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Citizen Willingness to Report Wildlife Crime
Deviant Behavior
Abstract
Poaching hotline programs are a common tactic employed by wildlife enforcement agencies across the country, but their effectiveness has received limited attention by the academic community. This study explores citizen willingness to report wildlife crime and the degree to which this willingness is influenced by hotline programmatic features, as well as individual characteristics and attitudes of the observer. Data come from online survey responses from adults living in the Western U.S. after their exposure to vignettes. Findings revealed an overwhelming willingness among respondents to report observed poaching behavior, and that this willingness was not dependent on receiving an economic reward. Multivariate analyses found that willingness to report was influenced by several factors, including the observer’s financial situation and his/her attitudes and values toward wildlife. Policy implications and directions for future research are discussed.
... Given the lack of research on anonymity and bystander reporting in IPV specifically, these studies primarily focused on experiences and perceptions of bystanders of IPV more generally (e.g., Gregory, 2017;Gregory et al., 2017;Latta, 2008;Latta & Goodman, 2011). Further, previous literature in other fields of anonymous reporting was also included and analyzed (e.g., crime reporting, whistleblowing, workplace harassment; Aiello, 2019; Leavitt et al., 2021;Moore & McAuliffe, 2012;Nicksa, 2014;Tolsma et al., 2012). The literature revealed that fear played an important role both among bystanders of IPV in general (e.g., Gregory et al., 2017;Latta & Goodman, 2011) as well as in anonymous reporting in other contexts (e.g., Tolsma et al., 2012), and so did the existence of a close relationship in anonymous reporting (e.g., Leavitt et al., 2021). ...
... Further, previous literature in other fields of anonymous reporting was also included and analyzed (e.g., crime reporting, whistleblowing, workplace harassment; Aiello, 2019; Leavitt et al., 2021;Moore & McAuliffe, 2012;Nicksa, 2014;Tolsma et al., 2012). The literature revealed that fear played an important role both among bystanders of IPV in general (e.g., Gregory et al., 2017;Latta & Goodman, 2011) as well as in anonymous reporting in other contexts (e.g., Tolsma et al., 2012), and so did the existence of a close relationship in anonymous reporting (e.g., Leavitt et al., 2021). Based on author's familiarity with the case files and the overview of previous literature, several potential themes related to anonymous reporting (i.e., fear, closeness) were identified prior to the actual coding. ...
Although bystanders can play an important role in combating intimate partner violence (IPV), they also experience unique barriers and challenges that may prevent them from involvement. While anonymous reporting could potentially address some of these barriers, this form of intervention has rarely been studied. Using a thematic analysis of case files ( N = 34 reports), this study investigates bystanders’ reasons to report suspicions of IPV anonymously to a domestic violence hotline. Results indicate that anonymity allowed bystanders to balance the desire to protect the victim(s) from harm with the fear of potential consequences for themselves and/or their relationship with the victim(s).
... Consequently, it is rare for officers to witness wildlife crimes. For example, only an estimated 1-5% of incidents of poaching of game animals are brought to the attention of law enforcement (Leavitt et al., 2020). Therefore, engaging hunters, anglers, and other recreationists to report wildlife crimes and to encourage others to adhere to wildlife laws can benefit conservation (Peterson et al., 2019). ...
... Despite relatively high-profile legal cases (CDFW, 2019; DOJ, 2022), illegal shooting of raptors is challenging to observe and report, and prosecutions are rare. However, evidence suggests that reliance solely on law enforcement to manage wildlife crime is an ineffective long-term strategy (Leavitt et al., 2020). Thus, effectively addressing the problem of raptor shooting, whether it be through educating the public, law enforcement response, or management, could be improved via the use of implementation science to monitor, evaluate, adapt, and refine intervention strategies. ...
Humans have shot raptors for centuries. However, in many countries these actions have been illegal since the mid-twentieth century. Despite this history, there is not a comprehensive understanding of the characteristics of this activity, its frequency, and why it occurs. We used literature review and principles drawn from ecology, sociology, and criminology to understand this problem. First, we review literature on raptor shooting globally to explore documented motivations for shooting and we describe the history of raptor shooting in the United States of America (USA). Then, to illustrate the contemporary frequency and geographic breadth of the shooting of raptors, we systematically compile records from scientific and media reports from across the USA. Finally, we outline a transdisciplinary framework to meet the challenge of understanding and managing illegal shooting of raptors. Our framework encompasses six best practices: (1) understand the biology of the problem, (2) build professional networks and partnerships, (3) leverage engagement and public support, (4) apply insights from study of human-wildlife interactions, (5) draw lessons from criminology, and (6) use implementation science to evaluate outcomes. We illustrate application of these best practices with a case study from an Illegal Shooting Working Group recently formed in Boise, Idaho, USA. There is growing recognition that illegal shooting of raptors is a pressing conservation challenge. Solving this challenge can be facilitated by inclusion of information from multiple fields of study; the approach we outline provides one potential mechanism to address this issue.
... Cooperation with civil society organizations and community grassroots organizations can expand the influence of publicity and the coverage of education. A report shows that many people are willing to use poaching hotlines to report violations [6]. ...
Against the backdrop of the current growing problem of illegal wildlife trade globally, this paper constructs a data-driven model that aims to significantly reduce the scale and impact of this trade. Through the collection and in-depth analysis of global statistics, we identified the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) as the ideal partner for the project. We made a strong argument that WCS has the influence and resources needed to implement the project. Using linear regression modeling and interpolated predictive modeling for inertia analysis, we demonstrated synergies between the project and WCS's goals. Based on the assessment of the power and resources required for WCS to implement the project, we propose a resource allocation model and discuss three policy options, namely mandatory, incentive, and cooperative policies, to ensure that the client has flexibility in the decision-making process. This study aims to make a significant contribution to global biodiversity conservation and to effectively address the threats to ecological balance posed by illegal wildlife trade.
... Monitoring and assessing the impacts of the illegal killing of protected nongame wildlife present numerous challenges. For example, wildlife crimes may occur in rural or remote areas, and only a small proportion of wildlife crimes come to the attention of law enforcement (Leavitt et al. 2020). Further, in the United States, nongame species may not be as highly prioritized by resource agencies as game species (Stoms et al. 2010). ...
