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International Journal of
Environmental Research
and Public Health
Article
Immediate Psychological Responses and Associated
Factors during the Initial Stage of the 2019
Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Epidemic among
the General Population in China
Cuiyan Wang 1, Riyu Pan 1, Xiaoyang Wan 1, Yilin Tan 1, Linkang Xu 1, Cyrus S. Ho 2,3 and
Roger C. Ho 1,3,4,*
1Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Education, Huaibei Normal University,
Huaibei 235000, China; wcy@chnu.edu.cn (C.W.); riyu0402@chnu.edu.cn (R.P.); wming624@sina.com (X.W.);
977367tan@sina.com (Y.T.); lgb@chnu.edu.cn (L.X.)
2Department of Psychological Medicine, National University Health System, Kent Ridge 119228, Singapore;
su_hui_ho@nuhs.edu.sg
3
Department of Psychological Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore,
Kent Ridge 119228, Singapore
4Institute of Health Innovation and Technology (iHealthtech), National University of Singapore,
Kent Ridge 119077, Singapore
*Correspondence: pcmrhcm@nus.edu.sg
Received: 14 February 2020; Accepted: 3 March 2020; Published: 6 March 2020
Abstract:
Background: The 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) epidemic is a public health emergency
of international concern and poses a challenge to psychological resilience. Research data are needed
to develop evidence-driven strategies to reduce adverse psychological impacts and psychiatric
symptoms during the epidemic. The aim of this study was to survey the general public in China
to better understand their levels of psychological impact, anxiety, depression, and stress during the
initial stage of the COVID-19 outbreak. The data will be used for future reference. Methods: From
31 January to 2 February 2020, we conducted an online survey using snowball sampling techniques.
The online survey collected information on demographic data, physical symptoms in the past 14 days,
contact history with COVID-19, knowledge and concerns about COVID-19, precautionary measures
against COVID-19, and additional information required with respect to COVID-19. Psychological
impact was assessed by the Impact of Event Scale-Revised (IES-R), and mental health status was
assessed by the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21). Results: This study included 1210
respondents from 194 cities in China. In total, 53.8% of respondents rated the psychological impact of
the outbreak as moderate or severe; 16.5% reported moderate to severe depressive symptoms; 28.8%
reported moderate to severe anxiety symptoms; and 8.1% reported moderate to severe stress levels.
Most respondents spent 20–24 h per day at home (84.7%); were worried about their family members
contracting COVID-19 (75.2%); and were satisfied with the amount of health information available
(75.1%). Female gender, student status, specific physical symptoms (e.g., myalgia, dizziness, coryza),
and poor self-rated health status were significantly associated with a greater psychological impact of
the outbreak and higher levels of stress, anxiety, and depression (p<0.05). Specific up-to-date and
accurate health information (e.g., treatment, local outbreak situation) and particular precautionary
measures (e.g., hand hygiene, wearing a mask) were associated with a lower psychological impact
of the outbreak and lower levels of stress, anxiety, and depression (p<0.05). Conclusions: During
the initial phase of the COVID-19 outbreak in China, more than half of the respondents rated the
psychological impact as moderate-to-severe, and about one-third reported moderate-to-severe anxiety.
Our findings identify factors associated with a lower level of psychological impact and better mental
health status that can be used to formulate psychological interventions to improve the mental health
of vulnerable groups during the COVID-19 epidemic.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020,17, 1729; doi:10.3390/ijerph17051729 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020,17, 1729 2 of 25
Keywords:
anxiety; coronavirus; depression; epidemic; knowledge; precaution; psychological impact;
respiratory symptoms; stress
1. Introduction
The 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) epidemic in China is a global health threat [
1
], and is by
far the largest outbreak of atypical pneumonia since the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)
outbreak in 2003. Within weeks of the initial outbreak the total number of cases and deaths exceeded
those of SARS [
2
]. The outbreak was first revealed in late December 2019 when clusters of pneumonia
cases of unknown etiology were found to be associated with epidemiologically linked exposure to
a seafood market and untraced exposures in the city of Wuhan of Hubei Province [
3
]. Since then,
the number of cases has continued to escalate exponentially within and beyond Wuhan, spreading to
all 34 regions of China by 30 January 2020. On the same day, the World Health Organization (WHO)
declared the COVID-19 outbreak a public health emergency of international concern [4].
COVID-19, similarly to SARS, is a beta-coronavirus that can be spread to humans through
intermediate hosts such as bats [
5
], though the actual route of transmission is still debatable.
Human-to-human transmission has been observed via virus-laden respiratory droplets, as a growing
number of patients reportedly did not have animal market exposure, and cases have also occurred in
healthcare workers [
6
]. Transmissibility of COVID-19 as indicated by its reproductive number has been
estimated at 4.08 [
7
], suggesting that on average, every case of COVID-19 will create up to 4 new cases.
The reporting rate after 17 January 2020 has been considered to have increased 21-fold in comparison
to the situation in the first half of January 2020 [
8
]. The average incubation period is estimated to
be 5.2 days, with significant variation among patients [
9
], and it may be capable of asymptomatic
spread [
10
,
11
]. Symptoms of infection include fever, chills, cough, coryza, sore throat, breathing
difficulty, myalgia, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea [
12
]. Older men with medical comorbidities are
more likely to get infected, with worse outcomes [
12
]. Severe cases can lead to cardiac injury, respiratory
failure, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and death [
13
]. The provisional case fatality rate by WHO
is around 2%, but some researchers estimate the rate to range from 0.3% to 0.6% [14].
Since the outbreak, response efforts by the China government have been swift, and three weeks
into the epidemic, in an unprecedented move to retard the spread of the virus, a lockdown was
imposed on Wuhan on 23 January, with travel restrictions. Within days, the quarantine was extended
to additional provinces and cities, affecting more than 50 million people in total. Many stayed at
home and socially isolated themselves to prevent being infected, leading to a “desperate plea” [
15
].
There have also been accounts of shortages of masks and health equipment. The ongoing COVID-19
epidemic is inducing fear, and a timely understanding of mental health status is urgently needed for
society [
16
]. Previous research has revealed a profound and wide range of psychosocial impacts on
people at the individual, community, and international levels during outbreaks of infection. On an
individual level, people are likely to experience fear of falling sick or dying themselves, feelings of
helplessness, and stigma [
17
]. During one influenza outbreak, around 10% to 30% of general public
were very or fairly worried about the possibility of contracting the virus [
18
]. With the closure of
schools and business, negative emotions experienced by individuals are compounded [
19
]. During the
SARS outbreak, many studies investigated the psychological impact on the non-infected community,
revealing significant psychiatric morbidities which were found to be associated with younger age and
increased self-blame [
20
]. Those who were older, of female gender, more highly educated, with higher
risk perceptions of SARS, a moderate anxiety level, a positive contact history, and those with SARS-like
symptoms were more likely to take precautionary measures against the infection [21].
Currently, there is no known information on the psychological impact and mental health of
the general public during the peak of the COVID-19 epidemic. This is especially pertinent with the
uncertainty surrounding an outbreak of such unparalleled magnitude. Based on our understanding,
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020,17, 1729 3 of 25
most of the research related to this outbreak focuses on identifying the epidemiology and clinical
characteristics of infected patients [
6
,
12
], the genomic characterization of the virus [
22
], and challenges
for global health governance [
23
]. However, there are no research articles examining the psychological
impact on COVID-19 on the general population in China.
Therefore, this present study represents the first psychological impact and mental health survey
conducted in the general population in China within the first two weeks of the COVID-19 outbreak.
This study aims to establish the prevalence of psychiatric symptoms and identify risk and protective
factors contributing to psychological stress. This may assist government agencies and healthcare
professionals in safeguarding the psychological wellbeing of the community in the face of COVID-19
outbreak expansion in China and different parts of the world.
2. Methods
2.1. Setting and Participants
We adopted a cross-sectional survey design to assess the public’s immediate psychological
response during the epidemic of COVID-19 by using an anonymous online questionnaire. A snowball
sampling strategy, focused on recruiting the general public living in mainland China during the
epidemic of COVID-19, was utilized. The online survey was first disseminated to university students
and they were encouraged to pass it on to others.
2.2. Procedure
As the Chinese Government recommended the public to minimize face-to-face interaction and
isolate themselves at home, potential respondents were electronically invited by existing study
respondents. They completed the questionnaires in Chinese through an online survey platform
(‘SurveyStar’, Changsha Ranxing Science and Technology, Shanghai, China). Expedited ethics
approval was obtained from the Institutional Review Board of the Huaibei Normal University
(HBU-IRB-2020-001), which conformed to the principles embodied in the Declaration of Helsinki.
Information about this study was posted on a dedicated university website. All respondents provided
informed consent. Data collection took place over three days (31 January–2 February 2020) after the
WHO declared the COVID-19 outbreak as a public health emergency of international concern.
2.3. Survey Development
Previous surveys on the psychological impacts of SARS and influenza outbreaks were
reviewed
[18,21,24]
. Authors included additional questions related to the COVID-19 outbreak.
The structured questionnaire consisted of questions that covered several areas: (1) demographic data;
(2) physical symptoms in the past 14 days; (3) contact history with COVID-19 in the past 14 days;
(4) knowledge and concerns about COVID-19; (5) precautionary measures against COVID-19 in the
past 14 days; (6) additional information required with respect to COVID-19; (7) the psychological
impact of the COVID-19 outbreak; and (8) mental health status.
Sociodemographic data were collected on gender, age, education, residential location in the past
14 days, marital status, employment status, monthly income, parental status, and household size.
