No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
On the results of studying ice ridges in the Shokal'skogo Strait, part I: Morphology and physical parameters in-situ
Abstract
The paper presents information on the studies of the first-year ice ridges conducted by the AARI experts in April–May 2016 in the Shokal'skogo Strait (Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago) using hot water drilling with computer recording of the penetration rate. Boreholes were drilled along the cross-section of the ridge crest at 0.25 m intervals mainly. The results of a detailed study of one of the ice ridges are presented. The sail height varied from 2.5 up to 3.4 m, the keel depth varied from 8.3 up to 10.3 m. The average thickness of the consolidated layer was 2.2–2.4 m. Cross-sectional profiles of the ice ridge are illustrated. Ratio of the mean CL thickness of ice ridge to the mean thickness of level ice was equal 1.7. The distribution of salinity in the upper part of the CL is Z-shaped, and on the scale of the entire ice column, C-shaped. The CL growth rate is approximately twice as high as the growth rate of level ice. It was detected that the ridged ice was slightly stronger than the level ice. The porosity of the ice ridges is investigated in Part II.
... Historical Russian data summarised by Burke (1940) indicate an average porosity range of 0.4-0.5 both in the keel and the sail. For the Arctic, keel porosity data for several Arctic pressure ridges, based on thermal drilling, have recently been published by Russian scientists (Kharitanov, 2019(Kharitanov, , 2020a(Kharitanov, , 2021aGuzenko and others, 2020), with average values falling mostly in the range 0.2 to 0.4. Comprehensive statistics of ridge properties, including ridge porosity and block geometry, have also been collected for Baltic sea ice (Leppäranta and Hakala, 1992;Leppäranta and others, 1995;Kankaanpää, 1997), with an average macroporosity of " 0.3 for the keel and slightly smaller value close to 0.2 for the sail. ...
... Most studies show an increasing macroporosity from the bottom of the consolidated layer towards the bottom of the keel, as well as towards the flanks of ridges. The most detailed Russian profile data (Kharitanov, 2019(Kharitanov, , 2020a(Kharitanov, , 2021aGuzenko and others, 2020) indicate that near the bottom of the ridge macroporosity values of 0.3-0.4 are approached. Kharitanov (2021a) has analysed the lateral distribution of porosity in a ridge and proposed that the lower porosity values at the deepest part of the keel are related to compaction and the highest buoyancy force at the center position. ...
... Since ridge keels in Arctic seas have a more complicated morphology than floe edges (Bitz et al., 2001;Obert & Brown, 2011;Wadhams et al., 2011), C dw has a range of values corresponding to various keel shapes rather than being a constant. Using the simple triangular shape of ridge keel (Bonath et al., 2018;Ekeberg et al., 2015;Kharitonov & Borodkin, 2020), the slope angle w and the keel depth h w define the keel geometry. The goal of this study is to investigate how C dw varies with the keel geometry, and a parameterization scheme of C dw = C dw ( w, h w ) with its range of variation is presented, allowing an improved formulation of the ice-ocean drag coefficient in Equation 2. ...
The bottom topography of ridged sea ice differs greatly from that of other sea‐ice types. The form drag of ridge keels has an important influence on sea‐ice drift and deformation. In this study, both laboratory experiment (LabE) and fluid dynamics numerical simulation (FDS) have been carried out for a physical ridge model in a tank to better understand the quantitative characteristics of the form drag. The LabEs covered both laminar and turbulent conditions. The local form drag coefficient of a keel, Cdw, varied with the keel depth hw and the slope angle αw in the turbulent regime. After validated by the LabE measurements, the FDSs were employed to extend the parameterization from the finite water depth to deep water. The results gave Cdw = 0.68∙ln (αw/7.8°), R² = 0.998, 10° ≤ αw ≤ 90°, with Cdw ranging from 0.17 to 1.66, when the keel depth was much less than the water depth. For a large ridging intensity (keel depth/spacing ≥0.01), the variation of the local form drag coefficient and its contribution to total drag coefficient were sensitive to the keel slope angle. Assuming the log‐normal distribution for this angle, the average value of the local form drag coefficient was 0.75, recommended for sea‐ice dynamic models.
