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E-ISSN: 2278-179X Available online at www.jecet.org Section A: Environmental Science Analysis of Vehicular Emission in Pakistan and its Impact on Human Health and Environment
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Heat waves are one of the extreme weather events affecting as many people as with other climatic hazards such as droughts
and floods. Due to rise in global temperatures, the occurrences of heat waves are likely to exacerbate in many regions in
future. The projections for future heat waves over Pakistan are analyzed in this study. The heat waves calculation has been
done using the latest NASA Earth Exchange Global Daily Downscaled Projections (NEX-GDDP) data set which composed
of 21 Global Climate Models (GCMs) statistically downscaled at 0.25° × 0.25° spatial resolution. The heat waves analysis
is done with ensemble modelling approach and using two definitions of heat waves: the Heat waves Duration Index (HWDI)
and fixed method approach. Two climate change scenarios; RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 are used for investigating future heat wave
projections. The historical heat waves are calculated from 1976–2000 and future projected changes are analyzed in three
25 year time spans: 2025–2049, 2050–2074 and 2075–2099. Two metrics heat wave events and heat wave days are separately
shown. The results indicate an increase in both number of heat wave events and heat wave days in Pakistan. The most vulnerable
areas for future heat waves are northern areas, plains of Sindh and Punjab, the central and western parts of Baluchistan,
and all regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK). The increased number of heat waves in northern areas of the country could
result in rapid snow melting and can cause flooding downstream. The agricultural regions of the country would be highly
vulnerable to increasing number of heat waves.
Keywords: Heat waves · NEX-GDDP · Climate Change · HWDI · GCMs
Here, we review information on how plants face redox imbalance caused by climate change, and focus on the role of nitric oxide (NO) in this response. Life on Earth is possible thanks to greenhouse effect. Without it, temperature on Earth’s surface would be around -19°C, instead of the current average of 14°C. Greenhouse effect is produced by greenhouse gasses (GHG) like water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxides (NxO) and ozone (O3). GHG have natural and anthropogenic origin. However, increasing GHG provokes extreme climate changes such as floods, droughts and heat, which induce reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxidative stress in plants. The main sources of ROS in stress conditions are: augmented photorespiration, NADPH oxidase (NOX) activity, β-oxidation of fatty acids and disorders in the electron transport chains of mitochondria and chloroplasts. Plants have developed an antioxidant machinery that includes the activity of ROS detoxifying enzymes [e.g., superoxide dismutase (SOD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), and peroxiredoxin (PRX)], as well as antioxidant molecules such as ascorbic acid (ASC) and glutathione (GSH) that are present in almost all subcellular compartments. CO2 and NO help to maintain the redox equilibrium. Higher CO2 concentrations increase the photosynthesis through the CO2-unsaturated Rubisco activity. But Rubisco photorespiration and NOX activities could also augment ROS production. NO regulate the ROS concentration preserving balance among ROS, GSH, GSNO, and ASC. When ROS are in huge concentration, NO induces transcription and activity of SOD, APX, and CAT. However, when ROS are necessary (e.g., for pathogen resistance), NO may inhibit APX, CAT, and NOX activity by the S-nitrosylation of cysteine residues, favoring cell death. NO also regulates GSH concentration in several ways. NO may react with GSH to form GSNO, the NO cell reservoir and main source of S-nitrosylation. GSNO could be decomposed by the GSNO reductase (GSNOR) to GSSG which, in turn, is reduced to GSH by glutathione reductase (GR). GSNOR may be also inhibited by S-nitrosylation and GR activated by NO. In conclusion, NO plays a central role in the tolerance of plants to climate change.
