Tiv people. Benue State is located in the middle-east region
of Eastern-Central Nigeria and is bordered by Nassarawa
State to the North, Taraba to the East, Ebonyi and Cross
River State to the South, and Kogi State to the West, having
an area of 34,059 km2 and a population of 5,181,642 in
2005. Idoma, Tiv, and Igede languages are predominantly
spoken by each group, and other ethnic groups include
Etulo and Abakwa people. Makurdi is the capital city of
Benue State, which is a rich agricultural region in Nigeria.
Benue State contains many rivers and is considered the
food basket of the nation. This study used sliding calipers
Figure 1 to measure the total facial length (FL). A total of
450 volunteers were recruited for this study. Among these,
150 individuals from each ethnic group (80 males and
70 females) between the ages of 18 and 35 years, with no
evidence of facial malformation, were randomly selected
for comparison.
Anthropometric measurements
The length and width of the face were measured between
relevant anatomical landmarks while the patient was
seated, with their head placed in an anatomical position,
raised to a comfortable degree, and recorded to the nearest
millimeter (mm) using digital sliding calipers. The FL was
measured from the trichion to the gnathion, Figure 2 and the
width of the face was measured as the bizygomatic width
between the right and left zygion Figure 3 to obtain the facial
index (FI). The FI was calculated using the following equation:
Facial index Facial length
Facial width×100
1
=
The data were statistically analyzed using the one-way analysis
of variance (ANOVA), and the results are presented in tables as
mean±standarddeviationalongwithsignicanceprobability
values.
Research subjects
A sample of 450 indigenous people in Benue State took part
in the study. This cohort included 150 Tiv people, 150 Idoma
people, and 150 Igede people, with 80 males and 70 females in
each ethnic group, between the age group of 18 and 35 years.
Participants who met the inclusion criteria were randomly
recruited from the entire geographical location of the state.
Inclusion criteria
All volunteers who were considered for this research belonged
to either the Tiv, Idoma, or Igede ethnic groups and were born
and brought up in Benue State, Nigeria. All participants were
healthy and free from any kind of facial malformation.
Exclusion criteria
Volunteers who did not belong to the Tiv, Idoma, or Igede
ethnic groups, those who were below or above the stipulated
age range, those with any kind of facial malformation, and
those not willing to participate were excluded from the study.
Ethical approval
Ethical approval was obtained from the Faculty of Basic
Medical Sciences, Cross River University of Technology, in
accordance with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised
in 2000.[15] The rationale of the research was explained to all
volunteers, and only those who gave consent were examined.
Data analysis
The comparisons of means, standard deviations, and one-way
ANOVA were calculated to derive the results for mean FL and
mean facial width (FW). FI values were calculated, and the
results are shown in tables and graphs.
results
Study results are presented on Tables 1-5 and Figures 4-8 below.
dIscussIon
The face is an important feature of the skull, conveying the
information about gender, age, and ethnic group. Although the
importanceoffacesisclear,itisdifculttocharacterize.[16,17]
In the current study, cephalofacial indices for determining
sex differences and ethnicity were examined using the
anthropometric methods in three ethnic groups in Benue State,
Nigeria. This study attempted to elucidate the basic proportions
ofthefacewidthandfacelength,withaspecicfocusonethnic
variation and sex differences with advancing age.

Enya and Onen: Comparative analysis of cephalofacial dimorphism among indigenous ethnic groups in Benue State, Nigeria
Journal of Forensic Science and Medicine ¦ Volume 6 ¦ Issue 1 ¦ January-March 2020
14
Figure 2: Facial length measured from the trichion to the gnathion
Figure 3: Facial width measured as by zygomatic width between the
right and left zygion
Figure 4: Comparison of facial width, facial length, and facial index in male and
female participants of the Tiv ethnic group. Values are expressed as mean ±
standard error of the mean. *= Significantly different from males (P < 0.05)
Figure 1: Digital Vernier caliper is used in measuring the distance between
two opposite sides of a surface
Table 1: Comparison of parameters between male and
female Tiv people
Parameter Male Female
Face width (cm) 11.54±0.89 11.29±0.74*
Face length (cm) 11.55±0.95 10.93±0.62*
Face index 100.35±0.89 97.07±0.67*
*SignicantlydifferentfrommalesatP<0.05