... There are two main shortcomings of the model: First, our model does not account for the high macroporosity of unconsolidated FYI ridge keels, which leads to an underestimation of the thickness. Numerous studies have shown that mean ridge porosities amount to 11 %-22 % (Kharitonov and Borodkin, 2020;Kharitonov, 2019a, b;Strub-Klein and Sudom, 2012), with the largest range between 11 % and 45 % for old FYI ridges and newly formed FYI ridges, respectively (Ervik et al., 2018;Høyland, 2007). If we assume that the fraction of 86 % of deformed ice in all observations had a porosity of 11 %-22 %, the mean modeled thickness will increase by 0.1-0.3 ...
An unusual, large, latent-heat polynya opened and then closed by freezing and convergence north of Greenland's coast in late winter 2018. The closing presented a natural but well-constrained full-scale ice deformation experiment. We observed the closing of and deformation within the polynya with satellite synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) imagery and measured the accumulated effects of dynamic and thermodynamic ice growth with an airborne electromagnetic (AEM) ice thickness survey 1 month after the closing began. During that time, strong ice convergence decreased the area of the refrozen polynya by a factor of 2.5. The AEM survey showed mean and modal thicknesses of the 1-month-old ice of 1.96 ± 1.5 m and 1.1 m, respectively. We show that this is in close agreement with modeled thermodynamic growth and with the dynamic thickening expected from the polynya area decrease during that time. We found significant differences in the shapes of ice thickness distributions (ITDs) in different regions of the refrozen polynya. These closely corresponded to different deformation histories of the surveyed ice that we reconstructed from Lagrangian ice drift trajectories in reverse chronological order. We constructed the ice drift trajectories from regularly gridded, high-resolution drift fields calculated from SAR imagery and extracted deformation derived from the drift fields along the trajectories. Results show a linear proportionality between convergence and thickness change that agrees well with the ice thickness redistribution theory. We found a proportionality between the e folding of the ITDs' tails and the total deformation experienced by the ice. Lastly, we developed a simple, volume-conserving model to derive dynamic ice thickness change from the combination of Lagrangian trajectories and high-resolution SAR drift and deformation fields. The model has a spatial resolution of 1.4 km and reconstructs thickness profiles in reasonable agreement with the AEM observations. The modeled ITD resembles the main characteristics of the observed ITD, including mode, e folding, and full width at half maximum. Thus, we demonstrate that high-resolution SAR deformation observations are capable of producing realistic ice thickness distributions.
... There are two main shortcomings of the model: First, our model does not account for the high macro-porosity of unconsolidated FYI ridge keels. Numerous studies haveshown that mean ridge porosities amount to 11-22 %(Kharitonov and Borodkin, 2020; Kharitonov, 2019a, b;Strub-Klein and Sudom, 2012), with the largest range between 11 % and 45 % for old FYI ridges and newly formed FYI ridges, respectively ...
An unusual, large polynya opened and then closed by freezing and convergence north of the coast of Greenland in late winter 2018. The closing corresponded to a natural, but well-constrained, full-scale ice deformation experiment. We have observed the closing of and deformation within the polynya with satellite synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) imagery, and measured the accumulated effects of dynamic and thermodynamic ice growth 5 with an airborne electromagnetic (AEM) ice thickness survey one month after the closing began. During that time strong ice convergence decreased the area of the former polynya by a factor of 2.5. The AEM survey showed mean and modal thicknesses of the one-month old ice of 1.96 ± 1.5 m and 0.95 m, respectively.We show that this is in close agreement with the modeled thermodynamic growth and with the dynamic thickening expected from the polynya area decrease during that time. In addition,we found characteristic differences in the shapes of ice thickness distributions in different regions of the closing polynya. These closely corresponded to different deformation histories of the surveyed ice that were derived from the high-resolution SAR imagery by drift tracking along Lagrangian backward trajectories. Results show a linear proportionality between convergence and thickness change that agrees well with ice thickness redistribution theory. In addition, the e-folding of the tails of the different ice thickness distributions is proportional to the magnitude of the total deformation experienced by the ice. Lastly, we developed a simple volume-conserving model to derive dynamic ice thickness change from high-resolution SAR deformation tracking. The model has a spatial resolution of 1.4 km and reconstructs thickness profiles in reasonable agreement with the AEM observations. The computed ice thickness distribution resembles main characteristics like mode, e-folding, and width of the observed distribution. This demonstrates that high-resolution SAR deformation observations are capable of producing realistic ice thickness distributions. The MYI surrounding the polynya had a mean and modal total thickness (snow + ice) of 2.1 ± 1.4 m and 2.0 m, respectively. The similar first- and multi-year ice mean thicknesses elude to the large amount of deformation experienced by the closing polynya.