Illegal killing of protected nongame birds is pervasive and can be demographically relevant. In 2021 and 2022, we evaluated spatial and temporal patterns in illegal killing of birds along 69.7 km of power lines in the Morley Nelson Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area in Idaho, USA, to provide insight into potential drivers behind the activity and key information to manage this threat across the American west. The illegal shooting of 8 species of raptors and corvids we documented was clumped both temporally and spatially, as opposed to being randomly distributed across the year and landscape. We found 72 illegally shot birds, most killed during spring months (March to May), coincident with peak time periods of legal recreational shooting activity, and in places with high levels of recreational shooting. We also found evidence of targeted killing of raptors in the conservation area in areas not associated with recreational shooting. Given the numbers of nesting pairs of some local raptor species, this shooting is likely demographically relevant for some but not all local populations. Likewise, with the prevalence of recreational shooting across the American west, the inference we draw is broadly relevant beyond our Idaho study area. The insight our work provides can enable owners of power lines, law enforcement agencies, and resource managers to coordinate in outreach, regulatory, and law enforcement action to manage a threat that may have widespread impacts for some avian species.
... The funds, in turn, are used to help establish wells and other critical infrastructure items while facilitating initial and sustained sound ecological practices (Tchakatumba et al., 2019). In essence, the ability to facilitate citizen and community empowerment supports the willingness of community members to manage resources and report offenses Leavitt et al., 2020). In turn, community empowerment coupled with active reporting practices provide the bedrock for other intervention strategies. ...
Organized crime is a noted facilitator of drugs, weapons, and human trafficking. Overlooked, however, is the involvement of these criminal enterprises regarding flora (i.e., plants) and fauna (i.e., animals) crimes. For example, the trafficking of wildlife and wildlife parts globally. The need to better understand the impact these criminal units is espoused by multiple stakeholders. Subsequently, this chapter will discuss the impact organized crime has on wildlife and the environment through an international lens.
... They are assisted by the HWW, who work there when there is a necessity for monitoring and enforcement [1,37]. Therefore, community cooperation is needed to immediately report wildlife crimes and intensify active collaboration from all parties to assist in wildlife monitoring, thereby reducing dependency on limited conservation capacity and mitigating wildlife crimes [64,65]. Equally important, a lack of political will and the complexity of stakeholders' competing interests in conservation versus social-economic development have complicated conservation efforts in this region. ...
... They are assisted by the HWW, who work there when there is a necessity for monitoring and enforcement [1,37]. Therefore, community cooperation is needed to immediately report wildlife crimes and intensify active collaboration from all parties to assist in wildlife monitoring, thereby reducing dependency on limited conservation capacity and mitigating wildlife crimes [64,65]. Equally important, a lack of political will and the complexity of stakeholders' competing interests in conservation versus social-economic development have complicated conservation efforts in this region. ...
Simple Summary
Garnering support from multiple stakeholders to increase the number or size of protected areas remains a key challenge for wildlife conservation efforts in Malaysia. Human–wildlife conflict often arises when local socio-economic development compromises wildlife survival due to negative landscape changes. It is essential to assess both human–wildlife conflict and human–human conflicts about wildlife, in order to promote mutually beneficial human–wildlife coexistence. This paper examines pertinent factors influencing wildlife conservation by integrating ecological and social approaches using a conservation planning framework. The findings demonstrate the importance of appraising social values to address issues such as size limits for protected areas and compensation for wildlife damage to property. It shows that monetary incentives are not the sole determinant in gaining the support of indigenous people in reporting wildlife crimes and their active participation in conservation programs. Therefore, developing effective communication with stakeholders, empowerment of rural communities, and proper appraisal of social values are all urgently needed to promote effective rural wildlife conservation programs.
Abstract
Numerous studies show the importance of social understanding in addressing multifaceted conservation issues. Building on a conservation planning framework, this study examines the social dimensions of wildlife conservation in Kinabatangan, Sabah, Malaysia. It employs a qualitative approach by conducting in-depth, semi-structured interviews with sixty informants drawn from local community members, government officials, tourism operators, non-government organizations, and the private sector. Our results show that the incidence of human–wildlife conflicts has reduced in the region, but that conflicts among stakeholders themselves about wildlife still remain a significant threat for attaining successful conservation outcomes. Further stakeholder perceptions of increased wildlife numbers often contrast with actual counts returned by periodical surveys conducted by conservation agencies, e.g., showing a 30% decline of orangutans and a 29% decline of gibbon abundance. This shows that evidence-based conservation messages have not been communicated well. The study has implications for enhancing social values among conservation players, promoting local community empowerment and revising conservation awareness programs.
... 12). Developing positive attitudes and values toward animals will help enhance the human-animal relationships that will be more geared toward co-existence (Kachen and Krishen, 2020;Leavitt et al., 2021). These positive values toward animals will, subsequently, lead to behavioral changes (Fulton et al., 1996) not only among the general public (not to kill the animals in the first place), but possibly also in the courts (to prosecute using stronger deterrence tools). ...
Wildlife crime threatens national and global security. Much of the impact of wildlife crime is felt overseas, often in developing countries, where it threatens to catalyze conflicts, hinders economic development, undermines the rule of law, and threatens peace, amongst having other negative socio-economic and security impacts. But the impact of wildlife crime also is felt in United States, both directly by undercutting state and local conservation efforts, and indirectly, by injecting illegal wildlife and wildlife products into United States markets. While some work has delved into the sentencing dynamics of broader environmental crime in the United States, little research has explored the sentencing of wildlife crime, which is recognized as being distinct in nature by both governmental bodies and academics alike. The current study explores the federal prosecutions of wildlife crimes, focusing on profiling the wildlife crime cases charged by the US Department of Justice (DOJ). By profiling cases, we aim to explore (1) the application of charges associated with wildlife crime cases via their judgment documents; (2) the wildlife species involved in prosecuted cases; (3) the distribution of cases across US federal districts; and (4) and the sentencing patterns of wildlife crimes. Further statistical analyses explore the relationships between a variety of the variables extracted. Policy recommendations are set forth accordingly.
