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The factors of delegation success: accountability, compliance and work quality

March 2020

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Wits Business School

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Delegation is an enabler in organisations, yet managers still struggle with how to use it effectively to get maximum value. There are many definitions of delegation and what it tries to achieve; at the heart of it, delegation is about giving power and authority to work on assigned tasks. It deals with how power should be handed over for delegated tasks to be completed successfully. Since there are no guarantees that delegated tasks will be delivered as expected and on time, there is a need to understand the success factors of delegation. The research is about the success factors of delegation by looking at accountability, quality and compliance. The research goes further and looks at the foundational elements of delegation to make it work which include competencies, skills, attitude an aptitude. It analyses the impact of leadership in delegation by assessing the leadership style(s) that support delegation. Alignment is key in delegation and the research looks at the relationship between the delegators and delegatees and how the relationship impacts delegation success. The interests of delegatees is unpacked by looking at motivation, recognition, rewards, empowerment, growth and development. The process looks at how managers monitor delegated tasks and feedback mechanisms to get comfort that delegated tasks will be done as per the original requirements. Furthermore, the research looks at how organisational hierarchy and job design can impact delegation success. The impact of culture is also looked at and how the broader organisational culture impacts delegation.

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The factors of delegation success: accountability,

compliance and work quality

Benedict Mathebula, Brian Barnard

ABSTRACT

Delegation is an enabler in organisations, yet managers still struggle with how to use

it effectively to get maximum value. There are many definitions of delegation and

what it tries to achieve; at the heart of it, delegation is about giving power and

authority to work on assigned tasks. It deals with how power should be handed over

for delegated tasks to be completed successfully.

Since there are no guarantees that delegated tasks will be delivered as expected

and on time, there is a need to understand the success factors of delegation. The

research is about the success factors of delegation by looking at accountability,

quality and compliance. The research goes further and looks at the foundational

elements of delegation to make it work which include competencies, skills, attitude

an aptitude. It analyses the impact of leadership in delegation by assessing the

leadership style(s) that support delegation.

Alignment is key in delegation and the research looks at the relationship between the

delegators and delegatees and how the relationship impacts delegation success.

The interests of delegatees is unpacked by looking at motivation, recognition,

rewards, empowerment, growth and development. The process looks at how

managers monitor delegated tasks and feedback mechanisms to get comfort that

delegated tasks will be done as per the original requirements.

Furthermore, the research looks at how organisational hierarchy and job design can

impact delegation success. The impact of culture is also looked at and how the

broader organisational culture impacts delegation.

Keywords: Delegation, Empowerment, Trust, Growth and Development,

Accountability, Competencies, Skills, Attitude and Aptitude.

1. Introduction

Delegation is not about giving orders and expects everyone to get along but a

two-way process that needs careful thought to succeed. Because it depends on

people, care needs to be taken to understand their views to get buy-in. If

managed well, it can improve efficiency and productivity in the workplace,

increased staff retention, better relationships and trust amongst employees. On

the contrary, if managed badly, it can lead to low staff morale, poor performance

and non-delivery (Cooper, 2013).

Entrepreneurship is an extreme example of delegation because of its demands

and potential. SME's portrays an entrepreneur-owner relationship where the

owner is tied in day-to-day operations with little time to spend on leadership and

providing direction of the enterprise. The entrepreneur spends time in anything

else other than leadership and development sub-optimally applying himself in

the strategic direction of the enterprise. Entrepreneurs can do so much if they

can successfully delegate some of the responsibilities that do not necessarily

require their attention. The entrepreneur can start thinking of rising to higher

levels of entrepreneurship like working on more complex and bigger ventures.

Because entrepreneurial venturing and product development requires

sophisticated, and knowledge-rich thinking, it would command a refined and

advanced delegation skill.

The purpose of the study is to examine delegation success because little

research has been done on delegation in South Africa. Delegation is a key

performance factor of knowledge workers and relevant in organisational

performance.

1.1. Research Problem

The research tries to address the following questions: what determines

delegation success? Considering this, it addresses the following sub-questions:

How accountability is ensured?

How quality of work and output are ensured?

How compliance is ensured?