... Since ridge keels in Arctic seas have a more complicated morphology than floe edges (Bitz et al., 2001;Obert & Brown, 2011;Wadhams et al., 2011), C dw has a range of values corresponding to various keel shapes rather than being a constant. Using the simple triangular shape of ridge keel (Bonath et al., 2018;Ekeberg et al., 2015;Kharitonov & Borodkin, 2020), the slope angle w and the keel depth h w define the keel geometry. The goal of this study is to investigate how C dw varies with the keel geometry, and a parameterization scheme of C dw = C dw ( w, h w ) with its range of variation is presented, allowing an improved formulation of the ice-ocean drag coefficient in Equation 2. ...
The paper presents information on the studies of the first-year ice ridges conducted by the AARI experts in April–May 2018 in the fast ice of the Shokal'skogo Strait (Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago) using hot water drilling with computer recording of the penetration rate. Boreholes were drilled along the cross-section of the ridge crest at 0.25 m intervals mainly. One of the ice ridges had an unusual configuration: the sail crest was on the edge of the perpendicular extended keel crest. Cross-sectional profiles of ice ridges are illustrated. The records of thermodrilling rate revealed the presence of residual ice fragments in the keel of the ice ridges. The sail height varied from 2.9 up to 3.2 m, the keel depth varied from 8.5 up to 9.6 m. The average keel depth to sail height ratio varied from 2.8 to 3.3, and the thickness of the consolidated layer was 2.5–3.5 m. The porosity of the unconsolidated part of the keel was about 23–27%. The distributions of porosity versus depth for all ice ridges are presented and discussed.
To date, too few measurements have been available to document the seasonal change in the strength for different types of sea ice. The situation is remedied here with nearly 1300 borehole measurements on first-year ice (FYI), second-year ice (SYI) and multi-year ice (MYI) in the Canadian Arctic from the past 15 years. The thickness, temperature, salinity and borehole strength are given for five categories of sea ice: FYI, SYI, young multi-year ice (yMYI), thick level multi-year ice (TkMYI) and hummocked multi-year ice (hMYI). Results show that the deterioration of FYI and SYI is offset by about one month in summer, yMYI is more similar to TkMYI than SYI, and deteriorated MYI floes can have strengths comparable to more competent looking MYI floes in summer. The seasonal reduction in strength for different ice types is expressed here as an ‘equivalent floe strength’, which is the depth-averaged strength of all boreholes on a floe normalized by the maximum depth-averaged strength of FYI in winter (32 MPa). Seasonal trends in strength show SYI and MYI floes to be stronger than FYI floes in all seasons. The strength of FYI floes decreases from 61% (May) to 9% (July), relative to its 32 MPa winter maximum, whereas the equivalent floe strength of SYI decreases from 69% (May) to 16% (August), relative to 32 MPa. The equivalent floe strength of the combined category of yMYI & TkMYI decreases from 78% or more (May) to 40% (September). The equivalent floe strength of hMYI decreases from 102% (May) to 51% (September).