Physical symptom variables in the past 14 days included fever, chills, headache, myalgia, cough,
difficulty in breathing, dizziness, coryza, sore throat, and persistent fever, as well as persistent fever
and cough or difficulty breathing. Respondents were asked to rate their physical health status and
state any history of chronic medical illness. Health service utilization variables in the past 14 days
included consultation with a doctor in the clinic, admission to the hospital, being quarantined by a
health authority, and being tested for COVID-19. Contact history variables included close contact
with an individual with confirmed COVID-19, indirect contact with an individual with confirmed
COVID-19, and contact with an individual with suspected COVID-19 or infected materials.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020,17, 1729 4 of 25
Knowledge about COVID-19 variables included knowledge about the routes of transmission,
level of confidence in diagnosis, level of satisfaction of health information about COVID-19, the trend
of new cases and death, and potential treatment for COVID-19 infection. Respondents were asked to
indicate their source of information. The actual number of confirmed cases of COVID-19 and deaths in
the city on the day of the survey were collected. Concern about COVID-19 variables included self and
other family members contracting COVID-19 and the chance of surviving if infected.
Precautionary measures against COVID-19 variables included avoidance of sharing of utensils
(e.g., chopsticks) during meals, covering mouth when coughing and sneezing, washing hands with
soap, washing hands immediately after coughing, sneezing, or rubbing the nose, washing hands after
touching contaminated objects, and wearing a mask regardless of the presence or absence of symptoms.
The respondents were asked the average number of hours staying at home per day to avoid COVID-19.
Respondents were also asked whether they felt too much -unnecessary worry had been made about the
COVID-19 epidemic. Additional health information about COVID-19 needed by respondents included
more information about symptoms after contraction of COVID-19, routes of transmission, treatment,
prevention of the spread of COVID-19, local outbreaks, travel advice, and other measures imposed by
other countries.
The psychological impact of COVID-19 was measured using the Impact of Event Scale-Revised
(IES-R). The IES-R is a self-administered questionnaire that has been well-validated in the Chinese
population for determining the extent of psychological impact after exposure to a public health crisis
within one week of exposure [
25
]. This 22-item questionnaire is composed of three subscales and aims
to measure the mean avoidance, intrusion, and hyperarousal [
26
]. The total IES-R score was divided
into 0–23 (normal), 24–32 (mild psychological impact), 33–36 (moderate psychological impact), and >37
(severe psychological impact) [27].
Mental health status was measured using the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21)
and calculations of scores were based on the previous study [
28
]. Questions 3, 5, 10, 13, 16, 17 and
21formed the depression subscale. The total depression subscale score was divided into normal
(0–9), mild depression (10–12), moderate depression (13–20), severe depression (21–27), and extremely
severe depression (28–42). Questions 2, 4, 7, 9, 15, 19, and 20 formed the anxiety subscale. The total
anxiety subscale score was divided into normal (0–6), mild anxiety (7–9), moderate anxiety (10–14),
severe anxiety (15–19), and extremely severe anxiety (20–42). Questions 1, 6, 8, 11, 12, 14, and 18
formed the stress subscale. The total stress subscale score was divided into normal (0–10), mild stress
(11–18), moderate stress (19–26), severe stress (27–34), and extremely severe stress (35–42). The DASS
has been demonstrated to be a reliable and valid measure in assessing mental health in the Chinese
population [29,30]. The DASS was previously used in research related to SARS [31].
2.4. Statistical Analysis
Descriptive statistics were calculated for sociodemographic characteristics, physical symptoms and
health service utilization variables, contact history variables, knowledge and concern-related variables,
precautionary measure variables, and additional health information variables. Percentages of response
were calculated according to the number of respondents per response with respect to the number of
total responses of a question. The scores of the IES-R and DASS subscales were expressed as mean
and standard deviation. We used linear regressions to calculate the univariate associations between
sociodemographic characteristics, physical symptom and health service utilization variables, contact
history variables, knowledge and concern variables, precautionary measure variables, additional
health information variables, and the IES-S score as well as the subscales of the DASS. All tests were
two-tailed, with a significance level of p<0.05. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS Statistic
21.0 (IBM SPSS Statistics, New York, United States).
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020,17, 1729 5 of 25
3. Results
3.1. Development of the COVID-19 Epidemic from January 7 to February 2 2020
Figure 1shows the development trend of the COVID-19 epidemic in China in January and
February 2020. Since China first announced the national epidemic data on 20 January 2020, the number
of confirmed cases, suspected cases, recovered individuals, and deaths related to COVID-19 infection
have continued to escalate, with a sharp increase in the number of suspected cases after 26 January
2020. Both children and the elderly have been particularly vulnerable to the virus, with the youngest
confirmed case being that of a 9-month-old infant.
3.2. Survey Respondents
We received responses from 1304 respondents, and 102 respondents did not complete the
questionnaires. Eventually, we included 1210 respondents from 194 cities in China who had completed
the questionnaires (completion rate: 92.79%). Overall, 1120 respondents submitted the questionnaires
on the first day (31 January), 86 respondents submitted the questionnaires on the second day (1 February),
and only 4 respondents submitted the questionnaires on the third day (2 February).
The psychological impact of COVID-19 outbreak, measured using the IES-R scale, revealed a
sample mean score of 32.98 (SD =15.42). Of all respondents, 296 (24.5%) reported minimal psychological
impact (score
<
23); 263 (21.7%) rated mild psychological impact (scores 24–32); and 651 (53.8%) reported
a moderate or severe psychological impact (score >33). Respondents’ depression, anxiety and stress
levels, measured using the DASS 21-item scale, revealed a sample mean score of 20.16 (SD =20.42). For
the depression subscale, 843 (69.7%) were considered to have a normal score (score: 0–9); 167 (13.8%)
were considered to suffer from mild depression (score: 10–12); 148 (12.2%) were considered to suffer
from moderate depression (score: 13–20); and 52 (4.3%) were considered to suffer from severe and
extremely severe depression (score: 21–42). For the anxiety subscale, 770 (63.6%) were considered to
have a normal score (score: 0–6); 91 (7.5%) were considered to suffer from mild anxiety (score: 7–9); 247
(20.4%) were considered to suffer from moderate anxiety (score: 10–14); and 102 (8.4%) were considered
to suffer from severe and extremely severe anxiety (score: 15–42). For the stress subscale, 821 (67.9%)
were considered to have a normal score (score: 0–10); 292 (24.1%) were considered to suffer from mild
stress (score: 11–18); 66 (5.5%) were considered to suffer from moderate stress (score: 19–26); and 31
(2.6%) were considered to suffer from severe and extremely severe stress (score: 27–42).
3.3. Sociodemographic Variables and Psychological Impact
Sociodemographic characteristics are presented in Table 1. The majority of respondents were
women (67.3%), aged 21.4 to 30.8 years (53.1%), married (76.4%), with a household size of 3–5 people
(80.7%), with children (67.4%), students (52.8%), and well educated (87.9%
≥
bachelor’s degree).
Male gender was significantly associated with lower scores in the IES-R (B =
−
0.20, 95% Confidence
Interval (95% CI)
−
0.35 to
−
0.05) but higher scores in the DASS stress subscale (B =0.10, 95% CI:
0.02 to 0.19), DASS anxiety subscale (B =0.19 95% CI: 0.05 to 0.33), and DASS depression subscale
(B =0.12, 95% CI: 0.01 to 0.23). Student status was significantly associated with higher IES-R (B =0.20,
95% CI: 0.05 to 0.35), DASS stress subscale (B =0.11, 95% CI: 0.02 to 0.19), and DASS anxiety subscale
(B =0.16, 95% CI: 0.02 to 0.30) scores as compared to those who were employed. Uneducated status
was significantly associated with higher DASS depression subscale scores (B =1.81, 95% CI: 0.46 to
3.16). Other sociodemographic variables including age, parental status, marital status, and household
size were not associated with IES-R and DASS subscale scores.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020,17, 1729 6 of 25
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, x 6 of 27
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, x; doi: www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
Figure 1. National epidemic trend of the 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak in China from 7 January to 2 February 2020.
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
2020.1.7 1.21 1.23 1.25 1.27 1.29 1.31 2.2
Recruitment period:
31 Jan-2 Feb 2020
Confirmed cases
Suspected cases
Recovered cases
Deaths
Preliminary identification of
a new coronavirus
The WHO named the virus
as 2novel coronavirus
First
report of
human to
human
trans-
mission
First confirmed
paediatric case First death
related to
COVID-19
announced
Closue of
Wuhan
Level 1 response
across China
The WHO listed COVID-19
as a public health emergency
of international concern
Figure 1. National epidemic trend of the 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak in China from 7 January to 2 February 2020.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020,17, 1729 7 of 25
Table 1.
Association between demographic variables and the psychological impact of the 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak as well as adverse mental
health status during the epidemic (n=1210).