The research contributes to literature on delegation, performance and

knowledge work. Factors that will be covered in delegation include leadership,

competency, job satisfaction, relationship and trust, information and knowledge,

management and culture.

The research focuses on executive-level delegation of predominantly knowledge

workers, senior managers and executives in corporate South African companies

that are responsible for and engage in operational and strategic initiatives of

their organisations. The study is not necessarily confined to a specific industry.

The study assumes that senior managers would have developed sound insight

into delegation and its requirements, and that a qualitative approach will be

enough to surface this.

2. Literature Review

Delegation is defined as an intentional transfer of tasks from one person to

another. It states that delegation is an appropriate way of decreasing workload

from the manager to the subordinate. Research has proved that employees are

capable of handling tasks delegated to them (Riisgaard, Nexøe, Le,

Søndergaard, & Ledderer, 2016). Stonehouse (2015) further defines delegation

as getting work done through others by giving them authority and control of the

work. This is founded on authority and responsibility and the relationship

between the person delegating the work and the one doing it. By giving

responsibility, the person doing the work has the duty to do it based on trust,

relationship and competency.

Delegation allows involving subordinates in decision making and transfer of

power from manager to subordinates. It enables subordinates to influence and

steer the direction and course of action. Giving power to subordinates is

beneficial to the organisation and a form of effective management, because it

enhances the quality and speed of delivery. Delegating provides learning

experiences and increases responsiveness and knowledge sharing (Liberman &

Boehe, 2011).

2.1. Leadership

2.1.1. Leadership and Delegation

Kvancz (2006) states that managers need to have intrinsic leadership qualities

to delegate effectively. He emphasized respect and appreciation for others as

the intrinsic factors for a successful leader. A leader would be remembered for

how he treated those around him compared to the fancy projects he delivered.

For a leader to command respect, he should always strive for fairness,

consistency, soliciting feedback, performance and goal setting.

Persistence, excellence, learnt strategies and having a clear vision sums up the

leadership intrinsic qualities for successful leadership and delegation (Kvancz,

2006). Research has shown that leadership styles differ based on the type of

leader (Wang & Poutziouris, 2010). Greiner (1972) identified five key areas that

are important in the life of a leader, 1) creativity, 2) direction, 3) delegation, 4)

coordination and 5) collaboration. Power distribution and delegation of authority

also play a major role in the success of a leader (Wang & Poutziouris, 2010).

Wang and Poutziouris (2010) argued that leaders who cling to power and do not

let go, end up doing most of the work, run organisations in an autocratic way

and have a low degree of delegation. Leaders who are people oriented, open

and consider all stakeholders have a high degree of delegation.

2.1.2. Authority and Power

The transfer of power from manager to subordinate is at the core of delegation

(Somek, 2015). Somek (2015) argued that delegation is not a binding

relationship, but a relationship built on trust. If there is no trust, authoritarian rule

takes over. Lack of trust means giving little information, which creates a chain of

delegation because the manager is not transparent with his subordinates. This

can create disobedience because any person in the position of power wants

things to be done their way and at most will communicate that obeying them is

in the best interest of the subordinates (Somek, 2015).

Delegating through obedience is not effective but an authoritarian way which

can backfire (Somek, 2015). Delegation should be a private agreement between

the delegator and delegatee where both parties share the success of the

outcome.

2.2. Competency

Kvancz (2006) described competency as having the requisite ability to perform a

task successfully. He states that delegation happens when there is a mutual

benefit between the manager and the subordinate with competent expertise to

perform the task. It focuses on integration of knowledge, skills, ability,

behaviours and attitudes to perform tasks (Kaslow, Finklea, & Chan, 2018).

Competency has a greater influence on delegation because managers delegate

to subordinates whom they feel there is a greater chance of them completing the

task (Jha, 2004).

For companies to develop highly competent employees, they need to formulate

human resource strategies to identify, train, deploy and retain talent (Kim &

McLean, 2015). The strategies should include ability, core traits and personality.

Kaslow at al. (2018) states that there is a strong link between competency and

performance which should be supported with training and motivation. To stay

competent, there must be a continuous learning process to deal with the

changing environment.