... Recent evidence in China also showed that social engagement in environment governance via whistle-blowing could have a positive and direct impact on the control of industrial air pollution and the risk of disease transmission during the outbreak of the pandemic (Chen and Chen 2020). Although whistleblowing is also emerging in protecting wildlife as a prosocial engagement, its potential interaction with law enforcement and conservation has received limited attention (Leavitt et al. 2021). ...
Illegal wildlife trade enforcement is a cornerstone conservation strategy worldwide, yet we have a limited understanding on its social impacts. Using Chinese online wildlife seizure news (2003–2018), we evaluated the interactions among enforcement operations, news frequency, and social engagement (i.e., whistle-blowing) frequency. Our results showed that intensive enforcement operations, which commenced after 2012, have social impacts by increasing the frequency of all seizure news significantly by 28% [95% Confidence Interval (CI): 5%, 51%] and those via whistle-blowing by 24% [95% CI: 2%, 45%], when compared to counterfactual models where possible confounding factors were accounted for. Furthermore, we revealed the potential interaction between enforcement seizure news with and without social engagement, and the consequential social feedback process. Of the species identified from ‘whistle-blowing’ news, up to 28% are considered as high conservation priorities. Overall, we expanded our understanding of the enforcement impacts to social dimensions, which could contribute to improving the cost-effectiveness of such conservation efforts.
... Without a victim coming forward to report that they have suffered theft or assault, wildlife crime can be hard to detect [25]. Therefore, citizen reporting can be a vital policing tool [86]. Of course, ability to conceal wildlife crime, or complicitness in failing to report on others is also a function of whether a few cuckoos are being trapped quietly, or an elephant is being shot with a musket. ...
Wildlife crime presents a growing threat to the integrity of ecological communities. While campaigns have raised consumer awareness, little is known about the socio-demographic profile of wildlife offenders, or how to intervene. Using data from China Judgements Online (2014–2018), we documented 4,735 cases, involving 7,244 offenders who smuggled, hunted, transported, sold and/or purchased protected species in contravention of China’s Criminal Law. Offenders were predominantly men (93.0% of 7,143 offenders), aged 30–44 (43.9% of 4,699), agricultural workers (48.4% of 3,960), with less schooling (78.6% of 4,699 < senior secondary school). Socio-economic profiles related to crime seriousness, the type of illegal activity, motivation and taxon involved. These generalizations reveal scope to tailor specific intervention and mitigation approaches to offender profiles, through public information campaigns, proactive incentives opposed by punitive disincentives, and provision of alternative incomes.
... Their collaboration thus accentuates the importance of communication and cooperation across social networks to develop solutions (Smith et al., 2019). Based on Xiang et al. (2019), our findings indicate that a messaging strategy that combines a knowledge-based message with an emotional appeal can both inform and arouse the public about the dangers associated with IWT and wildlife crimes.Importantly, recent research finds that citizenry is willing to report wildlife crimes both with and without monetary incentives(Leavitt et al., 2020). Therefore, our findings can aid in the development of messaging strategies that encourage proactive bystander behaviors. ...
Illegal wildlife trade (IWT) is an omnipresent global threat to ecological, social, and economic systems. Marketing expertise can aid in the mitigation and reduction of crime against wildlife using a variety of mechanisms. This paper focuses on how social media usage relates to the framing of conservation appeals. By studying the content of existing blogs, articles, white papers, and other online postings, we extract relevant themes and concepts. Conducting an unguided semantic analysis of our data, we analyzed messaging appeal strategies and the underlying social or informational frameworks they employ. Using literature on advertising appeal types and contrasting social/emotional with knowledge‐based/informational messaging strategies, we identified how wildlife crime prevention content employs these rhetorical framing mechanisms. Through the lens of social learning theory, our study proposes messaging strategies as a framework for understanding online content. Crimes against wildlife are creating increasingly severe ecological, economic, and social damage within international political and social communities; individuals learn from and engage with online content, therefore appropriate framing mechanisms can aid marketers in designing effective prevention appeals.
El objetivo de este trabajo es enumerar y reflexionar sobre los numerosos obstáculos que pueden disminuir la eficacia preventiva del derecho penal ambiental desde una perspectiva que considera a los potenciales infractores como sujetos que actúan según un criterio de racionalidad económica. El análisis de los factores que pueden limitar la eficacia comienza con una reflexión sobre si en nuestras sociedades de producción y consumo realmente se persigue una reducción del daño ambiental. A continuación se exponen los aspectos asociados con la redacción de la normativa penal ambiental y con su aplicación (persecución y condena de las agresiones contra el medio ambiente) que pueden incidir negativamente en este objetivo. La falta de una voluntad real en la creación de una normativa ambiental adecuada y en el control de su cumplimiento por parte de la Administración, la indeterminación de los tipos penal y la escasa severidad de las sanciones (previstas e impuestas) aparecen como los principales (que no únicos) aspectos que dificultan que el instrumental penal tenga un funcionamiento eficaz en la prevención del crimen ambiental.
Gender is an explanatory factor in multiple dimensions of conservation, including women's access to and participation in conservation programmes, with gender bias in wildlife research persisting globally. There is reason to believe the current global wildlife crime crisis is no exception , with a lack of critical examination of gendered roles in security for biodiversity conservation. Despite the emergence of high-profile all-women ranger units (e.g. Akashinga in Zimbabwe) there has been a lack of systematic integration of gender within biodiversity protection. Theoretical and methodological applications from criminology have become progressively more common in response to an increase in a wide range of environmental crimes with consequences for women and their communities. Here we consider the implications of the lack of knowledge of women's direct and indirect roles in wildlife security. We used the criminology and conservation literature to identify key gaps in research, and relevant and robust typologies and frameworks informed by criminology to structure future research on women as offenders, protectors (handlers, managers, guardians) and victims of wildlife crime. We argue that more intentional research into the direct and indirect roles of women in wildlife crime is needed to address wildlife crime, protect biodiversity and support social justice in response to wildlife crimes.