Variables N(%)
Impact of event Stress Anxiety Depression
R-Squared
(R2)
Adjusted
R-Squared
(AR2)
Beta (95%
Confidence
Interval) B
(95% CI)
R2AR2B (95%CI) R2AR2B (95% CI) R2AR2B (95% CI)
Gender
Male
396 (32.7)
0.005 0.005
−0.20 *
(−0.35 to −0.05) 0.004 0.004
0.10 *
(0.02 to 0.19) 0.006 0.005 0.19 ** (0.05 to 0.33) 0.004 0.003
0.12 * (0.01 to 0.23)
Female
814 (67.3)
Reference Reference Reference Reference
Age (Years)
(12–21.4)
344 (28.4)
0.009 0.006
0.21
(−0.20 to 0.62)
0.011 0.007
0.08
(−0.16 to 0.32)
0.007 0.004
0.10 (−0.28 to 0.48)
0.013 0.009
0.06 (
−
0.25 to 0.37)
(21.4–30.8)
643 (53.1)
0.09
(−0.31 to 0.50)
0.12
(−0.12 to 0.36) 0.07 (−0.31 to 0.44)
0.18 (
−
0.12 to 0.47)
(30.8–40.2) 94 (7.8) −0.17
(−0.64 to 0.29)
−0.07
(−0.35 to 0.20) −0.16 (−0.59 to 0.27) −0.06
(−0.41 to 0.28)
(40.2–49.6) 90 (7.4) −0.16
(−0.63 to 0.30)
−0.12
(−0.39 to 0.16) −0.23 (−0.67 to 0.20) −0.16
(−0.51 to 0.19)
(49.6–59) 39 (3.2) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Status as a parent
Has a child 16 years
or under
234 (19.3)
0.001 <0.001
0.04
(−0.16 to 0.25) 0.002 <0.001 −0.02
(−0.14 to 0.10) 0.003 0.001 0.08 (−0.11 to 0.27) 0.002 0.001
0.05 (
−
0.10 to 0.20)
Has a child older
than 16 years
581 (48.1)
−0.06
(−0.22 to 0.10)
−0.07
(−0.17 to 0.02) −0.08 (−0.23 to 0.07) −0.06
(−0.18 to 0.06)
No children
395 (32.6)
Reference Reference Reference Reference
Marital status
Single
273 (22.6)
0.002 −0.001
−0.04
(−1.46 to 1.38)
0.003 0.001
0.02
(−0.81 to 0.86)
0.003 <0.001
0.71 (−0.61 to 2.03)
0.003 <0.001
0.45 (
−
0.60 to 1.51)
Married
925 (76.4)
0.09
(−1.33 to 1.50)
0.12
(−0.71 to 0.96) 0.80 (−0.51 to 2.12)
0.56 (
−
0.50 to 1.61)
Divorced/separated 9 (0.7) 0.11
(−1.52 to 1.74)
<0.001
(−0.96 to 0.96) 0.44 (−1.07 to 1.96)
0.44 (
−
0.77 to 1.66)
Widowed 3 (0.2) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Household size
Six people or more
171 (14.1)
0.002 <0.001
0.38
(−0.39 to 1.14)
0.002 <0.001
−0.23
(−0.68 to 0.22)
<0.001 −0.002
−0.17 (−0.87 to 0.54)
0.002 <0.001
−0.19
(−0.76 to 0.38)
Three to five people
976 (80.7)
0.25
(−0.49 to 0.99)
−0.20
(−0.63 to 0.24) −0.12 (−0.81 to 0.57) −0.09
(−0.64 to 0.47)
Two people 52 (4.3) 0.41
(−0.40 to 1.22)
−0.33
(−0.81 to 0.15) −0.18 (−0.93 to 0.58) −0.21
(−0.82 to 0.39)
One person 11 (0.9) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020,17, 1729 8 of 25
Table 1. Cont.
Variables N(%)
Impact of event Stress Anxiety Depression
R-Squared
(R2)
Adjusted
R-Squared
(AR2)
Beta (95%
Confidence
Interval) B
(95% CI)
R2AR2B (95%CI) R2AR2B (95% CI) R2AR2B (95% CI)
Employment status
Unemployed 67 (5.5)
0.009 0.006
0.13
(−0.19 to 0.45)
0.007 0.004
0.12
(−0.07 to 0.31)
0.007 0.003
0.21 (−0.09 to 0.51)
0.005 0.001
0.16 (
−
0.08 to 0.40)
Farmers 24 (2) −0.08
(−0.59 to 0.43)
0.003
(−0.30 to 0.30) 0.07 (−0.41 to 0.54) −0.07
(−0.45 to 0.31)
Retired 7 (0.6) −0.76
(−1.69 to 0.17)
−0.37
(−0.92 to 0.18) −0.54 (−1.41 to 0.32) −0.48
(−1.18 to 0.21)
Student
639 (52.8)
0.20 *
(0.05 to 0.35)
0.11 *
(0.02 to 0.19) 0.16 * (0.02 to 0.30) 0.08 *
(−0.03 to 0.19)
Employed
473 (39.1)
Reference Reference Reference Reference
Educational
attainment
None 2 (0.2)
0.008 0.003
−0.07
(−1.88 to 1.74)
0.004 −0.001
0.76
(−0.30 to 1.83)
0.004 −0.001
1.02 (−0.66 to 2.71)
0.008 0.003
1.81 **
(0.46 to 3.16)
Primary school 8 (0.7) −1.07
*(−2.09 to −0.06)
−0.11
(−0.71 to 0.49) −0.10 (−1.05 to 0.84) −0.07
(−0.82 to 0.69)
Lower secondary
school 55 (4.5) 0.21
(−0.42 to 0.84)
0.20
(−0.17 to 0.57) 0.38 (−0.21 to 0.96)
0.41 (
−
0.06 to 0.88)
Upper secondary
school 81 (6.7) 0.01
(−0.59 to 0.61)
0.16
(−0.20 to 0.51) 0.36 (−0.19 to 0.92)
0.34 (
−
0.11 to 0.79)
University—Bachelors
805 (66.5)
0.19
(−0.35 to 0.73)
0.21
(−0.11 to 0.53) 0.32 (−0.18 to 0.82)
0.35 (
−
0.05 to 0.75)
University—Masters
238 (19.7)
0.14
(−0.42 to 0.69)
0.18
(−0.15 to 0.51) 0.24 (−0.28 to 0.76)
0.33 (
−
0.09 to 0.74)
University—Doctorate
21 (1.7) Reference Reference Reference Reference
*p<0.05; ** p<0.01.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020,17, 1729 9 of 25
3.4. Symptoms and Psychological Impact
For physical symptoms, Table 2shows that 0.5% of the sample reported a fever of 38
◦
C for
at least one day within the previous two weeks. Some respondents reported a range of physical
symptoms, most frequently coryza (16.9%), cough (13.9%), sore throat (11.5%), headache (9.7%),
myalgia (7.9%), dizziness (7.3%), chills (3.5%), fever (0.5%), and breathing difficulty (0.4%). Around
0.3% of respondents reported a dyad of symptoms such as fever with cough or fever with breathing
difficulty. Overall, 793 respondents reported no symptoms (60.81%); 182 respondents reported one
symptom (15.04%); 114 respondents reported two symptoms (9.42%); and 68 respondents reported
three symptoms (5.62%). Linear regression showed that chills, myalgia, cough, dizziness, coryza,
and sore throat were significantly associated with higher IES-R, DASS stress subscale, DASS anxiety
subscale, and DASS depression subscale scores, while breathing difficulty was associated with only
DASS anxiety and depression subscale scores. In contrast, the presence of a dyad of symptoms such as
fever with cough or breathing difficulty was not associated with IES-R, DASS stress subscale, DASS
anxiety subscale, and DASS depression subscale scores.
3.5. Health Status and Psychological Impact
In the prior two weeks, 3.5% of respondents had consulted a doctor in the clinic; 0.3% had been
admitted to the hospital; 0.9% had been tested for COVID-19; 2.1% had been under quarantine by a
health authority; and 68.3% reported good or very good health status. Around 93.6% of respondents did
not suffer from any chronic illness, and 92.4% were covered by medical insurance. Clinic consultations
(B =0.38, 95% CI: 0.02 to 0.73) and hospitalizations (B =1.23, 95 % CI: 0.09 to 2.36) were significantly
associated with higher DASS anxiety subscale score. Poor or very poor self-rated health status was
significantly associated with a greater psychological impact of the outbreak (B =0.76, 95% CI: 0.02 to
1.49), and higher DASS stress subscale (B =0.45, 95% CI: 0.02 to 0.88), DASS anxiety subscale (B =0.90,
95% CI: 0.22 to 1.58), and DASS depression subscale (B =0.65, 95% CI: 0.10 to 1.20) scores as compared
to those with very good or good self-rated health status. History of chronic illness was significantly
associated with higher IES-R, DASS stress subscale, DASS anxiety subscale, and DASS depression
subscale scores.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020,17, 1729 10 of 25
Table 2.
Association between physical health status in the past 14 days and the psychological impact of the 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak as well as
adverse mental health status during the epidemic (n=1210).
Variable n(%) Impact of Event Stress Anxiety Depression
R2AR2B (95% CI) R2AR2B (95% CI) R2AR2 B (95% CI) R2AR2 B (95% CI)
Persistent fever (>38◦C
for at least 1 day)
Yes 6 (0.5) <0.001 −0.001 −0.23 (−1.23 to 0.78) 0.001 0.001 0.40 (−0.19 to 0.99) 0.006 0.005 1.23 * (0.30 to 2.15) 0.005 0.005 0.98 * (0.23 to 1.72)
No 1204 (99.5) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Chills
Yes 42 (3.5) 0.005 0.004 0.46 * (0.08 to 0.84) 0.012 0.011 0.44 *** (0.22 to 0.67) 0.009 0.008 0.60 **(0.24 to 0.96) 0.007 0.006 0.41 **(0.13 to 0.70)
No 1168 (96.5) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Headache
Yes 117 (9.7) 0.008 0.007 0.37 ** (0.13 to 0.61) 0.002 0.001 0.12 (−0.02 to 0.26) 0.008 0.008 0.36 ** (0.14 to 0.58) 0.005 0.004 0.23 * (0.05 to 0.40)
No 1093 (90.3) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Myalgia
Yes 95 (7.9) 0.019 0.018 0.63 ***(0.37 to 0.89) 0.025 0.024 0.43 ***(0.28 to 0.59) 0.025 0.025 0.69 *** (0.45 to 0.93) 0.021 0.02 0.50 *** (0.31 to 0.69)
No 1115(92.1) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Cough
Yes 168 (13.9) 0.009 0.008 0.33 ** (0.13 to 0.54) 0.008 0.007 0.19 ** (0.07 to 0.31) 0.007 0.006 0.29 ** (0.10 to 0.47) 0.006 0.005 0.21 **(0.06 to 0.36)
No 1042 (86.1) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Breathing difficulty
Yes 5 (0.4) 0.002 0.001 0.88 (−0.22 to 1.97) 0.002 0.002 0.57 (−0.07 to 1.22) 0.008 0.007 1.63 ** (0.61 to 2.64) 0.008 0.007 1.28 ** (0.46 to 2.09)
No 1205 (99.6) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Dizziness
Yes 88 (7.3) 0.013 0.012 0.54 *** (0.27 to 0.81) 0.014 0.013 0.33 *** (0.17 to 0.49) 0.020 0.019 0.63 *** (0.38 to 0.88) 0.014 0.013 0.42 *** (0.22 to 0.62)
No 1122 (92.7) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Coryza
Yes 205 (16.9) 0.014 0.013 0.39 *** (0.20 to 0.58) 0.016 0.015 0.25 *** (0.14 to 0.36) 0.022 0.021 0.46 ***(0.28 to 0.63) 0.018 0.017 0.33 *** (0.19 to 0.47)
No 1005 (83.1) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Sore throat
Yes 139 (11.5) 0.007 0.007 0.34 ** (0.12 to 0.56) 0.005 0.004 0.16 *(0.03 to 0.29) 0.009 0.008 0.35 ** (0.14 to 0.55) 0.004 0.003 0.17 * (0.01 to 0.34)
No 1071 (88.5) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Persistent fever and
cough or difficulty
breathing
Yes 4 (0.3) <0.001 −0.001 −0.23 (−1.45 to 1.00) 0.001 <0.001 0.32 (−0.40 to 1.04) 0.002 0.002 0.98 (−0.16 to 2.11) <0.001 −0.001 0.22 (−0.69 to 1.13)
No 1206 (99.7) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020,17, 1729 11 of 25
Table 2. Cont.