This study was carried out to establish the levels of pollution caused by motor vehicles on our roads. The number of imported used vehicles in Kenya is increasing every day which contributes to increasing levels of pollutants in the environment. This study investigated the pollutants emitted by the road vehicles (i.e. CO, HC, NOx), their formation, and suggested measures to reduce their levels and the negative effects on human health and the environment. The Study was able to show that high proportion of old vehicles is the major contributing factor to high vehicle emission levels. The results from the sample population indicate that eye irritations, throw-ups, and odour are the immediate effects of the exhaust gas pollutants on humans. The results also show that a high number seem to be ailing from Asthma, Cancer and other exhaust gas related diseases. About half of the sample population said the Government is doing nothing to curb the exhaust pollutants from our road vehicles. The results from the sample vehicle population tested, after exhaust gas composition analysis was done, both with diesel and petrol engines, show that, only about half of the number tested were within the recommended World Health Organization standards. To control this, an awareness campaign should be started by the Government to set up strict emission control standards to govern the same.
Urban air quality management plan (UAQMP) is an effective and efficient tool employed in managing acceptable urban air quality. However, the UAQM practices are specific to a country’s needs and requirements. Majority of the developed countries have full–fledged UAQMP with a regulatory management framework. However, developing countries are still working in formulating the effective and efficient UAQMPs to manage their deteriorating urban air environment. The first step in the process of formulation of UAQMP is to identify the air quality control regions based on ambient air quality status and second, initiate a time bound program involving all stakeholders to develop UAQMPs. The successful implementation of UAQMPs depends on the strength of its key components, e.g. goal/objective, monitoring network, emission inventory, air quality modeling, control strategies and public participation. This paper presents a comprehensive review on UAQMPs, being implemented worldwide at different scales e.g., national (macro), city (medium), and local (micro).
Carbon monoxide (CO) inhalation is a relatively common cause of toxicity, often unnoticed due to non specific clinical
presentation. Central nervous system and heart are mainly involved
by mechanisms that come from the high affinity of hemo-proteins
for CO, leading to hypoxic and peroxidation damage. Diagnosis may
require a high grade of suspicion, oxygen supplemental therapy is
the main pillar of therapy but supportive measures may be needed,
as hemodynamic, respiratory and mental complications can occur.
Late neuropsychiatric disorders are possible, for which early hyperbaric oxygen treatment may be of benefit. Pneumon 2014, 27(1):21-24.
Exposure assessment studies in the developing world are important. Although recent years have seen an increasing number of traffic-related pollution exposure studies, exposure assessment data on this topic are still limited. Differences among measuring methods and a lack of strict quality control in carrying out exposure assessment make it difficult to generalize and compare findings between studies. In this article, exposure assessment studies carried out in the developing world on several traffic-related air pollutants are reviewed. These pollutants include particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO(2)), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). In addition, it discusses advantages and disadvantages of various monitoring methods (ambient fixed-site monitoring, microenvironment monitoring, and personal exposure assessment using portable samplers) for these pollutants in exposure assessment studies. Also included in this paper is a brief introduction of standards for these pollutants in ambient air or in occupational settings established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), the United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and the World Health Organization (WHO). The review ends with a summary of the limitations and gaps in recent studies and suggestions for future research in the developing world.
Simultaneous day-time measurement (8 a.m.–5 p.m.) of on-road air quality and emissions (remote sensing) on an urban road with traffic volumes varying between approximately 400-800 vehicles per hour and an average speed of about 40 km/h has been used to compare multiple measurement techniques and assess on-road air quality. It was found that observed daytime concentration levels of CO, NOx, NO2, O3, PM10 and PM2.5 are below current WHO health based guideline values, varying from a few percent (CO) to above 60% (O3 and PM2.5) of the guideline values. NO2 to NOx ratios were about a factor of two higher than measured in a previous tunnel study, which indicates that about half of measured NO2 concentrations are due to urban background levels. Statistical analysis suggest that on-road NO2 and ozone concentrations are largely driven by atmospheric chemistry processes, and not significantly affected by variation in local traffic volume and fleet mix. A significant positive weighted correlation (r = 0.71–0.74) between remote sensing and air concentration monitoring is observed for CO in calm conditions. Speciated VOC measurements on the road show large discrepancies with current COPERT (Australia) vehicle emission factors, confirming the results from an earlier tunnel study. The weight of evidence suggests that the current (EU based) VOC speciation in COPERT Australia is likely not appropriate for the Australian on-road fleet.