Wildlife crime is an emerging topic of study within criminology and criminal justice (CCJ). This study provides the first-ever systematic review of the state of wildlife crime research by CCJ scholars to describe and better understand how it has evolved over time and where the opportunity for expansion exists. Data gathered from a search of the Criminal Justice Abstracts database is analyzed to address ten hypotheses concerning overall trends. Findings show that quantitative studies are rare in the literature with the majority of studies being conceptual or theoretical in nature. Further, the literature is concentrated among researchers, countries, universities, and journals, and that research relies heavily on certain methods, foci, and theories.
Two experiments with 179 undergraduates investigated the impact of anonymity on bystander reactions to emergencies and on the timing of bystander decision making. The experiments differed in the nature of the emergency (violent assault vs seizure) and in the speed with which the emergency developed from relative ambiguity to unequivocal clarity concerning the victim's need for help. In both experiments, an additional bystander's awareness of the emergency and the S's anonymity were crossed in a 2 × 2 factorial design. Anonymity vis-à-vis the victim had no effects on helping. Anonymity vis-à-vis the other bystander did affect helping, apparently by reducing evaluation apprehension. Whether evaluation apprehension enhances or inhibits helping depends on the expectations attributed to other bystanders. The timing of effects suggests that when emergencies are ambiguous, anonymity (through reduced involvement) delays making the decision regarding whether help is appropriate. Once emergencies are clear, anonymity (through evaluation apprehension) influences the decision regarding one's own obligation to intervene. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
This research examines bystander willingness to report three different crimes to the police or campus authorities among a college student sample (n = 295). Twelve original vignettes varied anonymity when reporting, bystander’s relationship with the offender (friend or stranger), and crime type. A factorial analysis of variance showed that main effects were found for crime type, bystander’s gender, and bystander’s relationship with the offender; anonymity was not significant. The physical assault was the most likely to be reported (4.47), followed by theft (3.26), and sexual assault (2.36). Women were more likely than men to report each crime type, and bystanders who were good friends of the offender were less likely to report than strangers. No two- or three-way interactions were significant, but a significant four-way interaction indicated that anonymity, relationship with the offender, and bystander’s gender predicted willingness to report for the sexual assault scenario.
Reducing the rate, extent, and negative impacts associated with poaching is a priority for diverse stakeholders including conservation practitioners and, increasingly, law enforcement agencies. The purpose of this paper is to explore local stakeholders' perceptions of poaching rules, and motivations for compliance and noncompliance, using focus groups and interviews in Namibia. We found no difference between participants' perception of the ability of regulatory and normative models to explain motivations to comply with wildlife rules; however, we found differences in the ability of moral and legitimacy-based normative models to explain compliance. Participants identified a diversity of motivations to poach; a number of motivations went beyond subsistence (“cooking pot”) and economic (“pocket book”) explanations of poaching. We suggest the criminological community capitalize on opportunities to collaborate with conservationists and others on exploring the various dimensions of poaching in order to reduce risks and environmental harm by minimizing rule breaking in conservation.
This article examines the meaning and purpose of poaching from the perspectives of poachers and game wardens. Our technique was to let the responses speak for themselves, presenting the convergence of poacher and game warden in the real world, and then to offer both summarization and interpretation. This research uses data from interviews with 41 poachers and 32 game wardens. Its focus is to both describe and explain the activities of poachers. We describe the rationalizations and motivations of poachers for continuing their illegal activity. The research also considers the responses of game wardens to poachers and their activities. The article also looks at the consequences of rapid social change from the perspectives of individuals caught in that change.
The focus of this research is to both describe and explain the activities of poachers. This research is based on interviews with 36 poachers. The authors explored the reasons given by some of these men for engaging in this deviant activity. Extensive quotations from interviews with poachers are presented. Primary motivation for this subgroup seems to be the pleasure derived from both the excitement of poaching and the outsmarting of game wardens through the demonstration of superior knowledge of the terrain and hunting skills. The specific intent of the article is to show how Walter Miller's (1958) six focal concerns (i.e., trouble, excitement, smartness, toughness, fate, and autonomy) of urban, lower‐class culture parallel the value system of the poachers in this research. Socialization as a generating mechanism for deviance is discussed for further understanding of these crimes.
According to our social-role theory of gender and helping, the male gender role fosters helping that is heroic and chivalrous, whereas the female gender role fosters helping that is nurturant and caring. In social psychological studies, helping behavior has been examined in the context of short-term encounters with strangers. This focus has tended to exclude from the research literature those helping behaviors prescribed by the female gender role, because they are displayed primarily in long-term, close relationships. In contrast, the helping behaviors prescribed by the male gender role have been generously represented in research findings because they are displayed in relationships with strangers as well as in close relationships. Results from our meta-analytic review of sex differences in helping behavior indicate that in general men helped more than women and women received more help than men. Nevertheless, sex differences in helping were extremely inconsistent across studies and were successfully predicted by various attributes of the studies and the helping behaviors. These predictors were interpreted in terms of several aspects of our social-role theory of gender and helping.
The study of rural crime has the potential to make important contri- butions to crime policy, criminological theory, and research methods in criminology. Although most places in America remain rural, researchers have paid insufficient attention to rural crime and have not utilized the wide variations among rural areas as natural laboratories for research. This chapter outlines what is known about rural crime and suggests likely rural crime issues for the future. Understanding rural crime requires understanding factors that make rural life distinct from urban life, including geography and culture. Understanding rural crime and anticipating future rural crime issues also requires under- standing how technology, economic factors, and demographics shape the nature of rural crime. Official police data and victimization data are used to examine the levels of rural crime and to compare patterns of rural and urban crime. A variety of sources are used to examine substance abuse and domestic violence, two types of crime that appear to have similar rates across rural and urban areas. The chapter also focuses on the emerging issue of environmental crime in rural areas. And, despite the importance of race in urban studies of crime, little rural crime research has directly addressed links between race and crime.