Variable n(%) Impact of Event Stress Anxiety Depression
R2AR2B (95% CI) R2AR2B (95% CI) R2AR2 B (95% CI) R2AR2 B (95% CI)
Consultation with
doctor in the clinic in
the past 14 days
Yes 42 (3.5) <0.001 −0.001 −0.06 (−0.44 to 0.32) 0.002 0.001 0.17 (−0.06 to 0.40) 0.004 0.003 0.38 * (0.02 to 0.73) 0.002 0.001 0.22 (−0.07 to 0.50)
No 1168 (96.5) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Recent hospitalization
in the past 14 days
Yes 4 (0.3) 0.001 <0.001 0.78 (−0.45 to 2.00) 0.001 <0.001 0.32 (−0.40 to 1.04) 0.004 0.003 1.23 * (0.09 to 2.36) <0.001 −0.001 −0.28 (−1.19 to 0.63)
No 1206 (99.7) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Recent testing for
COVID-19 in the past
14 days
Yes 11 (0.9) <0.001 −0.001 −0.18 (−0.92 to 0.56) <0.001 −0.001 −0.07 (−0.51 to 0.37) <0.001 <0.001 0.22 (−0.47 to 0.91) <0.001 −0.001 0.02 (−0.54 to 0.57)
No 1199 (99.1) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Recent quarantine in
the past 14 days
Yes 26 (2.1) 0.001 0.001 0.32 (−0.16 to 0.81) <0.001 −0.001 −0.01 (−0.30 to 0.28) <0.001 −0.001 0.03 (−0.42 to 0.48) <0.001 −0.001 −0.11 (−0.47 to 0.25)
No 1184 (97.9) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Current self-rating
health status
Poor/Very poor 11 (1)
0.021 0.018
0.76 * (0.02 to 1.49)
0.034 0.032
0.45 * (0.02 to 0.88)
0.034 0.032
0.90 * (0.22 to 1.58)
0.030 0.027
0.65 * (0.1 to 1.20)
Average 372 (30.8) 0.37 *** (0.21 to 0.52) 0.19 *** (0.11 to 0.28) 0.41 *** (0.27 to 0.55) 0.26 *** (0.15 to 0.38)
Good/Very good 827 (68.3) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Chronic illness
Yes 78 (6.4) 0.003 0.003 0.29 * (0.01 to 0.58) 0.006 0.005 0.24 ** (0.07 to 0.41) 0.011 0.010 0.48 *** (0.22 to 0.75) 0.010 0.009 0.38 *** (0.17 to 0.59)
No 1132 (93.6) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Medical insurance
coverage
Yes 1118 (92.4) <0.001 <0.001 0.09 (−0.18 to 0.36) <0.001 −0.001
−0.003 (−0.16 to
0.15) <0.001 −0.001 −0.04 (−0.29 to 0.21) <0.001 −0.001 0.02 (−0.18 to 0.22)
No 92 (7.6) Reference Reference Reference Reference
*p<0.05; ** p<0.01; *** p<0.001.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020,17, 1729 12 of 25
3.6. Contact History and Psychological Impact
Table 3shows the contact history of confirmed and suspected cases of COVID-19. Overall, 1% of
respondents had been in contact with an individual with suspected COVID-19 or infected materials;
0.5% reported indirect contact with an individual with confirmed COVID-19; and 0.3% reported
close contact with an individual with confirmed COVID-19. Variables in the contact history were
not associated with IES-R and DASS scores, with the exception of contact with an individual with
suspected COVID-19 or infected materials, which were significantly associated with anxiety (B =0.98,
95% CI: 0.32 to 1.64).
Table 3.
Association between contact history in the past 14 days and the psychological impact of the
2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak as well as adverse mental health status during the
epidemic (n=1210).
Variables
n
(%)
Impact of Event Stress Anxiety Depression
R2AR2B
(95% CI) R2AR2B
(95% CI) R2AR2B
(95% CI) R2AR2B (95% CI)
Close contact with an
individual with
confirmed infection
with COVID-19
Yes 4
(0.3)
0.001
<0.001
0.53
(−0.70 to
1.75)
0.001
<0.001
0.32
(−0.40 to
1.04)
0.002 0.002
0.98
(−0.16 to
2.11)
0.004 0.003
0.97 * (0.06 to
1.88)
No 1206
(99.7)
Reference Reference Reference Reference
Indirect contact with
an individual with
confirmed infection
with COVID-19
Yes 6
(0.5)
<0.001
−
0.001
−0.06
(−1.06 to
0.94)
0.001
<0.001
−0.27
(−0.86 to
0.32)
<0.001
−
0.001
−0.28
(−1.21 to
0.65)
0.001
<0.001
−0.37 (−1.11
to 0.38)
No 1204
(99.5)
Reference Reference Reference Reference
Contact with an
individual with
suspected COVID-19
or infected materials
Yes 12
(1.0)
0.001
<0.001
0.36
(−0.35 to
1.07)
0.003 0.002
0.41 (
−
0.01
to 0.82)
0.007
0.006
0.98 **
(0.32 to
1.64)
0.008
0.007
0.81 ** (0.29 to
1.34)
No 1198
(99.0)
Reference Reference Reference Reference
<0.001
−
0.001
−0.03 (−1.32
to 1.26)
Reference
*p<0.05, ** p<0.01.
3.7. Knowledge about COVID-19 and Psychological Impact
Regarding knowledge about COVID-19, Table 4also shows that the most common perceived route
of transmission was through droplets (92.1%), followed by contaminated objects (73.7%), and airborne
transmission (60.5%). Nearly all respondents had heard that the number of infected individuals
had increased (98.8%), the number of deaths had increased (97.8%), and the number of recovered
individuals had increased (93.3%). The most common source of health information about COVID-19
was from the Internet (93.5%). The majority of respondents (75.1%) were very satisfied or fairly satisfied
with the amount of health information available. Dissatisfaction with the amount of health information
available about COVID-19 was significantly associated with higher IES-R score (B =0.63, 95% CI: 0.11
to 1.14) and DASS stress subscale score (B =0.32, 95% CI: 0.02 to 0.62). The information on the increase
in the number of recovered individuals was significantly associated with a low DASS stress subscale
score (B =−0.24, 95% CI: −0.40 to −0.07).
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020,17, 1729 13 of 25
Table 4.
Association between knowledge and concerns about the 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and the psychological impact of outbreak as well as adverse
mental health status during the epidemic (n=1210).
Variables n(%) Impact of Event Stress Anxiety Depression
R2AR2B (95% CI) R2AR2B (95% CI) R2AR2B (95% CI) R2AR2B (95% CI)
Knowledge of COVID-19
Route of transmission
Droplets
Agree 1115 (92.1)
0.002 0.001
0.21 (−0.07 to 0.49)
0.003 0.001
0.15 (−0.01 to 0.32)
0.001 <0.001
0.17 (−0.09 to 0.43)
0.005 0.004
0.27 * (0.06 to 0.48)
Disagree 13 (1.1) 0.48 (−0.25 to 1.21) 0.09 (−0.34 to 0.52) 0.22 (−0.45 to 0.90) 0.18 (−0.36 to0.72)
Do not know 82 (6.8) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Contact via contaminated objects
Agree 892 (73.7)
<0.001 −0.001
0.04 (−0.15 to 0.22)
0.003 0.001
−0.02 (−0.13 to 0.09)
0.002 0.001
−0.07 (−0.24 to 0.10)
0.001 −0.001
0.02 (−0.12 to 0.15)
Disagree 94 (7.8) −0.04 (−0.34 to 0.26) −0.16 (−0.34 to 0.02) −0.23 (−0.51 to 0.05) −0.10 (−0.33 to 0.12)
Do not know 224 (18.5) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Airborne
Agree 732 (60.5)
0.002 <0.001
0.11 (−0.07 to 0.29)
0.001 −0.001
0.04 (−0.07 to 0.14)
0.002 <0.001
0.12 (−0.05 to 0.28)
0.001 <0.001
0.08 (−0.05 to 0.22)
Disagree 225 (18.6) 0.17 (−0.05 to 0.40) −0.002 (−0.13 to 0.13) 0.04 (−0.17 to 0.25) 0.03 (−0.14 to 0.20)
Do not know 253 (20.9) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Have you heard that the number of infected COVID-19 individuals has increased?