Table 2: Comparison of parameters between male and
female Idoma people
Parameter Male Female
Face width (cm) 12.11±0.80 11.99±0.84
Face length (cm) 11.71±0.83 11.36±0.88*
Face index 96.94±0.80 95.00±0.87
*SignicantlydifferentfrommalesatP<0.05
Table 3: Comparison of parameters between male and
female Igede people
Parameter Male Female
Face width (cm) 12.20±0.73 12.00±0.59*
Face length (cm) 12.06±2.18 11.32±1.33*
Face index 98.96±1.83 94.44±1.09*
*SignicantlydifferentfrommalesatP<0.05
Table 4: Multiple comparisons showing significant
differences in parameters between males in the Tiv,
Idoma, and Igede groups
Parameter Tiv Idoma Igede
Face width (cm) 11.54±0.89b,c 12.11±0.80a12.20±0.73a
Face length (cm) 11.55±0.95 11.71±0.83 12.06±2.18
Face index 100.35±0.89 96.94±0.80 98.96±1.83
aSignicantlydifferentfromTivatP<0.05, bSignicantlydifferentfrom
Idoma at P<0.05,cSignicantlydifferentfromIgedeatP<0.05
Table 5: Multiple comparisons showing significant
differences in parameters between females in the Tiv,
Idoma, and Igede groups
Parameters Tiv Idoma Igede
Face width (cm) 11.29±0.74b,c 11.99±0.84a12.00±0.59a
Face length (cm) 10.93±0.62b,c 11.36±0.88a11.32±1.33a
Face index 97.07±0.67 95.00±0.87 94.44±1.09
aSignicantlydifferentfromTivatP<0.05, bSignicantlydifferentfrom
Idoma at P<0.05, cSignicantlydifferentfromIgedeatP<0.05

Enya and Onen: Comparative analysis of cephalofacial dimorphism among indigenous ethnic groups in Benue State, Nigeria
Journal of Forensic Science and Medicine ¦ Volume 6 ¦ Issue 1 ¦ January-March 2020 15
Comparison between males and females in Tiv, Idoma,
and Igede ethnic groups
Table 1 and Figure 4 shows a comparison of FW, FL, and
FI between males and females in the Tiv ethnic group in
BenueState.Theresultsrevealedasignicantdifferencein
FW (11.54 ± 0.89 and 11.29 ± 0.74 for males and females,
respectively), FL (11.55 ± 0.95 and 10.93 ± 0.62 for males
and females, respectively), and FI values (100.35 ± 0.89 and
97.07 ± 0.67 for males and females, respectively). Table 2 and
Figure 5 shows a comparison of FW, FL, and FI between males
and females in the Idoma ethnic group in Benue State, revealing
anonsignicanttrendforsmallerfemaleFW(11.99±0.84)
and female FI values (95.00 ± 0.87) compared with male
FW (12.11 ± 0.80) and male FI values (96.94 ± 0.80),
respectively,andasignicantdifferenceinFL(11.71±0.83
and 11.36 ± 0.88 for males and females, respectively).
Table 3 and Figure 6 shows a comparison of FW, FL, and
FI between males and females in the Igede ethnic group in
BenueState.Theresultsrevealedasignicantdifferencein
FW (12.20 ± 0.73 and 12.00 ± 0.59 for males and females,
respectively), FL (12.06 ± 2.18 and 11.32 ± 1.33 for males
and females, respectively), and FI values (98.96 ± 1.83 and
94.44 ± 1.09 for males and females, respectively). Thus, sex
differences were observed in the Tiv, Idoma, and Igede ethnic
groups.Theresultsofthecurrentstudyrevealedsignicant
sexual dimorphism in facial parameters, with male participants
exhibiting higher values than their female counterparts across
allethnicities.ThisndingisinagreementwiththatofKpela
et al,[18]whoreportedsignicantsexdifferencesinFLand
FW among Tiv and Idoma people, with males exhibiting
Figure 5: Comparison of facial width, facial length, and facial index in
male and female participants of Idoma ethnic group. Values are expressed
as mean ± standard error of the mean. *= Significantly different from
males (P < 0.05)
Figure 6: Comparison of facial width, facial length, and facial index in male
and female participants of the Igede ethnic group. Values are expressed
as mean ± standard error of the mean. *= Significantly different from
males (P < 0.05)
Figure 7: Comparison of facial width, facial length, and facial index among
male participants across the three ethnic groups. Values are expressed
as mean ± standard error of the mean. a = significantly different from
Tiv (P < 0.05; b = significantly different from Idoma (P < 0.05);
c = significantly different from Igede (P < 0.05)
Figure 8: Comparison of facial width, facial length, and facial index among
female participants across the three ethnic groups. Values are expressed
as mean ± standard error of the mean. a = significantly different from
Tiv (P < 0.05; b = significantly different from Idoma (P < 0.05);
c = significantly different from Igede (P < 0.05)

Enya and Onen: Comparative analysis of cephalofacial dimorphism among indigenous ethnic groups in Benue State, Nigeria
Journal of Forensic Science and Medicine ¦ Volume 6 ¦ Issue 1 ¦ January-March 2020
16
for predicting the anthropometric relationships between
three ethnic groups as well as providing valuable knowledge
for anthropometric and facial biometric applications in
Nigeria.