Increasing energy demand triggered by industrialization has led to high carbon dioxide (CO2) emission into the environment, causes rise in earth temperature resulting in global warming. Therefore, there is urgent need to develop a cost effective methods and materials for its sequestration from point source and reduce its impact on the environment. This paper reviewed the recent development in functionalized composites for CO2 capture. The composites can help to develop more efficient technologies and cost effective materials for CO2 capture in view of the exponential growing demand for energy. Myriad of researchers have focused interest on the development of novel materials to trap CO2 using solid sorbents that appear promising. The composite adsorbents have superficial properties in terms of surface area, pore characteristic, adsorption capacity and stability at high temperature. The superior properties can be achieved by surface modification via activation or functionalization. The study revealed that functionalized composites provides superficial properties in terms of surface area, microporosity and high adsorption capacity for CO2 sequestration. However, the development of carbon based composite derived from lignocellulose biomass and understanding the mechanism and kinetics of CO2 onto functionalized composite have been graced with few research and needs to be explored further.
Pollution caused by road transportation is the major factor affecting human health and adversely affecting the global wanning. In the study, a system dynamics model has been applied to forecast vehicle emissions from road transport to evaluate policies in the transportation management. The proposed model was applied to evaluate and compare three transportation policy scenarios including road expansion, public transit incentive and enforcement of quality norms for vehicles. The pollution emission data is taken in Chennai, Tamil Nadu. The pollution in the study area will increase substantially if no management plans are implemented. The impact of population increase on transportation pollution has also been considered. It was found that among the proposed policies, implementation of the transit incentive policy to adopt public transports and the implementation of Bharat Stage IV norms for vehicles proved to be efficient in reducing the transport pollution to a great extent.
Air Pollution: Key Environmental Issues in Pakistan
Mahmood A. Khwaja and Shaheen Rafi Khan
Abstract
Air pollution is rapidly growing environmental problem in Pakistan. Highly inefficient energy use, accelerated growth in vehicle population and vehicle kilometers traveled, increasing industrial activity without adequate air emission treatment or control, open burning of solid waste including plastic, and use of ozone depleting substances (ODSs) are some of the major causes of deterioration of ambient air quality. Some key environmental issues about air quality in Pakistan have been assessed and discussed, using the Pressure, State, Impact and Response (P-S-I-R) framework. Rapidly growing energy demand, fuel substitution such as high emitting coal and oil, and high-energy intensity are the key factors contributing to air pollution. Some factors contributing to high-energy intensity are transmission and distribution losses in power generation, fuel prices subsidies on diesel and ageing vehicles, which are primarily diesel powered.
The state of air quality has been assessed by examining the emission levels of air pollutants and ambient
air quality. The average increase in sulfur dioxide across major emitting sectors (industry, transport and
power) has been 23-fold over the past 20 years. Similarly, nitrogen oxides increased to 25-fold in the
power sector and carbon dioxide increased an average of fourfold. Pakistan’s per capita greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions are far below the global average.Ambient air quality data show that carbon monoxide levels in Karachi and Lahore considerably exceed WHO’s recommended levels. Particulate matter content cross safety levels in the major industrial cities in the Punjab province. The reported lead levels in ambient air sites in Peshawar, Rawalpindi, Lahore and Karachi are also quite high compared to WHO’s permissible levels. The health impacts of air, water pollution and productivity losses from deforestation and soil erosion have been assessed at 1.71 billion dollars, or 3.3 percent of GNP, in the early 90s. The losses attributed to air pollution, in terms of health care costs, amount to 500 million dollars a year.
To combat air pollution, the government has formulated acts and policies, including the National
Environment Action Plan (NEAP). Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997 (PEPA-97) covers air,
water, soil and noise pollution, including hazardous waste disposal and vehicular pollution. Its section 15, sub-sections 1 to 3, pertain to regulation of motor vehicles. NEAP reflects a renewed commitment to environment and focuses on taking immediate measures in four priority areas of concerns – air, water, solid waste, and ECO system management – to achieve a visible improvement in the quality of environment, including air
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