Heard 1195 (98.8) 0.001 <0.001 0.40 (−0.24 to 1.03) <0.001 −0.001 0.10 (−0.27 to 0.47) <0.001 −0.001 −0.16 (−0.75 to 0.43) <0.001 −0.001 −0.14 (−0.61 to 0.34)
Not heard 15 (1.2) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Have you heard that the number of COVID-19 deaths has increased?
Heard 1183 (97.8) 0.001 <0.001 0.21 (−0.27 to 0.69) 0.001 <0.001 0.18 (−0.10 to 0.46) <0.001 −0.001 0.04 (−0.40 to 0.48) <0.001 −0.001 0.09 (−0.27 to 0.44)
Not heard 27 (2.2) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Have you heard that the number of individuals that have recovered from COVID-19 infection has increased?
Heard 1129 (93.3) 0.001 0.001 −0.19 (−0.47 to 0.09) 0.007 0.006 −0.24 ** (−0.40 to −0.07) 0.003 0.002 −0.25 (−0.51 to 0.01) 0.004 0.003 −0.24 * (−0.45 to −0.03)
Not heard 81 (6.7) Reference Reference Reference Reference
The main source of health information
Internet 1131 (93.5)
0.003 <0.001
−0.46 (−1.46 to 0.54)
0.007 0.004
−0.25 (−0.83 to0.34 )
0.010 0.006
−0.57 (−1.50 to 0.35)
0.007 0.004
0.19 (−0.55 to 0.94)
Television 62 (5.1) −0.22 (−1.26 to 0.83) −0.07 (−0.68 to 0.54) −0.35 (−1.32 to 0.62) 0.31 (−0.47 to 1.09)
Radio 1 (0.1) 0.83 (−1.81 to 3.47) 1.33 (−0.22 to 2.89) 2.67 * (0.22 to 5.11) 2.67 ** (0.70 to 4.63)
Family members 10 (0.8) −0.47 (−1.73 to 0.80) −0.27 (−1.01 to 0.48) −0.33 (−1.50 to 0.84) −0.03(−0.97 to 0.91)
Other sources 6 (0.5) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Satisfaction with the amount of health information available about COVID-19
Very satisfied 485 (40.1)
0.018 0.014
0.02 (−0.34 to 0.37)
0.014 0.011
−0.09 (−0.30 to 0.13)
0.013 0.010
−0.20 (−0.53 to 0.14)
0.014 0.011
−0.12 (−0.38 to 0.15)
Somewhatsatisfied 423 (35.0) 0.23 (−0.13 to 0.59) 0.03 (−0.19 to 0.24) −0.02 (−0.36 to 0.31) −0.001 (−0.27 to 0.27)
Not very satisfied 211 (17.4) 0.39 * (0.01 to 0.77) 0.09 (−0.14 to 0.31) 0.05 (−0.31 to 0.40) 0.08 (−0.21 to 0.36)
Not satisfied at all 40 (3.3) 0.63 * (0.11 to 1.14) 0.32 * (0.02 to 0.62) 0.41 (−0.07 to 0.88) 0.43 * (0.04 to 0.81)
Do not know 51 (4.2) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Concerns about COVID-19
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020,17, 1729 14 of 25
Table 4. Cont.
Variables n(%) Impact of Event Stress Anxiety Depression
R2AR2B (95% CI) R2AR2B (95% CI) R2AR2B (95% CI) R2AR2B (95% CI)
Level of confidence in own doctor’s ability to diagnose or recognize
Very confident 563 (46.5)
0.025 0.022
−0.2 (−0.66 to 0.27)
0.021 0.017
0.05 (−0.23 to 0.32)
0.024 0.021
0.02 (−0.42 to 0.45)
0.021 0.018
0.02 (−0.33 to 0.37)
Somewhat confident 561 (46.4) 0.19 (−0.28 to 0.66) 0.16 (−0.12 to 0.44) 0.22 (−0.22 to 0.65) 0.09 (−0.26 to 0.44)
Not very confident 50 (4.1) 0.19 (−0.39 to 0.76) 0.18 (−0.16 to 0.52) 0.38 (−0.15 to 0.91) 0.10 (−0.33 to 0.52)
Not at all confident 8 (0.7) 0.66 (−0.31 to 1.63) 1.18 *** (0.61 to 1.75) 1.86 *** (0.96 to 2.76) 1.66 ***(0.94 to 2.38)
Do not know 28 (2.3) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Likelihood of contracting COVID−19 during the current outbreak
Very likely 135 (11.2)
0.019 0.016
−0.33 * (−0.61 to
−0.05)
0.008 0.005
0.05 (−0.11 to 0.22)
0.009 0.005
0.07 (−0.20 to 0.33)
0.007 0.004
0.15 (−0.06 to 0.36)
Somewhat likely 358 (29.6) 0.15 (−0.09 to 0.38) 0.06 (−0.08 to 0.20) −0.02 (−0.23 to 0.20) 0.04 (−0.14 to 0.21)
Not very likely 437 (36.1) 0.14 (−0.09 to 0.36) −0.002 (−0.14 to 0.13) −0.05 (−0.26 to 0.16) 0.03 (−0.14 to 0.20)
Not likely at all 121 (10.0) −0.23(−0.52 to 0.06) −0.18 * (−0.35 to −0.01) −
0.36 * (
−
0.63to
−
0.09)
−0.19 (−0.41 to 0.03)
Do not know 159 (13.1) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Likelihood of surviving if infected with COVID-19
Very likely 278 (23.0)
0.014 0.011
−0.19 (−0.41 to 0.03)
0.009 0.006
−0.02 (−0.15 to 0.11)
0.006 0.002
−0.06 (−0.27 to 0.14)
0.007 0.003
0.01 (−0.15 to 0.17)
Somewhat likely 559 (46.2) 0.12 (−0.07 to 0.31) 0.01 (−0.10 to 0.13) −0.03 (−0.21 to 0.15) −0.01 (−0.15 to 0.14)
Not very likely 124 (10.2) 0.23 (−0.04 to 0.50) 0.18 * (0.02 to 0.34) 0.18 (−0.08 to 0.43) 0.15 (−0.06 to 0.35)
Not likely at all 20 (1.7) 0.42 (−0.15 to 0.99) 0.34 * (0.01 to 0.68) 0.42 (−0.11 to 0.95) 0.49 * (0.07 to 0.92)
Do not know 229 (18.9) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Concerns about other family members getting COVID−19 infection
Very worried 417 (34.5)
0.017 0.014
0.75(−0.03 to 1.53)
0.007 0.004
0.50*(0.04 to 0.96)
0.006 0.003
0.59(−0.13 to 1.32)
0.005 0.001
0.29(−0.30 to 0.87)
Somewhat worried 492 (40.7) 0.67 (−0.10 to 1.45) 0.40 (−0.05 to 0.86) 0.43 (−0.30 to 1.15) 0.20 (−0.38 to 0.78)
Not very worried 221 (18.3) 0.44 (−0.34 to 1.23) 0.43 (−0.04 to 0.89) 0.44 (−0.30 to 1.17) 0.26 (−0.33 to 0.85)
Not worried at all 70 (5.8) 0.19 (−0.64 to 1.01) 0.33 (−0.16 to 0.81) 0.36 (−0.41 to 1.13) 0.04 (−0.57 to 0.66)
Do not have family members
10 (0.8) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Concerns about a child younger than 16 years getting COVID-19 infection
Very worried 309 (25.5)
0.006 0.003
0.25 * (0.05 to 0.44)
0.001 −0.003
0.05 (−0.07 to 0.16)
0.007 0.004
0.24 ** (0.07 to 0.42)
0.002 −0.001
0.09 (−0.05 to 0.24)
Somewhat worried 307 (25.4) 0.13 (−0.06 to 0.32) 0.03 (−0.09 to 0.14) 0.21 * (0.03 to 0.39) 0.08 (−0.06 to 0.23)
Not very worried 151 (12.5) 0.10 (−0.14 to 0.34) 0.04 (−0.10 to 0.18) 0.21 (−0.01 to 0.43) 0.08 (−0.09 to 0.26)
Not worried at all 102 (8.4) −0.02 (−0.30 to 0.26) 0.004 (−0.16 to 0.17) 0.14 (−0.12 to 0.40) 0.03 (−0.18 to 0.23)
Do not have children 341 (28.2) Reference Reference Reference Reference
*p<0.05; ** p<0.01; *** p<0.001.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020,17, 1729 15 of 25
3.8. Concerns about COVID -19 and Psychological Impact
Regarding concerns about COVID-19, about 75.2% of respondents were very worried or somewhat
worried about other family members getting COVID-19. In contrast, 50.9% of respondents were very
worried or somewhat worried about a child younger than 16 years getting COVID-19. About 46.5% of
the respondents expressed a high level of confidence in their doctor’s ability to diagnose or recognize
COVID-19; and 46.1% believed the risk of contracting COVID-19 during the current outbreak was
unlikely or not likely at all. The majority of respondents (69.2%) believed that they would be very
likely or somewhat likely to survive COVID-19 if infected.