Most Americans support legal hunting for food or as a population management tool, but there are strong concerns about illegal hunting activities such as poaching. Poaching may negatively impact animal populations by causing local extinctions, reducing genetic variability, reducing trophy size and hunting opportunities, and altering sex ratios and age structures. One approach to help mitigate poaching is to identify patterns of reported poaching activity and to document poaching arrests to help facilitate the efficiency of future surveillance for poachers. Our goal for this manuscript was to analyze temporal, spatial, and environmental patterns associated with poaching activity reported for white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in Fayette County, Iowa, USA, based on reports of poaching activity. We analyzed data from 67 reported poaching events from 2000 to 2009 and correlated these events with temporal, spatial, and environmental variables to determine trends in illegal hunting behavior. We found that poachers preferred to be active during the evening in mid- to late autumn (primarily Oct–Dec), on days with no precipitation and high visibility, and in areas next to roads, forests, and riparian cover types containing variable topography. We used these results to develop a spatially explicit map depicting hotspots of poaching activity. By identifying patterns of poaching behavior and spatially explicit prediction maps, conservation officers will be able to survey for poaching activity more efficiently.
Research on bystander intervention has produced a great number of studies showing that the presence of other people in a critical situation reduces the likelihood that an individual will help. As the last systematic review of bystander research was published in 1981 and was not a quantitative meta-analysis in the modern sense, the present meta-analysis updates the knowledge about the bystander effect and its potential moderators. The present work (a) integrates the bystander literature from the 1960s to 2010, (b) provides statistical tests of potential moderators, and (c) presents new theoretical and empirical perspectives on the novel finding of non-negative bystander effects in certain dangerous emergencies as well as situations where bystanders are a source of physical support for the potentially intervening individual. In a fixed effects model, data from over 7,700 participants and 105 independent effect sizes revealed an overall effect size of g = -0.35. The bystander effect was attenuated when situations were perceived as dangerous (compared with non-dangerous), perpetrators were present (compared with non-present), and the costs of intervention were physical (compared with non-physical). This pattern of findings is consistent with the arousal-cost-reward model, which proposes that dangerous emergencies are recognized faster and more clearly as real emergencies, thereby inducing higher levels of arousal and hence more helping. We also identified situations where bystanders provide welcome physical support for the potentially intervening individual and thus reduce the bystander effect, such as when the bystanders were exclusively male, when they were naive rather than passive confederates or only virtually present persons, and when the bystanders were not strangers.
COLLEGE SS OVERHEARD AN EPILEPTIC SIEZURE. THEY BELIEVED EITHER THAT THEY ALONE HEARD THE EMERGENCY, OR THAT 1 OR 4 UNSEEN OTHERS WERE ALSO PRESENT. AS PREDICTED, THE PRESENCE OF OTHER BYSTANDERS REDUCED THE INDIVIDUAL'S FEELINGS OF PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY AND LOWERED HIS SPEED OF REPORTING (P < .01). IN GROUPS OF 3, MALES REPORTED NO FASTER THAN FEMALES, AND FEMALES REPORTED NO SLOWER WHEN THE 1 OTHER BYSTANDER WAS A MALE RATHER THAN A FEMALE. IN GENERAL, PERSONALITY AND BACKGROUND MEASURES WERE NOT PREDICTIVE OF HELPING. BYSTANDER INACTION IN REAL LIFE EMERGENCIES IS OFTEN EXPLAINED BY APATHY, ALIENATION, AND ANOMIE. RESULTS SUGGEST THAT THE EXPLANATION MAY LIE IN THE BYSTANDER'S RESPONSE TO OTHER OS THAN IN HIS INDIFFERENCE TO THE VICTIM.
The purpose of this research was to explore the perceived harmfulness, wrongfulness, and seriousness of wildlife crimes, such as illegal or unlicensed hunting or fishing. Research questions included how offenses against wildlife are perceived, compared to offenses against persons and property, and how perceptions of harmfulness and wrongfulness impact perceptions of wildlife offense seriousness. A survey modeled after previous studies of crime seriousness was administered to a college student sample. The results showed that wildlife offenses were ranked as less serious, harmful, and wrong than those against persons and property, and also less than those against companion animals and animals on farms. Perceived wrongfulness and harmfulness were significant predictors of perceived seriousness of wildlife offenses, with wrongfulness being the stronger predictor. Results are contextualized within theoretical frameworks that offer insights as to why wildlife crime is not viewed as seriously as other offense types.
This article focuses on the topic of campus crime reporting, particularly students’ stated likelihood of reporting crime incidents to the college public safety department, municipal police, or a member of the library staff. The survey vignette design involves experimental manipulation of several situational variables in line with the unresponsive bystander model and subsequent scholarship, including crime type, bystander group size, and respondent anonymity in a 4 × 2 × 2 design. Undergraduate participants (n = 554) in the United States responded to 1 of 16 vignette versions occurring in the context of the campus library. This project expands the range of crime scenarios analyzed in prior research to include gun possession on a college campus. Other than bystander race, bystander characteristics remain nonsignificant. While neither anonymity nor group size are significant predictors, students assigned to the aggravated assault as well as the gun possession vignettes report substantially higher likelihood to indirectly intervene.
It is shown how, in regular parametric problems, the first-order term is removed from the asymptotic bias of maximum likelihood estimates by a suitable modification of the score function. In exponential families with canonical parameterization the effect is to penalize the likelihood by the Jeffreys invariant prior. In binomial logistic models, Poisson log linear models and certain other generalized linear models, the Jeffreys prior penalty function can be imposed in standard regression software using a scheme of iterative adjustments to the data.
Most researchers point to the death of Kitty Genovese in 1964 as the genesis of interest in studying bystander response to crime (Laner, Benin, & Ventrone, 2001; Levine, Cassidy, Brazier, & Reicher, 2002; Moriarty, 1975; Schwartz & Gottlieb, 1980). Since then, researchers have examined the role of situational variables and of victim, perpetrator, and bystander characteristics on whether or not bystander intervention occurs. In the present study, the researchers used a factorial design to determine whether the self-reported likelihood of bystander intervention and type of intervention (passive/active) varied by the location of the offense, time constraints, and bystander characteristics (e.g., height/weight, self-defense training, and life-saving training). Results suggest that gender, race, location of offense, self-defense training, and height and weight play a role in self-reported bystander behavior. An interaction between gender, location of offense, and self-defense training was also evident.