The in-situ confined compressive strength of a variety of ice features has been investigated on three independent research expeditions during 2012; First-year level ice (FYLI) in the Van Mijenfjord (Svalbard) in March, young ice (YI) and rafted first-year ice (RFYI) in the Barents Sea in April, and old level ice (OLI) in the Fram Strait in August. A custom made borehole jack (BHJ) has been used in the expeditions, and a description of the equipment is presented. The classification system of BHJ records introduced by Sinha (2011) has been further developed based on stress - time curves. Focus is put on the post-peak stress behaviour, where the improvements mainly rely on introducing four subclasses of upper yield (UY) failures. The new system is used for establishing links between sea ice features and failure types (FTs). We conclude that in old level ice flow stress (FS) failures are typical for the upper layer (down to 70 cm), while asymptotic (AS) failures dominate when test depth reaches 100 cm. UY1 and UY3 are prominent in first-year level ice and young ice respectively. Rafted first-year ice is dominated by upper yield failures, where no specific subtype stands out. The tests have been investigated based on three strength governing parameters; ice temperature (Ti), minimal vertical confinement (Cmin) and average indentation rate. We found that decreasing temperature gives an increasing borehole (BH) strength, also within the respective failure types and ice features. Based on indentation rate, the BH strength increased with decreasing rate. An abrupt transition between asymptotic and premature (P) failures was found at 4.5 mm/s indentation rate, where the former dominates for lower and the latter for the greater rates. The vertical confinement is a parameter that appears to affect only the tests conducted in young ice with this BHJ system.
From the 1970s to the present time, a great deal of field work and analysis has been done on the physical and mechanical properties of sea ice ridges. Despite numerous measurements made on hundreds of ridges, knowledge gaps still remain. Ridge properties have been summarized in terms of their relevance to shipping and offshore structures. An emphasis is placed on the degree of consolidation within the ridge, which is a key factor in the determination of the exerted ice load. The amount of data published on each ridge parameter is discussed, along with the variability in measurements for various parameters, and the measurement techniques used. Geographic location is also considered; ridge properties vary with location, and some regions have few published data.
Five secondyear sea ice ridges have been investigated in the Fram Strait in September 2008 for the third year. Cross sectional drillings were made with 2" augers in order to examine the geometry and the macroporosity of the ridges. The smallest and largest ones were respectively 3.94 m and 9 m deep. The macroporosity of the ridges was close to zero. Ice cores were sampled to establish temperature, salinity and density profiles and for further porosity calculations. Average ice density, salinity and porosity in the keel were found to be respectively 0.866 g/cm 3 , 2.7 psu and 18.6%. Similar investigations on a firstyear sea ice ridge done in the Barents Sea in May 2008 showed that the same properties had higher values. Those ones were respectively 0.960 g/cm 3 , 4.46 psu and 22.7 %. The keel was 8.20 m deep at its maximum measured point. These results are used as inputs in numerical models and design codes.
Thermal drill penetration rate records during hot water and electric drilling of ice ridges provide information about their internal structure. Drill penetration rate is inversely proportional to the volume content of solid phase of ice. The dependence of the value reciprocal of the rate of drilling versus depth is the dependence of volume content of the solid phase of ice versus depth, or, in other words, the distribution of solid phase along the borehole. Averaging these distributions for all boreholes, one can obtain average statistical distribution of the volume of the solid phase of ice with depth both for a single ice ridge, and for all ice ridges located within the area investigated. The paper addresses the results of model analysis of distribution of volume content of ice solid phase with depth for an ideal ice ridge. The examples of the distribution for real ice ridges are provided. By the form of these distributions, location of the boundaries of the consolidated layer of ice ridge and its average thickness can be estimated. Behavior of the dependence of the volume content of ice solid phase with depth in unconsolidated areas of the sail and keel points to the distribution of the porosity of the ice ridge, the presence of particular features in its structure.