Those who had no confidence in their own doctor’s ability to diagnose or recognize COVID-19
were significantly more likely to have higher scores in the DASS stress subscale (B =1.18, 95% CI:
0.61–1.75), DASS anxiety subscale (B =1.86, 95% CI: 0.96 to 2.76), and DASS depression subscale
(B =1.66, 95% CI:0.94 to 2.38). A higher perceived likelihood of contracting COVID-19 during the
current outbreak was significantly associated with lower IES-R score (B =
−
0.33, 95% CI:
−
0.61 to
−
0.05). In contrast, low perceived likelihood of contracting COVID-19 during the current outbreak
was significantly associated with low DASS stress subscale (B =
−
0.18, 95% CI:
−
0.35 to
−
0.01) and
low DASS anxiety subscale (B =
−
0.36, 95% CI:
−
0.63 to
−
0.09) scores. A low perceived likelihood
of surviving COVID-19 if infected was significantly associated with high DASS stress subscale score
(B =0.34, 95% CI: 0.01 to 0.68).
High levels of concern about other family members getting COVID-19 were significantly associated
with higher DASS stress subscale scores (B =0.50, 95% CI: 0.04 to 0.96). Similarly, high levels of concern
about a child younger than 16 years getting COVID-19 were significantly associated with higher IES-R
scores (B =0.25, 95% CI: 0.05 to 0.44) and DASS anxiety subscale scores (B =0.24, 95% CI: 0.07 to 0.42).
3.9. Precautionary Measures and Psychological Impact
Table 5shows the precautionary measures adopted by the respondents in the past 14 days, which
were most frequently always washing hands after touching contaminated objects (66.6%), always
wearing a mask regardless of the presence or absence of symptoms (59.8%), always covering mouth
when coughing and sneezing (57.4%), always washing hands with soap (56.5%), always washing hands
immediately after coughing, sneezing, or rubbing nose (41%), and always avoiding sharing utensils
(e.g., chopsticks) during meals (40.5%). Linear regression analysis showed that avoiding the sharing
of utensils (e.g., chopsticks) during meals was significantly associated with lower scores in the IES-R
(B=
−
0.29, 95% CI:
−
0.50 to
−
0.09) and the DASS stress (B =
−
0.18, 95% CI:
−
0.31 to
−
0.06), anxiety
(B =
−
0.36, 95% CI:
−
0.55 to
−
0.17), and depression subscales (B =
−
0.31, 95% CI:
−
0.46 to
−
0.15).
Similarly, washing hands immediately after coughing, sneezing, or rubbing the nose was significantly
associated with lower scores in the IES-R (B =
−
0.47, 95% CI:
−
0.77 to
−
0.17) and the DASS stress
(B =
−
0.31, 95% CI:
−
0.49 to
−
0.13), anxiety (B =
−
0.63, 95 CI:
−
0.91 to
−
0.35), and depression subscales
(B =
−
0.38, 95% CI:
−
0.6 to
−
0.16). Washing hands with soap was significantly associated with lower
scores in the DASS stress (B =
−
0.34, 95% CI:
−
0.60 to
−
0.09), anxiety (B =
−
0.54, 95% CI:
−
0.94 to
−
0.14), and depression subscales (B =
−
0.39, 95% CI:
−
0.71 to
−
0.07). Infrequency of wearing masks
regardless of the presence or absence of symptoms was significantly associated with higher IES-R
scores (B =0.52, 95% CI: 0.04 to 1.01). High frequency of wearing masks regardless of the presence or
absence of symptoms was significantly associated with lower scores in the DASS anxiety (B =
−
0.43,
95% CI:
−
0.81 to
−
0.06) and depression subscales (B =
−
0.37, 95% CI:
−
0.67 to
−
0.07). Washing hands
after touching contaminated objects was significantly associated with lower DASS depression scores
(B =
−
0.53, 95% CI:
−
0.96 to
−
0.10). The majority of respondents stayed at home for 20–24 h per day
(84.7%) to avoid COVID-19.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020,17, 1729 16 of 25
Table 5.
Association between precautionary measures in the past 14 days and the psychological impact of the 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak as well as
adverse mental health status during the epidemic (n=1210).
Variables n(%) Impact of Event Stress Anxiety Depression
R2AR2B (95% CI) R2AR2B (95% CI) R2AR2B (95% CI) R2AR2B (95% CI)
Covering mouth when coughing and sneezing
Always 694 (57.4)
0.009 0.006
0.02 (−0.34 to 0.37)
0.003 <0.001
0.02 (−0.19 to 0.23)
0.007 0.004
−0.19 (−0.52 to 0.14)
0.001 −0.002
−0.09 (−0.35 to 0.18)
Most of
the time 282 (23.3) 0.18 (−0.19 to 0.55) 0.09 (−0.13 to 0.31) −0.09 (−0.43 to 0.26) −0.04 (−0.32 to 0.24)
Sometime 106 (8.8) 0.40 (−0.02 to 0.82) 0.12 (−0.13 to 0.36) 0.09 (−0.30 to 0.47) 0.02 (−0.30 to 0.33)
Occasionally 77 (6.3) 0.18 (−0.26 to 0.62) −0.03 (−0.29 to 0.23) −0.32 (−0.73 to 0.09) −0.02 (−0.35 to 0.31)
Never 51 (4.2) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Avoiding sharing of utensils (e.g., chopsticks) during meals
Always 490 (40.5)
0.041 0.037
−0.29 ** (−0.50 to −0.09)
0.017 0.013
−0.18 ** (−0.31 to −0.06)
0.017 0.013
−0.36 *** (−0.55 to
−0.17)
0.016 0.013
−0.31 *** (−0.46 to
−0.15)
Most of
the time 207 (17.1) 0.17 (−0.07 to 0.40) 0.01 (−0.13 to 0.16) −0.03 (−0.26 to 0.19) −0.07 (−0.25 to 0.11)
Sometime 162 (13.4) 0.23 (−0.02 to 0.49) −0.02 (−0.17 to 0.14) −0.13 (−0.37 to 0.11) −
0.20 * (
−
0.39 to
−
0.003)
Occasionally 156 (12.9) 0.36 ** (0.10 to 0.62) 0.03 (−0.12 to 0.18) −0.14 (−0.38 to 0.11) −0.12 (−0.32 to 0.07)
Never 195 (16.1) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Washing hands with soap and water
Always 684 (56.5)
0.029 0.026
−0.42 (−0.85 to 0.01)
0.011 0.007
−0.34 ** (−0.60 to −0.09)
0.015 0.012
−0.54 ** (−0.94 to −0.14)
0.011 0.007
−0.39 * (−0.71 to −0.07)
Most of
the time 266 (22) −0.12 (−0.56 to 0.33) −0.29 * (−0.56 to −0.03) −0.40 (−0.81 to 0.02) −0.27 (−0.60 to 0.07)
Sometime 127 (10.5) 0.07 (−0.40 to 0.54) −0.22 (−0.50 to 0.07) −0.23 (−0.67 to 0.21) −0.25 (−0.61 to 0.10)
Occasionally 100 (8.3) 0.13 (−0.35 to 0.62) −0.17 (−0.46 to 0.12) −0.21 (−0.67 to 0.24) −0.15 (−0.51 to 0.22)
Never 33 (2.7) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Washing hands immediately after coughing, rubbing nose, or sneezing
Always 496 (41)
0.042 0.039
−0.47 ** (−0.77 to −0.17)
0.02 0.016
−0.31 ** (−0.49 to −0.13)
0.22 0.019
−0.63 *** (−0.91 to
−0.35)
0.021 0.018
−0.38 ** (−0.60 to −0.16)
Most of
the time 227 (18.8) −0.003 (−0.32 to 0.32) −0.17 (−0.36 to 0.02) −0.44 ** (−0.74 to −0.14) −0.26 * (−0.50 to −0.02)
Sometime 227 (18.8) 0.02 (−0.30 to 0.34) −0.12 (−0.32 to 0.07) −0.41 ** (−0.71 to −0.11) −0.18 (−0.42 to 0.06)
Occasionally 185 (15.2) 0.14 (−0.19 to 0.47) −0.08 (−0.28 to 0.12) −0.29 (−0.60 to 0.02) −0.04 (−0.29 to 0.20)
Never 75 (6.2) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Wearing mask regardless of the presence or absence of symptoms
Always 723 (59.8)
0.026 0.023
−0.19 (−0.59 to 0.21)
0.009 0.006
−0.21 (−0.45 to 0.02)
0.01 0.006
−0.43 * (−0.81 to −0.06)
0.015 0.012
−0.37 * (−0.67 to −0.07)
Most of
the time 263 (21.7) 0.12 (−0.30 to 0.53) −0.09 (−0.34 to 0.16) −0.27 (−0.66 to 0.12) −0.21 (−0.52 to 0.10)
Sometime 116 (9.6) 0.16 (−0.29 to 0.61) −0.08 (−0.35 to 0.19) −0.25 (−0.67 to 0.17) −0.25 (−0.59 to 0.08)
Occasionally 69 (5.7) 0.52 * (0.04 to 1.01) −0.04 (−0.33 to 0.24) −0.14 (−0.60 to 0.31) 0.006 (−0.36 to 0.37)
Never 39(3.2) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020,17, 1729 17 of 25
Table 5. Cont.