Many interventions to stem wildlife poaching have overlooked insights into human behaviour offered by the social sciences. South‐East Asia suffers the world's highest rate of wildlife declines, due mainly to poaching, yet there is little scientific attention on behaviour change, and few evaluations of the effectiveness of different approaches for stemming poaching.
We used social‐psychology principles to design a community outreach programme aimed at reducing poaching in a reserve in Thailand, and we monitored biological and social outcomes over 4‐6 years. Outreach aimed to build trust, raise awareness, motivate, offer opportunities for action, increase perceived behavioural control of villagers and generate social pressure against poaching. Behaviour change is promoted when these conditions converge.
We conducted 116 outreach events, focusing on adult farmers, children and local leaders. We assessed poaching trends using encounter rates with poaching signs and questionnaires. We monitored population status of six hunted mammal species (five ungulates and one rodent) using sign‐based occupancy surveys and camera trapping.
Poaching pressure dropped by a factor of four across the park, with multiple short‐term declines (usually to zero) immediately following outreach in seven of nine patrol zones. Park patrol effort was uncorrelated with poaching trends, contrary to expectations. Questionnaire responses ( n = 311) corresponded to empirical observations: 88% stated that poaching declined over previous years; the top reason given for this decline was park outreach.
In response to safer conditions, occupancy and abundance of five of the six focal species increased significantly or was stable in all three monitoring sites. Patrol effort was statistically unrelated to wildlife trends.
Synthesis and applications . The weight of evidence in our study points to outreach as the main driver of a biologically significant decline in poaching that initiated the recovery of hunted species within the national park. This experiment provides one of the first demonstrations that scientifically designed and proactive park outreach activities might suppress poaching and initiate wildlife recovery in South‐East Asia.
Public confidence has often been viewed as a critical indicator of legitimacy within the nonprofit sector. Indeed, confidence is believed to be among one of the sector's most important commodities. Surveys, however, have shown that the public does not always have much confidence in the performance of nonprofit organizations. Although this lack of confidence is certainly concerning, few studies have assessed whether the public actually has any awareness of what nonprofit organizations are, and no studies have examined the personal characteristics associated with more (or less) nonprofit awareness. Thus, by using individual‐level data from a survey of public attitudes toward nonprofits in San Diego County (n = 1002), the purpose of this study was to explore how individual characteristics relate to nonprofit awareness and to examine the extent to which awareness of the sector influences confidence in the performance of nonprofit organizations. The findings from the study indicate that nonprofit awareness varies by several individual‐level characteristics—with many of those likely to be the most dependent on nonprofit services being the least aware of the sector. The findings also indicate that awareness of the sector is the most significant predictor of confidence in the performance of nonprofits.
Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The purpose of this study was to examine and describe the specific techniques of neutralization that were used by deer poachers. The study consisted of two parts. In the first section, a survey instrument containing statements dealing with specific neutralizations was developed by the authors and mailed to individuals who had been cited for illegal deer possession in Colorado from 1990to 1996 (n=42).In the second part of the study, in-depth interviews were conducted with 20poachers and 5 game wardens to obtain information about neutralization techniques in greater detail. The use of neutralization techniques was common, and four techniques occurred most frequently: the denial of responsibility, the metaphor of the ledger, the defense of necessity,and the condemnation of the condemners.
In many areas of North America, illegal hunting, fishing, and gathering of renewable natural resources are occurring with alarming and increasing frequency. Resource professionals, law enforcement officers, and the general public are becoming increasingly concerned about the poaching problem, as localized populations of wildlife, fish, and plant species are threatened with extirpation, and as legitimate users—consumptive and nonconsumptive alike—are deprived of resource utilization opportunities. An important step toward developing more effective environmental education, public information, and law enforcement programs to combat poaching is to develop an understanding of why people poach. Based on a literature review and content analysis, we summarized and classified the motivations for poaching that appeared in the literature into the following typology: (1) commercial gain, (2) household consumption, (3) recreational satisfactions, (4) trophy poaching, (5) thrill killing, (6) protection of self and property, (7) poaching as rebellion, (8) poaching as a traditional right, (9) disagreement with specific regulations, and (10) gamesmanship. This typology of motivational categories can serve as a useful heuristic tool to guide future empirical studies of poaching, as well as to assist resource managers in developing effective antipoach‐ing programs.
Every fall, nearly 500,000 Steelhead Trout enter northwest Pennsylvania tributary streams attracting both the ethical angler and the poacher. Although there are certainly more ethical anglers on the streams than poachers, the latter cause a great deal of concern not only for conservation officers, but also for landowners, ethical anglers, and the general public. This article examines a specific, grassroots, crime prevention initiative called “Turn in a Poacher” (TIP) designed to identify and deter poachers, and assist conservation officer efforts to control this problem. Drawing on data generated through in-depth interviews, and secondary data sources, this article reports on poaching of trout in northwest Pennsylvania. The major findings suggest that fish poachers in northwest Pennsylvania are viewed as environmental thieves who pose a real danger to ethical anglers, property owners, conservation officers, and stream access. Given these findings, this article argues that poaching of fish can no longer remain simply a “folk crime.”
A recent addition to the U.S. crime-fighting arsenal is Crimestoppers, a program relying on anonymous citizens' informing to police—snitching—in return for cash rewards. Using a social constructionist perspective, this paper seeks to account for Crimestoppers' legitimation and rapid rise in popularity despite well-established moral opposition to snitching and snitches and despite a general public reluctance to become involved in police business. The analysis of conditions leading to this legitimation includes consideration of a general public pessimism and fear of crime, stereotypy of criminals, the instrumental and pragmatic nature of Crimestoppers, and the appeal of localism, as well as the roles of the media and the police. The paper concludes with questions about some potential long-range social psychological and sociopolitical consequences of this innovation in the “war on crime.”