2.3. Delegation and Job Satisfaction

2.3.1. Job Satisfaction

Research has proved that there is a relationship between delegation and job

satisfaction (Jha, 2004). Job satisfaction depends on the characteristics of the

job including variety, task identity, autonomy, flexibility, feedback, dealing with

others and friendship. Effective delegation is about the amount of delegation,

the process of delegation and facilitating factors (Jha, 2004).

Delegation empowers subordinates more than simply participating (Jha, 2004).

Satisfaction depends on the competency of the subordinate, the willingness of

the manager to share information as well as the relationship between the

manager and subordinate (Yukl & Fu, 1999). Research done by Tietjen and

Myers (1998) concluded that satisfaction is dependent on the variety of factors

which includes autonomy, challenge and interest which enables subordinates to

experience their own personal success. On the other hand, Glisson and Durick

(1988) found that role mismatch and conflict might affect job satisfaction

negatively.

2.3.2. Principal and Agent Problem

Delegation involves at least two members, one referred to as the principal

(delegator) and agent (delegatee) working towards the same goal. The principal

focuses on providing knowledge and collaboration with co-workers while the

agent focuses on performing the tasks. To effectively deliver, agents require

access to key information as well as skills and resources. On the other hand,

providing the agent with access to more information, enables him to perform at

different levels and acquire more knowledge, which might increase their

chances of leaving the company or join another department (De Paola &

Scoppa, 2007).

De Paola and Scopa (2007) acknowledged the trade-offs faced by organisations

where the agent improves their knowledge through the learning process and use

it as a bargaining tool. Besides, agents who have learnt a lot turn to leave to

other organisation where they can practice their newly acquired skills which is a

cost to the current firm. De Paola and Scoppa (2007) argued that the higher the

level of delegation, the higher the agent demands a higher salary. This might

require the principal to reduce decision-making powers of the agent which might

not be optimal.

Nazli (2005) argued that delegation involves costs and benefits because in

some cases the principal and the agent might have conflicting views and

interests. Principals delegate work to their subordinates because they do not

have the time to do the work. Delegating the work does not necessarily

guarantee that it will be done hence the principal agency problem. If there are

conflicts between the principal and the agent, the cost is higher because the

focus shifts from the work to solving conflicts.

2.3.3. Delegation and Incentives

Research has found that there is a relationship between delegation and pay for

managers further split based on simple and complex jobs where the relationship

has been found to be positive and negative respectively (De Varo & Prasad,

2015).

The evidence for negative correlation between complex jobs and incentives is

based on the autonomy of managers to decide based on what has been

delegated to them and avoid complex projects because they are linked to their

incentives (De Varo & Prasaad, 2015). This trade off creates a challenge for

because all projects need to be completed. It explains how delegation of

authority can be used to induce effort from managers to acquire more

information about projects and ask to be incentivised based on the complexity of

the projects. These scenarios are likely to make delegation fail because

managers tasked with complex projects might ask to be excused if they are not

incentivised properly, leading to projects taking long because of lack of project

managers.

2.3.4. Performance Management

Historically, performance management has always been synonymous with micro

managing employees, a function that was driven mainly by the human resource

department. The concept of performance management has evolved and

includes pockets of strategy formulation and performance measuring

instruments using analytical tools (Smith & Goddard, 2002). Performance

management has been closely linked to financial benefits and still is, but the

focus has been broadened and include support for individuals to perform

optimally.

For delegation to be successful, it should be supported with a sound

performance management framework. Care should be taken when deciding on

a performance management system because it can either support or destroy it

(Haines III & St-Onge, 2012). Focus should be on training, coaching, planning,

assessments and reviews which puts the emphasis on people rather than the

systems used. The management framework should be supported with soliciting

feedback to improve performance and must be done from multiple sources, both

internal and external with a developmental purpose than punitive (Haines III &

St-Onge, 2012).

Haines III and St-Onge (2012) further state that employee recognition which is

deep rooted in motivational research work has been considered as one of the

key factors for improving performance and can be used to reinforce the

effectiveness of a performance management framework. The pair concluded

that, the effectiveness of a performance management system depends on

having the right context that is understood by the organisation, design, culture

and best practices.