This paper offers the most comprehensive set of property measurements on multi-year ice to date, in the interest of addressing one of the most significant unknowns for Arctic engineering: multi-year ice strength. Borehole strength results are presented from 56 old ice floes in the grey literature and more than 600 tests conducted on 23 multi-year ice floes over the past decade, including the first-published results over the full thickness of a 12.7 m thick, cold multi-year hummock. The ice borehole strength is obtained by categorizing the pressure vs. time histories for each test into one of four main types of failure behaviour. Vertical profiles of the temperature, salinity and borehole strength of multi-year floes in spring and summer demonstrate that the properties of multi-year ice are highly variable in space and time. The mean borehole strength and standard deviation of cold (− 13 °C) multi-year ice is 34.2 ± 9.1 MPa, although strengths as high as 49.2 MPa do occur, making multi-year ice nearly twice as strong as cold first-year ice. The mean borehole strength and standard deviation of warm multi-year ice is 19.6 ± 7.2 MPa (at − 5 °C) and 10.3 ± 5.3 MPa (at 0 °C). Ice temperature is shown to be the single largest factor influencing borehole strength: strength increases with decreasing ice temperature, however complex factors such as the ice failure mode and ice consolidation also bear upon the relation. For example, strengths measured in thick, level multi-year ice can be substantially higher than hummocked multi-year ice sampled at the same temperature, time of year and latitude. Similarly, a thoroughly weathered multi-year ice hummock in late summer can have considerably higher strength than a less weathered multi-year hummock in early spring. The study shows that multi-year ice does not deteriorate in the same manner as first-year ice, strength equations based solely on brine volume are not appropriate for multi-year ice and warm multi-year ice should not be assumed deteriorated. The viability of estimating the ice borehole strength from known ice temperatures is explored by fitting linear regressions to strength-temperature data for the two most common failure processes: well-defined yield failures (Type 2) and poorly-defined yield failures (Type 3). The Type 2 failure equation reproduces the measured strength profiles more closely than the Type 3 failure equation, but results are not ideal. A similar comparison was made for the effective borehole strength, i.e. the strength averaged over all test depths in a particular borehole. For the 64 boreholes examined, the Type 2 failure equation produced an upper bound for the effective borehole strength, but only when ice temperatures had been documented over at least half of the total ice thickness.
The paper presents the investigation results of morphometric characteristics of three first-year ice ridges conducted in March–June 2011 at «North Pole‐38» drifting station. The height of the ice ridge sail ranged within 3.3–6.1 m; keel draft, from 10.2 to 18.9 m. These studies were conducted using electric thermal drilling with computer recording of the penetration rate. Boreholes were drilled along the cross‐section of the ridge crest at 0.5 m intervals. Cross-sectional profiles of ice ridges are illustrated. In each borehole, ice ridge porosity was calculated as the ratio of the length of all voids to total length of the borehole. Distribution of ice ridge porosity along the cross-section seems to be rather regular. Depth-wise distribution of volume content of solid ice phase is shown for the investigated ice ridges. Average thickness of consolidated layer of ice ridges ranged within 0.8 … 2.6 m.
Measurements of spatial and temporal temperature development, geometry morphology, and physical properties in three first-year sea ice ridges at Spitsbergen and in the Gulf of Bothnia have been performed. The corresponding thickness and the physical properties of the surrounding level ice were also measured. The thickness of the consolidated layer was examined through drilling and temperature measurements: the temperatures gave a ratio of the thickness of the consolidated layer to the level ice thickness from 1.39 to 1.61, whereas the drillings indicated a ratio of 1.68-1.85. The measured consolidated layer appeared to be 28% thicker when based on drillings in comparison to temperature. Thus the result depended on the method of investigation; the drillings included a partly consolidated layer. However, the measured growth of the consolidated layer did not depend on the method of investigation. The scatter of the physical properties in the consolidated layer was higher than that of the level ice. The consistency of the unconsolidated rubble differed markedly at the two sites. It was soft and slushy at Spitsbergen and harder in the Gulf of Bothnia. Three possible explanations for these differences are discussed: surrounding currents, different keel shapes, and difference in salinity.
The mechanical deformation of a sea ice cover takes place through ridging and rafting. These processes have been studied in an ice basin by pushing two identical ice sheets together. Nonuniform ice sheets consisting of floes of thickness t1 and thin ice of thickness t2 connecting the floes were used. The major thickness t1 and the thickness ratio t2/t1 were varied. Ice sheets of uniform thickness (t2/t1 = 1) never formed ridges; they only rafted. However, when ice sheets of nonuniform thickness were used, initial rafting transformed into ridging. In general, high values of t1 and low values for t2/t1 favored ridging, while low values of t1 and high values for t2/t1 favored rafting. The forces during the tests were measured. During the initial rafting stage the force increased linearly with displacement. The experiments also suggest that the ridging force has a maximum value. This limit can be related to horizontal growth of the ridge or onset of ridging in another site. The relation between force and ice sheet thickness has also been analyzed. Further, from the force and the measured ridge profiles it was possible to estimate the ratio of work to change in potential energy. This ratio was about 15 for ridging and about 35 for rafting.