Variables n(%) Impact of Event Stress Anxiety Depression
R2AR2B (95% CI) R2AR2B (95% CI) R2AR2B (95% CI) R2AR2B (95% CI)
Washing hands after touching contaminated objects
Always 806 (66.6)
0.018 0.014
−0.11 (−0.69 to 0.47)
0.007 0.003
−0.21 (−0.56 to 0.13)
0.014 0.011
−0.52 (−1.06 to 0.02)
0.012 0.008
−0.53 * (−0.96 to −0.10)
Most of
the time 283 (23.4) 0.19 (−0.40 to 0.78) −0.15 (−0.49 to 0.21) −0.37 (−0.92 to 0.18) −0.41 (−0.85 to 0.03)
Sometime 66 (5.4) 0.40 (−0.25 to 1.04) −0.01 (−0.39 to 0.38) −0.03 (−0.63 to 0.58) −0.27 (−0.76 to 0.21)
Occasional 37 (3.1) 0.31 (−0.39 to 1.00) −0.07 (−0.48 to 0.34) −0.22 (−0.87 to 0.43) 0.24 (−0.76 to 0.28)
Never 18 (1.5) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Feeling that too much unnecessary worry has been made about the COVID-19 outbreak
Always 156 (12.9)
0.019 0.016
−0.47 *** (−0.69 to −0.25)
0.002 −0.001
−0.08 (−0.21 to 0.05)
0.003 <0.001
0.12 (−0.09 to 0.33)
0.005 0.002
0.12 (−0.04 to 0.29)
Most of
the time 108 (8.9) −0.19 (−0.44 to 0.07) −0.05 (−0.20 to 0.11) 0.20 (−0.04 to 0.44) 0.20 * (0.003 to 0.39)
Sometime 242 (20) −0.03 (−0.21 to 0.16) −0.01 (−0.12 to 0.10) 0.07 (−0.10 to 0.25) 0.01 (−0.13 to 0.15)
Occasionally 166 (13.7) 0.13 (−0.09 to 0.34) 0.03 (−0.10 to 0.16) 0.12 (−0.08 to 0.33) 0.10 (−0.07 to 0.26)
Never 538 (44.5) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Average number of hours staying at home per day to avoid COVID−19
[0–9] 39 (3.2)
0.001 <0.001
−0.15 (−0.55 to 0.25)
0.002 <0.001
−0.16 (−0.39 to 0.08)
0.001 0.001
−0.15 (−0.52 to 0.22)
0.002 0.001
−0.21 (−0.51 to 0.08)
[10–19] 146 (12.1) 0.11 (−0.10 to 0.33) −0.03 (−0.16 to 0.10) −0.06 (−0.26 to 0.14) −0.08 (−0.24 to 0.08)
[20–24] 1025 (84.7) Reference Reference Reference Reference
*p<0.05; ** p<0.01; *** p<0.001.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020,17, 1729 18 of 25
3.10. Additional Health Information Required and Psychological Impact
Table 6shows additional health information required by respondents. Nearly all respondents
desired additional information about COVID-19, most frequently with respect to the route of
transmission (96.9%), the availability and effectiveness of medicines/vaccines (96.8%), travel advice
(95.9%), overseas experience in handling COVID-19 (94.5%), the number of infected cases and locations
(94.1%), advice on prevention of the COVID-19(93.7%), more tailored information (e.g., for people
with chronic illnesses) (93.6%), outbreaks in the local area (92.7%), and details on symptoms of
COVID-19 infection (91.6%). About 96.9% of respondents preferred regular updates for the latest
information and these were found to be significantly associated with lower DASS anxiety subscale
scores (B =
−
0.62, 95% CI:
−
1.00 to
−
0.24). Additional information on the availability and effectiveness
of medicines/vaccines (B =
−
0.63, 95% CI:
−
0.99 to
−
0.26), the number of infections and locations
(B =
−
0.30, 95% CI:
−
0.57 to
−
0.02), and the routes of transmission (B =
−
0.39, 95% CI:
−
0.77 to
−
0.02)
were significantly associated with lower scores in DASS anxiety subscale. Additional information on
availability and effectiveness of medicines/vaccines was significantly associated with lower scores in
the DASS depression subscale (B =−0.35, 95% CI: −0.65 to −0.06).
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020,17, 1729 19 of 25
Table 6.
Association between additional health information required by participants and the psychological impact of the 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19)
outbreak as well as adverse mental health status during the epidemic (n=1210).
Variables n(%) Impact of Event Stress Anxiety Depression
R2AR2B (95% CI) R2AR2B (95% CI) R2AR2B (95% CI) R2AR2B (95% CI)
Need for further health information about the COVID-19 infection
Yes 1048 (86.6) 0.010 0.009 0.36 ** (0.15 to 0.57) 0.003 0.002 0.12 * (0.00 to 0.24) 0.002 0.001 0.16 (−0.03 to 0.35) 0.001 <0.001 0. 1 (−0.06 to 0.25)
No 162 (13.4) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Need for details on symptoms of the COVID−19 infection
Yes 1108 (91.6) 0.006 0.005 0.34 ** (0.09 to 0.59) <0.001 −0.001 −0.02 (−0.17 to 0.13) 0.001 <0.001 −0.12 (−0.36 to 0.11) 0.001 <0.001 −0.11 (−0.30 to 0.08)
No 102 (8.4) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Need for advice on prevention of the COVID−19 infection
Yes 1134 (93.7) 0.010 0.009 0.52 *** (0.23 to 0.81) 0.001 0.001 0.11 (−0.06 to 0.28) 0.001 <0.001 0.13 (−0.14 to 0.40) <0.001 −0.001 0.05 (−0.17 to 0.26)
No 76 (6.3) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Need for advice on treatment of the COVID−19 infection
Yes 1000 (82.6) 0.003 0.003 0.19 * (0.006 to 0.38) <0.001 −0.001 0.03 (−0.08 to 0.14) <0.001 −0.001 0.03 (−0.14 to 0.20) <0.001 <0.001 −0.05 (−0.18 to 0.09)
No 210 (17.4) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Need for regular updates for latest information about the COVID−19 infection
Yes 1173 (96.9) <0.001 −0.001 −0.03 (−0.44 to 0.38) 0.001 <0.001 −0.11 (−0.35 to 0.13) 0.008 0.008
−0.62 ** (−1.00 to
−0.24) 0.003 0.002 −0.29 (−0.59 to 0.01)
No 37 (3.1) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Need for the latest updates for outbreaks of the COVID−19 infection in the local area
Yes 1122 (92.7) <0.001 −0.001 0.06 (−0.21 to 0.33) <0.001 −0.001 0.01 (−0.15 to 0.17) 0.001 <0.001 −0.10 (−0.36 to 0.15) 0.001 <0.001 0.09 (−0.11 to 0.30)
No 88 (7.3) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Need for advice for people who may need more tailored information, such as those with pre-existing illness
Yes 1133 (93.6) 0.001 0.001 0.19 (−0.10 to 0.48) <0.001 −0.001 0.004 (−0.17 to 0.17) 0.001 <0.001 −0.14 (−0.41 to 0.13) <0.001 −0.001 −0.02 (−0.23 to 0.20)
No 77 (6.4) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Need for information on the availability and effectiveness of medicines/vaccines for the COVID−19 infection
Yes 1171 (96.8) 0.001 <0.001 0.19 (−0.21 to 0.59) 0.002 0.001 −0.16 (−0.40 to 0.07) 0.009 0.008
−0.63 ** (−0.99 to
−0.26) 0.005 0.004
−0.35 * (−0.65 to
−0.06)
No 39 (3.2) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Need for the latest updates on the number of people infected by COVID-19 and their location
Yes 1139 (94.1) 0.001 <0.001 0.17 (−0.13 to 0.47) 0.001 <0.001 −0.09 (−0.27 to 0.08) 0.004 0.003
−0.30 * (−0.57 to
−0.02) 0.001 <0.001 −0.13 (−0.35 to 0.10)
No 71 (5.9) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020,17, 1729 20 of 25
Table 6. Cont.
Variables n(%) Impact of Event Stress Anxiety Depression
R2AR2B (95% CI) R2AR2B (95% CI) R2AR2B (95% CI) R2AR2B (95% CI)
Need for travel advice for the COVID-19 epidemic
Yes 1160 (95.9) <0.001 −0.001 0.07 (−0.29 to 0.42) <0.001 <0.001 −0.07 (−0.28 to 0.14) 0.001 <0.001 −0.19 (−0.52 to 0.14) <0.001 −0.001 −0.07 (−0.34 to 0.19)
No 50 (4.1) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Need for updates on the routes of transmission of COVID-19
Yes 1172 (96.9) <0.001 <0.001 0.15 (−0.25 to 0.55) 0.001 <0.001 −0.10 (−0.33 to 0.14) 0.003 0.003
−0.39 * (−0.77 to
−0.02) 0.002 0.001 −0.21 (−0.51 to 0.09)
No 38 (3.1) Reference Reference Reference Reference
Need for updates on how other countries handle the COVID-19 outbreak
Yes 1144 (94.5) 0.002 0.001 0.25 (−0.06 to 0.56) <0.001 −0.001
−0.008 (−0.19 to
0.18) 0.001 <0.001 −0.14 (−0.43 to 0.15) <0.001 <0.001 −0.08 (−0.31 to 0.15)
No 66 (5.5) Reference Reference Reference Reference
*p<0.05; ** p<0.01; *** p<0.001.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020,17, 1729 21 of 25
4. Discussion
Our findings suggest that with respect to the initial psychological responses of the general public
from 31 January to 2 February 2020, just two weeks into the country’s outbreak of COVID-19 and
one day after WHO declared public health emergency of international concern, 53.8% of respondents
rated the psychological impact of outbreak as moderate or severe; 16.5% of respondents reported
moderate to severe depressive symptoms; 28.8% of respondents reported moderate to severe anxiety
symptoms; and 8.1% reported moderate to severe stress levels. The prevalence of moderate or severe
psychological impact as measured by IES-R was higher than the prevalence of depression, anxiety, and
stress as measured by the DASS-21. The difference between IES-R and DASS-21 is due to the fact that
the IES-R assesses the psychological impact after an event. In this study, respondents might refer the
COVID-19 outbreak as the event while the DASS-21 did not specify any such event.
In this study, the majority of respondents spent 20–24 h per day at home (84.7%), did not
report any physical symptoms (60.81%), and presented with good self-rated health status (68.3%).
In this study, very few respondents had a direct or indirect contact history with individuals with
confirmed or suspected COVID-19, or had undergone medical consultations related to COVID-19
(
≤
1%). The majority of respondents (>70%) were worried about their family members contracting
COVID-19, but they believed that they would survive if infected.