Recommendations
The results of the current study may have useful applications
in face biometrics and anthropometrics in Nigeria. Based
onthecurrentndings,larger anthropometric studiesof
faces should be carried out in Benue State and in Nigeria
as a whole.
Financial support and sponsorship
Nil.
Conflicts of interest
Therearenoconictsofinterest.
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signicantlyhigherFIvaluesthantheirfemalecounterparts.
However, unlike the current study, Kpela et al. did not examine
the Igede ethnic group.[18]
Multiple comparisons for males and females in the Tiv,
Idoma, and Igede ethnic groups
The results [Table 4 and Figure 7] revealed that the overall
FI values were 100.35 ± 0.89, 96.94 ± 0.80, and 98.96 ± 1.83
for Tiv, Idoma, and Igede people, respectively. Similarly, the
FL values were 11.55 ± 0.95, 11.71 ± 0.83, and 12.06 ± 2.18
for Tiv, Idoma, and Igede people, respectively. No
signicantdifferenceswerefound,butanonsignicanttrend
for Igede people to have a higher FL value was observed,
suggesting that this ethnic group may be predominantly
leptoprosopic, whereas Tiv and Idoma may be more facially
similar, having mesoprosopic faces. The average FW of Tiv
people(11.54±0.89)wassignicantlydifferentfromthat
of Idoma (12.11 ± 0.80) and Igede (12.20 ± 0.73) people.
A comparison with female participants revealed a similar
pattern to that observed in male participants across the
ethnic groups, as shown in Table 5 and Figure 8. Among
females,TivFWwassignicantlysmaller(11.29±0.74)
compared with the Idoma (11.99 ± 0.84) and Igede
(12.00 ± 0.59) groups. In addition, the results revealed a
signicantlysmallerFLamongTiv(10.93±0.62)compared
with Idoma (11.36 ± 0.88) and Igede (11.32 ± 1.33),
suggesting that Tiv may be mainly mesoprosopic, whereas
Idoma and Igede may be more facially similar, having
leptoprosopicfaces.However,there were no signicant
differences in the overall female FI values (97.07 ± 0.67,
95.00 ± 0.87, and 94.44 ± 1.09 for Tiv, Idoma, and Igede
groups, respectively) across ethnic groups. The parameters
studiedrevealedsignicantdifferencesbetweenthreeethnic
groupsinBenueStateinNigeria,reectingtheeffectsof
biological, geographical, ecological, gender-related, and
ethnicgroup‑relatedfactorsaskeyinuentialcomponents
of facial dimensions in the human body.[19] Compared with
previous studies carried out in Benue State, the current
study varied in terms of the ethnic groups examined. Most
previous studies conducted simple comparisons between
two ethnic groups, whereas our study considered three
ethnic groups in the region. Kpela et al.[18] reported a
signicantdifferenceinFL,FW,andFIwhencomparing
two ethnic groups (Tiv and Idoma), but did not consider
the Igede group, and concluded that the Tiv were mainly
mesoprosopic, whereas the Idoma group were leptoprosopic,
inaccordwiththecurrentndings.Inaddition,thepresent
resultsarecongruentwiththendingsofpreviousstudies
examining Nigerian ethnic groups with leptoprosopic face
types. Oria et al. reported that the primary face type of
Idoma people in Benue state was hyperleptoprosopic.[20]
Similarly, hyperleptoprosopic face type was reported by
Ojieh et al. among the Ukwanis people in Delta state,[21]
and Raji et al.reportedsimilarndingsinaNorth‑Eastern
population[22]inNigeria,inaccordwiththecurrentndings.
Thus, using facial indices, the current results may be useful

Enya and Onen: Comparative analysis of cephalofacial dimorphism among indigenous ethnic groups in Benue State, Nigeria
Journal of Forensic Science and Medicine ¦ Volume 6 ¦ Issue 1 ¦ January-March 2020 17
18. Kpela T, Danborno B, Adebisi SS. Facial anthropometry of adult Tiv
and Idoma tribes of Nigeria. Advan Anthropol 2019;9:103-10.
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environment: Moving beyond the nature/nurture debate. Washington
(DC): National Academies Press; 2006.
20. Oria RS, Nandi ME, Obun CO, Ogu T. Nasofacial forms among the
Idoma ethnic group of Benue State, Nigeria. J Med Sci and Clin Res
2018;6:63-8.
21. Ojieh U, Enaohwo M, Ebeye A. Study of the cranial (cephalic) and
facial (prosopic) indexes of Ukwuani indigenes in Nigeria. Ann
Bioanthropology 2016;4:71.
22. Raji JM, Garba SH, Numan AI, Waziri MA, Maina MB. Morphological
evaluation of head and face shapes in a North-Eastern Nigerian
population. Aust J Basic Appl Sci 2010;4:3338-41