Four medium to large first-year ridges have been examined with respect to geometry, porosity, morphology, and physico-mechanical properties in the Barents Sea close to the island Hopen in May 2002 to 2005. The geometry and morphology of the ridges compares well with the acknowledged literature, and ridges in the Barents Sea are expected to be similar to other Arctic ridges. The size of the pores increased with depth until about 1/3 to 1/2 of the keel depth, and decreased after about 2/3–3/4 of the keel depth. The porosity throughout the keels increased with depth. The salinity of the level ice and the consolidated layer was about 4 to 5 ppt and no systematic differences were found. Altogether 494 samples were tested in uniaxial compression for ε˙nom = 10− 3 s− 1. Salinity, density and temperature was measured for each individual sample and the porosity (η) calculated. The strength (f) for different parts of the ridge and the level ice is presented and discussed as a function of η. The mean value and the coefficient of variation of f both decreased with increasing η. The strength dropped for relative air volumes (ηa) above 10% and fmax(ηa > 10%) = 2.60 MPa. The ratio of the vertical and horizontal strength of the consolidated layer (fclV / fclH) was about 1.1, and fcl was between the vertical and horizontal strength of level ice (fliV > fcl > fliH). This strength characteristics is due to the different ice texture in level ice and consolidated layer. The strength of the sail and the consolidated layer was comparable and higher than that of the rubble blocks. Brittle samples were (except for η < 5%) stronger than the ductile ones and the porosity seemed to be important for the brittle-to-ductile transition.
Sea ice ridges are typical features in the Baltic Sea ice pack accounting for on average up to one-third of the total ice mass. They are difficult obstacles to winter navigation and cause large forces on ships and offshore structures. However, the internal structure and strength properties of ice ridges are quite poorly known. This paper presents the results of an experimental project on the structure and strength of first-year ice ridges in the Baltic Sea carried through during 1987–1989. Altogether, six freely floating ridges were investigated. Their total thickness ranges from 4 to 17 m. Valuable field data about the size and shape of ridges, consolidated and unconsolidated parts, block size and porosity have been obtained by drilling and sampling. Divers and underwater video cameras have been used for observing the ridge keel structure. The totally consolidated layer within the ridges was 1–2 times the thickness of the surrounding level ice. The average porosity was 29%. The strength of the keel part has been measured with a full scale loading test. The force required to shear the keel was determined as a function of the normal force, the settlement rate, and the porosity of the keel. The shear strength of the ridge keels was from 1.7 up to more than 4.0 kPa. Also small scale tests were conducted in an ice tank giving results in agreement with the full scale tests.
First year sea ice ridges were characterized off the West Coast of Newfoundland from 07 to 22 March 1999. This report presents a comprehensive investigation of five ridges sampled during the March 1999 program. The ice microstructure of the ridges is correlated to the bulk physical properties (temperature, salinity and density) and consolidated layer thickness of the ridged ice. The ridges had a maximum sail height that ranged from 1.5 to 3.8 m. The consolidated layer thickness of the ridged ice ranged from 0.7 to 2.1 m and the total ice thickness varied from 1.8 to 5.0 m. The temperature of the ice cores was just below 0°C. The average bulk ice salinity ranged from 3.6 to 4.1 ‰, with a maximum of 6 ‰. Ice densities from the examined ridge site ranged from 0.85 to 0.93 Mg/m³. The warm temperatures, high porosity and low density of the ice indicated temperate ridges in a deteriorated state. Due to the deteriorated state of the ridged ice, it is expected that the measured average salinity of the ridges may have decreased after the ridge formed. The sail blocks showed that the ice involved in the ridge formation consisted of columnar grained ice, predominantly. Examination of the macrostructure of ridged ice cores showed highly porous, loosely consolidated ice with discrete banding. The microstructure of the cores revealed a non-uniform matrix comprised of mostly granular ice, with some coarse frazil particles and elongated columns.