This article reviews various forms of public participation in crime control and criminal justice. Areas of activity in question include public participation in the formulation of criminal justice policy, citizen crime prevention and law enforcement auxiliary activity. Participants include those acting on a commercial or non‐profit basis in addition to volunteers. The article argues that a certain degree of citizen participation is desirable, contributing to a better informed citizenry and enhancing the legitimacy of institutions of criminal justice. Beyond an optimal point, however, further citizen activity might be regarded as undesirable, and may threaten privacy, interpersonal trust, and the rights of minorities.
Transnational crime -- the illicit procurement, transportation and distribution of commodities across international borders -- is an area of increasing interest for criminologists. Most of the current research focuses on drug trafficking, human smuggling and money laundering. However, one serious type of transnational crime, the large scale exploitation and theft of natural resources, has yet to be studied by criminologists in detail. This research note reports the results of a descriptive criminological analysis of a specific kind of transnational criminality involving the theft of natural resources - the transnational illegal wildlife trade. The findings include a description of the organization and operation of the illicit wildlife market and profiles of the participants and their motivations and methods.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to identify the principal determinants associated with becoming a volunteer in crime prevention programs.
Design/methodology/approach
Data were collected from citizen surveys in a medium sized city located in the West region of USA. The data contained 574 city residents and 264 volunteers. Binomial logistic regression analytical technique was employed to examine the relative contribution of three categories of explanatory variables – demographic background, neighborhood contextual factors, and political viewpoints – on becoming a police volunteer in community crime prevention.
Findings
The primary finding suggests that gender was a significant predictor of participation in police volunteer work. With respect to cognitive factors, the character of citizen perceptions of crime problems in their neighborhoods mattered considerably. Similarly, citizens' political orientation was another important variable among cognitive factors.
Research limitations/implications
Study findings are based on surveys of citizen perceptions of police programs from a single mid‐sized city. Results cannot be generalized to all US cities.
Originality/value
This study provides police administrators and academic scholars with research‐based information on several unanswered questions associated with participation in police volunteer work.
This paper is a descriptive analysis of the main aspect of the job of game wardens, the apprehension of poachers. Based on data from interviews with 62 game wardens the author describes the actions of game wardens in attempting to enforce wildlife conservation laws. Extensive quotations from interviews with game wardens are presented. The analysis is focused around their responses to guiding questions regarding the probability of apprehension of poachers. These include: (1) poaching alone, (2) very experienced at poaching, (3) never talks about their poaching activities, (4) the use of informants, (5) remaining mobile, (6) being familiar with the geographic area in which one poaches, and (7) poaching in a large area (not relegated to hunting in a small specific area). The concept folk crime is discussed.
This paper is a descriptive analysis of the most dangerous aspect of the job of game warden: the apprehension of poachers. Based on data from interviews with 31 game wardens, the author describes the actions of game wardens in attempting to enforce wildlife conservation laws. Extensive quotes from interviews with game wardens are presented. The analysis is focused around their responses to several guiding questions regarding those characteristics that distinguish poachers in terms of probability of apprehension. These include (1) experience in poaching, (2) the number of people with whom the poacher works, (3) remaining seclusive, (4) geographic mobility, and (5) hunting in a familiar area. Additional questions were intended to facilitate the description of the law enforcement aspect of the warden's job. Comparisons between game wardens and urban police officers are made, including the dangers of the job and the use of informants.
This research updates and expands upon Decker’s article “Citizen attitudes toward the police: a review of past findings and suggestions for future policy” by summarizing the findings from more than 100 articles on perceptions of and attitudes toward the police. Initially, the value of research on attitudes toward the police is discussed. Then the research pertaining to the impact of individual level variables (e.g. race) and contextual level variables (e.g. neighborhood) on perceptions of the police is reviewed. Studies of juveniles’ attitudes toward the police, perceptions of police policies and practices, methodological issues and conceptual issues are also discussed. This review of the literature indicates that only four variables (age, contact with police, neighborhood, and race) have consistently been proven to affect attitudes toward the police. However, there are interactive effects between these and other variables which are not yet understood; a finding which indicates that theoretical generalizations about attitudes toward police should be made with caution.
Vignettes refer to stimuli, including text and images, which research participants are invited to respond. Drawing on a range of social science sources, this paper focuses on two substantive areas concerning the use of vignettes in research. Considered first is the development and construction of vignettes. This section is concerned with internal reliability; research topics; participants; and interest, relevance, realism and timing. Considered second are vignette interpretations and responses, in particular open and closed questioning; vignette perspectives; and difficulties with interpreting and responding to vignettes. Together these explorations contribute to the wider appreciation of vignette methodologies used within the social sciences. The paper concludes by outlining the limitations of using vignettes in social research.
Anticipated heavy timber cutting during the next 10 years will profoundly modify wildlife habitats either for good or ill. Wildlife experts are challenged with the opportunity to influence this operation for the good of wildlife. To do so they will need accurate information on wildlife values and to whom they accrue, and must launch a gigantic educational program to create in the public mind a desire to see these values preserved and enhanced.
State conservation officers are law-enforcement agents responsible for enforcing fish and wildlife laws. An important aspect of their job is the identification and apprehension of poachers. This descriptive study sought to identify, from the perspective of conservation officers, the most elusive poachers. In order to elucidate the vagaries surrounding this type of illegal activity, Kentucky state conservation officers were asked to identify the most difficult type of poacher to apprehend, and a categorization of elusive poachers was created based on their responses. Categories included the back door hunter/poacher, the experienced/habitual poacher, the opportunist poacher, the trophy poacher, the poacher who mixes up his schedule, and the quiet one.
A field experiment was conducted to study bystander reporting of a crime. The study investigated two primary dimensions upon which most programs which encourage reporting, namely, monetary reward and anonymity. Conditions of anonymity and reward were unobtrusively varied during a bogus interview conducted with shoppers before they entered a supermarket. Neither of these variables affected the reporting of a staged shoplifting. However, preincident behavioral intention to report was significantly correlated with reporting behavior. The findings are discussed with respect to research on intrinsic motivation and deindividuation.