Overall, the Internet (93.5%) was the primary health information channel for the general public
during the initial stage of COVID-19 epidemic in China. Nearly all respondents (>90%) requested
regular updates on the latest information on the route of transmission, availability and effectiveness
of medicines/vaccines, travel advice, overseas experience in handling COVID-19, number of cases
and location, advice on prevention, more tailored information (e.g., for people with chronic illnesses),
information on outbreaks in the local area, and details on symptoms. The majority of respondents
(>70%) were satisfied with the amount of health information available. More than half of the
respondents washed their hands with soaps after touching contaminated objects, covered their mouth
when coughing or sneezing, and wore masks regardless of the presence or absence of symptoms as
precaution strategies.
As the COVID-19 epidemic continues to spread, our findings will provide vital guidance for the
development of a psychological support strategy and areas to prioritize in China and other places which
are affected by the epidemic. As the epidemic is ongoing, it is important to prepare health care systems
and the general public to be medically and psychologically ready if widespread transmission occurs
outside China [
32
]. Our findings have clinical and policy implications. First, health authorities need to
identify high-risk groups based on sociodemographic information for early psychological interventions.
Our sociodemographic data suggest that females suffered a greater psychological impact of the outbreak
as well as higher levels of stress, anxiety, and depression. This finding corresponds to previously
extensive epidemiological studies which found that women were at higher risk of depression [
33
].
Students were also found to experience a psychological impact of the outbreak and higher levels of
stress, anxiety, and depression. As the total number of people infected by COVID-19 currently surpasses
those stricken by the 2003 SARS-CoV epidemic, major cities in China have shut down schools at all
levels indefinitely. The uncertainty and potential negative impact on academic progression could have
an adverse effect on the mental health of students. During the epidemic, education authorities need to
develop online portals and web-based applications to deliver lectures or other teaching activities [
34
].
As young people are more receptive towards smartphone applications [
35
], health authorities could
consider providing online or smartphone-based psychoeducation and psychological interventions
(e.g., cognitive behavior therapy, CBT) to reduce risk of virus transmission by face-to-face therapy.
Online platforms could also provide a support network for those people spending most of their time
at home during the epidemic. We found that the general public with no formal education had a
greater likelihood of depression during the epidemic. Local agencies need to provide information in a
diagrammatic or audio format in simple languages to support those with no educational background
during the epidemic.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020,17, 1729 22 of 25
Second, health authorities need to identify the immediate psychological needs of the general
population presenting with physical symptoms during the epidemic. Our results revealed that the
general population presenting with specific symptoms including chills, coryza, cough, dizziness,
myalgia, and sore throat, as well as those with poor self-rated health status and history of chronic
illnesses, experienced a psychological impact of the outbreak and higher levels of stress, anxiety, and
depression. After presentation to the clinic or hospital with the above physical symptoms, patients may
be sent home, quarantined, or admitted for further investigation. Health professionals should take the
opportunity to provide resources for psychological support and interventions for those who present
with the above symptoms, especially during hospitalization. Taking a family history is essential, and
health professionals should enquire about the level of concern for other family members, especially
children, of contracting COVID-19, as these concerns are associated with stress and anxiety, respectively.
Third, government and health authorities need to provide accurate health information during the
epidemic to reduce the impact of rumors [
23
]. Higher satisfaction with the health information received
was associated with a lower psychological impact of the outbreak and lower levels of stress, anxiety,
and depression. The content of health information provided during the epidemic needs to be based on
evidence to avoid adverse psychological reactions. Our results showed that up-to-date and accurate
health information, especially on the number of recovered individuals, was associated with lower
stress levels. Additional information on medicines or vaccines, routes of transmission, and updates on
the number of infected cases and location (e.g., real-time, online tracking map) were associated with
lower levels of anxiety.
Fourth, the content of psychological interventions (for example CBT) needs to be modified to
suit the needs of the general population during the epidemic. CBT should preferably be delivered
online or via telephone to avoid the spread of infection. As online CBT does not require the presence of
mental health professionals (e.g., psychologists), this will be helpful to the general public in China as
there is a shortage of psychologists. Based on our findings, cognitive therapy can provide information
or evidence to enhance confidence in the doctor’s ability to diagnose COVID-19. Cognitive therapy
can challenge cognitive bias when recipients overestimate the risk of contracting and dying from
COVID-19. As the majority of the general population in this study was homebound for 20–24 h per
day during the epidemic, behavior therapy could focus on relaxation exercises to counteract anxiety
and activity scheduling (e.g., home-based exercise and entertainment) to counteract depression in
the home environment. Self-administered acupressure and emotional freedom techniques derived
from key principles within traditional Chinese medicine are potential interventions which may benefit
the mental health of general public during the COVID-19 outbreak. Further research Is required to
evaluate the effectiveness of these interventions.
Fifth, our findings suggest that the precautionary measures adopted to prevent the spread of
COVID-19 could have had protective psychological effects during the early stage of the epidemic.
During the 2003 SARS-CoV epidemic, researchers found that moderate levels of anxiety were associated
with higher uptake of preventive measures by respondents [
21
]. Our findings showed the opposite
trend. Specific precautionary measures including avoidance of sharing utensils (e.g., chopsticks), hand
hygiene, and wearing masks regardless of the presence or absence of symptoms were associated with
lower levels of psychological impact, depression, anxiety, and stress. The experiences of the 2003
SARS-CoV epidemic could have changed the perception of the general public towards precautionary
measures and have led to a positive effect on the initial psychological responses to the COVID-19
epidemic by giving respondents confidence and sense of control in prevention. As the Chinese
prefer to use chopsticks to pick up food commonly shared on a plate during mealtime as part of
their culture, it is not unexpected that avoidance of sharing utensils (e.g., chopsticks) during meals
is significantly associated with less psychological impact and lower levels of anxiety, depression,
and stress. During the initial stage of the COVID-19 epidemic, health authorities outside China had
different recommendations for mask usage due to a global shortage of masks. While some health
authorities urged citizens not to wear masks if they were well (e.g., Singapore), other health authorities
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020,17, 1729 23 of 25
urged their citizens to always have masks and hand sanitizers ready (e.g., Malaysia, Vietnam) [
36
].
The official guidance from the World Health Organization (WHO) advises that healthy people should
only wear masks if they are taking care of a person with suspected COVID-19 infection or if people
are coughing and sneezing [
37
]. Our study found that wearing masks, regardless of the presence or
absence of symptoms, was associated with lower levels of anxiety and depression. Although the WHO
emphasizes that masks are effective only when used in combination with frequent hand-cleaning with
alcohol-based hand rub or soap and water, wearing a mask regardless of the presence or absence of
symptoms could offer potential psychological benefits by offering a sense of security. This finding
was anticipated because wearing face masks is a common practice when people are sick or to counter
urban pollution or haze in parts of Asia, including China [
38
]. Governments and health authorities
should ensure there are infrastructures to produce and provide an adequate supply of masks, soaps,
alcohol-based hand rubs, and other personal hygiene products during the COVID-19 epidemic.
This study has several limitations. Given the limited resources available and time-sensitivity
of the COVID-19 outbreak, we adopted the snowball sampling strategy. The snowballing sampling
strategy was not based on a random selection of the sample, and the study population did not reflect
the actual pattern of the general population. Furthermore, it would be ideal to conduct a prospective
study on the same group of participants after a period. Due to ethical requirements on anonymity
and confidentiality, we were not allowed to collect contact details and personal information from the
respondents. As a result, we could not conduct a prospective study that would provide a concrete
finding to support the need for a focused public health initiative. There was an oversampling of a
particular network of peers (e.g., students), leading to selection bias. As a result, the conclusion was
less generalizable to the entire population, particularly less educated people. Another limitation is
that self-reported levels of psychological impact, anxiety, depression and stress may not always be
aligned with assessment by mental health professionals. Similarly, respondents might have provided
socially desirable responses in terms of the satisfaction with the health information received and
precautionary measures. Lastly, the number of respondents with contact history and who had sought
medical consultations was very small. Our findings could not be generalized to confirmed or suspected
cases of COVID-19. Notwithstanding the above limitations, this study provides invaluable information
on the initial psychological responses 2 weeks after the outbreak of COVID-19 from respondents across
194 cities in China. Our results could be used as a historical reference. Most importantly, our findings
directly inform the development of psychological interventions that can minimize psychological
impact, anxiety, depression, and stress during the outbreak of COVID-19 and provide a baseline for
evaluating prevention, control, and treatment efforts throughout the remainder of the COVID-19
epidemic, which is still ongoing at the time of preparing this manuscript.
5. Conclusions
During the initial phase of COVID-19 outbreak in China, more than half of the respondents rated
their psychological impact as moderate-to-severe, and about one-third reported moderate-to-severe
anxiety. Female gender, student status, and specific physical symptoms were associated with a greater
psychological impact of the outbreak and higher levels of stress, anxiety, and depression. Specific
up-to-date and accurate health information and certain precautionary measures were associated with
a lower psychological impact of the outbreak and lower levels of stress, anxiety, and depression.
Our findings can be used to formulate psychological interventions to improve mental health and
psychological resilience during the COVID-19 epidemic.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization, C.W., R.P., and R.H.; methodology, C.W., R.P., and R.H.; validation,
C.W., R.P., and L.X.; resources, C.W.; data curation, X.W., Y.T., and L.X.; formal analysis, C.W., R.P., X.W., Y.T.,
and L.X.; writing—original draft preparation, C.W., R.P., C.S.H., and R.C.H.; writing—review and editing, C.W.,
C.S.H., and R.C.H.; visualization, X.W., Y.T., and L.X.; supervision, C.W., R.P., and R.C.H.; project administration,
C.W.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: There was no funding for this study.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020,17, 1729 24 of 25
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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