Copyright (c) 1996 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. An analysis has been made of the salient features of 112 first-year and 64 multi-year sea ice ridges. Based on this information, the important characteristics of the ridges have been related through simple equations. In particular, the ratio of the keel-depth to sail-height was found to be 4.4 for first-year ridges, and 3.3 for multi-year ridges; the ratio of the keel-area to sail-area was 8.0 for first-year ridges and 8.8 for multi-year ridges. Also, for first-year ridges, the ratio of the keel-width to sail-height was approximately 15, and the ratio of the keel-width to keel-depth was 3.9. An analysis of the sail and keel angles indicates a distribution of values with an average sail angle of 21° for temperate ridges, and 33° for ridges in the Beaufort Sea. In this paper, the results of this analysis are described, and the important ridge characteristics are discussed.
Generalizing a vast amount of data on the structure of sea ice in the Arctic and Antarctic seas as well as ice formed in fresh-water and brackish water bodies in mid-latitudes the author has attempted to lay a new basis for their classification. Numerous analyses of structural cross-sections of ice and of the conditions in which this ice has been formed, has made it possible to distinguish among the extremely varied natural forms the main and most common types. Such an approach has not been restricted to the statement of structural features of ice but has also been connected with the analysis of the phenomena of its formation presented.
Sea Ice. The Collection and Analysis of Observational Data, Physical Properties and Forecasting Ice Conditions (handbook)
- N V Cherepanov
- V I Fedorov
- K P Tyshko
Cherepanov, N.V., Fedorov, V.I., Tyshko, K.P., 1997. Crystal structure of sea ice. In:
Frolov, I.Ye., Gavrilo, V.P. (Eds.), Sea Ice. The Collection and Analysis of
Observational Data, Physical Properties and Forecasting Ice Conditions (handbook).
Ice pile-up and ride-up on Arctic and subarctic beaches
- A Kovaks
- S D Sodhi
Kovaks, A., Sodhi, S.D., 1979. Ice pile-up and ride-up on Arctic and subarctic beaches.
POAC'79 1, 127-146.
Application of a borehole jack for determination the local strength of fresh and sea ice
- S M Kovalev
- V G Korostelev
- V A Nikitin
- V N Smirnov
- A I Shushlebin
Kovalev, S.M., Korostelev, V.G., Nikitin, V.A., Smirnov, V.N., Shushlebin, A.I., 2004.
Application of a borehole jack for determination the local strength of fresh and sea
ice. In: Proc. of the 17th Int. Symp. on Ice. IAHR, St.-Petersburg, pp. 147-153.
Water thermodrill for drilling wells in ice bodies. Patent of Russia RU 2640605 C2. Date of publication: 10.01
- V Morev
- V Kharitonov
Morev, V., Kharitonov, V., 2018. Water thermodrill for drilling wells in ice bodies. Patent
of Russia RU 2640605 C2. Date of publication: 10.01.2018. Bull. № 1.
Phase Composition and Thermal Physical Characteristics of Sea Ice
- Yu L Nazintsev
- W V Panov
Nazintsev, Yu.L., Panov, W.V., 2000. Phase Composition and Thermal Physical
Characteristics of Sea Ice. Gidrometeoizdat, St.Petersburg 84 p. (in Russian).
Ice rubble consolidation
- G W Timco
- L E Goodrich
Timco, G.W., Goodrich, L.E., 1988. Ice rubble consolidation. In: Proc. IAHR Symposium
on Ice Problems, Sapporo. Hokkaido University. 1. pp. 427-438.
Liquid Phase in Sea Ice
- W L Tzurikov
Tzurikov, W.L., 1976. Liquid Phase in Sea Ice. Nauka, Moscow 210 p. (in Russian).
Average values of the CL and level ice thickness for five lines in the central part of the ice ridge
- Fig
Fig. 33. Average values of the CL and level ice thickness for five lines in the central part of the ice ridge.
- V V Kharitonov
V.V. Kharitonov and V.A. Borodkin
Cold Regions Science and Technology 174 (2020) 103041