Most studies examining bystanders' reactions to a violent attack have used an experimental or hypothetical situation involving a single victim. This study compares the intention to intervene on behalf of three hypothetical victims: a woman, a child, and a dog. Using a sample of over 700 college students, we found that there was not a signicant difference in intention to intervene by type of victim. However, there was a signicant interaction between the sex of the bystander and the type of victim, such that women are most likely to intervene on behalf of children, while men are most likely to intervene to aid a woman. We found that people who perceived themselves to be stronger, more aggressive, and more sympathetic than others are most likely to intend to intervene.
The purpose of this paper is to illustrate and explain the role bystanders play in crime control. We describe the range of bystanders' reactions to crime including nonintervention, indirect intervention, direct intervention, and spontaneous vigilantism, and cite illustrations of each from mass media accounts. Using evidence from social psychological research, we discuss conditions under which each type of reaction would be expected to occur. Evidence is then presented that the mere presence of bystanders capable of surveillance may inhibit the commission of crime. A cyclical model is then discussed in which fear of crime reduces the number of bystanders available for surveillance, decreasing the risks of crime and potentially increasing its occurrence. This model suggests that under certain circumstances crime causes crime and implies that an important factor in the social control of crime is the relative balance between the offender's fear of surveillance and the bystander's fear of crime.
Environmental and wildlife crime appear recently to be benefitting from an increasing profile amongst those agencies tasked
with their control, as well as receiving growing criminological attention. Despite this, those with responsibilities in this
area report that it remains marginalised, receiving limited resources and suffering from a lack of political impetus to push
such problems higher up the agenda. This is particularly so for those agencies, such as the police, that may be seen to have
many more pressing objectives. This discussion paper considers the problems of relying on an enforcement approach to controlling
such offences, taking, as an example, those activities that may be termed ‘wildlife crime’, focusing on the situation in England
and Wales. Firstly, the legislative framework that criminalises harm or exploitation of wildlife is presented, alongside the
main enforcement methods used. Next, the problems facing an enforcement approach are critically considered, the key issues
being: under-resourcing and marginalisation, the large ‘dark-figure’ of wildlife crime, the possibility of corruption, the
lack of seriousness with which such crimes are viewed, and the lack of deterrent effect. Finally, responses to the problems
of enforcement are presented, categorised as either methods to improve enforcement or, as the author advocates, methods which
are alternatives to enforcement (such as adopting a crime prevention approach). The paper concludes with suggestions for future
research in this field.
KeywordsCrime prevention–Deterrence–Enforcement–Environmental crime–Wildlife crime
“Crime Stoppers” has emerged as one of the most rapidly expanding and highly visible crime control strategies in the Western world, yet research on this program is extremely limited. This article reports some of the major findings of a national evaluation funded by the National Institute of Justice. The evaluation adopted a variety of strategies and methodologies, including national surveys of media executives and Crime Stoppers program coordinators, case studies to understand program processes and effects, and a randomized experiment to examine the effects of varying reward sizes on callers' perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors. Crime Stoppers is a very popular program that features the mass media in a pivotal and uniquely cooperative role with law enforcement and the community. Despite some impressive program statistics on felony arrests, convictions, and recovery of property and drugs, the impact of these interventions on community crime levels remains unknown. Furthermore, Crime Stoppers has been criticized by journalists, civil libertarians, and members of the legal profession for offering cash rewards and anonymity to encourage more citizen participation in the criminal justice system.
The bystander approach to rape prevention is gaining popularity on college campuses, although research is limited. This study explored bystander attitudes and their relationship with rape myths in a sample of college students.
Surveys from 2,338 incoming undergraduate students at a large, northeastern university were analyzed.
Participants completed revised versions of the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale and the Bystander Attitude Scale.
A higher acceptance of rape myths was reported by males, those pledging a fraternity/sorority, athletes, those without previous rape education, and those who did not know someone sexually assaulted. A greater willingness to intervene as a bystander was reported by females, those who had previous rape education, and those who knew someone sexually assaulted. Acceptance of rape myths was negatively related to willingness to intervene.
Bystander intervention programs should include content on rape myths as well as focus on the role of gender.
We study rare events data, binary dependent variables with dozens to thousands of times fewer ones (events, such as wars,
vetoes, cases of political activism, or epidemiological infections) than zeros (“nonevents”). In many literatures, these variables
have proven difficult to explain and predict, a problem that seems to have at least two sources. First, popular statistical
procedures, such as logistic regression, can sharply underestimate the probability of rare events. We recommend corrections
that outperform existing methods and change the estimates of absolute and relative risks by as much as some estimated effects
reported in the literature. Second, commonly used data collection strategies are grossly inefficient for rare events data.
The fear of collecting data with too few events has led to data collections with huge numbers of observations but relatively
few, and poorly measured, explanatory variables, such as in international conflict data with more than a quarter-million dyads,
only a few of which are at war. As it turns out, more efficient sampling designs exist for making valid inferences, such as
sampling all available events (e.g., wars) and a tiny fraction of nonevents (peace). This enables scholars to save as much
as 99% of their (nonfixed) data collection costs or to collect much more meaningful explanatory variables. We provide methods
that link these two results, enabling both types of corrections to work simultaneously, and software that implements the methods
developed.
California Department of Fish and Wildlife
- Melissa Miller-Henson
Brglm: Bias Reduction in Binomial-response Generalized Linear Models
- Ioannis Kosmidis
Tip-Mont Poaching FAQ
- Montana Fish
- Wildlife
- N Parks
About the Department
- Philadelphia Police Department
Judging the Effectiveness of Anti-poaching Hotlines
- Green
- K Egan
Examining the Responses of Game Wardens to Types of Poachers
- Craig J Forsyth
- A York
- Forsyth
Ordinary Folk Transformed: Poachers’ Accounts of Cultural Contests and History
- York A Forsyth
- Craig J Forsyth
The Status of Poaching in the United States-Are We Protecting Our Wildlife?
- Ruth S Musgrave
- Sara Parker
- Miriam Wolok