2.4. Relationship and Trust

Manager and subordinate relationship is key in organisations because it plays a

critical role in exchange of information between the delegator and delegatee. If

done effectively and efficiently, it improves the quality of tasks that are delegated

to subordinates (Lee, 1998). Trust which is honouring commitments and

speaking the truth as defined by Bartlett (2000) has proved to have a positive

impact on the delegation process. Bartlett (2000) argued that, due to trust being

reciprocal, managers need to play a proactive role because of power difference.

Self-discourse defined as making self-known to others increases productivity of

leaders and managers who communicate their intentions openly (Bartlett, 2000).

It increases subordinate credibility because of the trust that has been built where

both the delegator and delegatee feel free to discuss personal matters like

family, sports and hobbies.

Managers need to invest time with their subordinates which increases the

quality of their relationships and trust (Schyns, Maslyn, & Weibler, 2010).

Communication rules and strategies should be agreed upfront to keep the

relationship intact. Research has shown that mutual trust and support from

subordinates creates an environment for openness which leads to higher quality

of output (Lee, 1998).

Forging relationships is one of the qualities of a leader and focuses on how

frequently a leader is in touch with the people as well as the breadth and depth

of conversations, discussions and meetings. Leaders and managers should

create the right balance and the type of relationships to discuss both work and

personal matters. Failure to get the right balance has a potential to create two

extremes where manager/employee relationships can be hostile and aloof or be

a buddy friend relationship which can impact the quality of delivery (Evenden &

Anderson, 1992). Managers are human beings and need to create environments

where there is trust, show interest in others and provide them with the

necessary support.

Trust is earned when leaders shows interest in the development of others and

motivates them to succeed. Delegation succeeds when subordinates are given

meaningful work, responsibility, autonomy and challenge (Evenden & Anderson,

1992).

2.5. Culture

Culture has been at the centre of human behaviour and academics continue to

research the topic because it is a fact of life, the same way as other disciplines

such as economics (Rao & Walton, 2004). What is culture? There are many

definitions and Rao and Walton (2004) defined it as the relationships amongst

individuals, groups or organisations. It also includes identity, language, symbols,

rituals, heritage and social beliefs. Rao and Walton (2004) further states that

culture is not necessarily embedded but contested based on the beliefs of

society and organisations. Oyserman (2012) argued that all human actions or

activities happen within the context of culture which provide solutions to sustain

groups of people which can be a company, organisation, region or country.

Organisations and management have designed ways to justify their existence to

achieve certain objectives, e.g. efficiency, norms and common understanding

(Chan & Clegg, 2002). Chan and Clegg (2002) argued that there is a system

that suppresses other views and creates a distorted culture of organisations. To

them culture is time material than idealism because managers focus on their

interests, goals and values which are not commonly shared. Chan and Clegg

(2002) further cautioned the interrelationships of language, gender, ethnic,

religion because they can have certain dominance in the workplace and society.

Based on the culture of a nation, country or organisation, managers might be

reluctant to delegate because they are strong believers of centralisation, risk

averse, happy with the status quo and don’t want challenges. Research shows

that some Arab managers fall in this category because they are interested in

their own roles and only delegate to their friends (Sabri, 2008). Sabri (2008)

further maintains that companies cannot separate managers and executives

from their own cultures but understand how they delegate because their

decision making, and behaviour is influenced by their culture.

Levi and Zehavi (2017) argued that effective delegation can be attributed to the

administrative culture defined as the normal and acceptable practices within an

organisation. Competitive organisations have higher levels of delegation driven

by beliefs, mind-sets and preferences. Reciprocally, organisations are

influenced by the culture of their employees. Because of the interlinks between

culture and delegation, high performing organisations place a huge focus on

cultural beliefs and effective delegation (Levi & Zehavi, 2017).

Evenden and Anderson (1992) defined three dimensions of a leader, technical –

people, problem solving and relationship style. The technical – people

dimension focuses on the cultural demand and tries to find a balance between

the values of an organisation and the people. According to Hofstede cultural

dimensions, organisations and individuals that have a high-power distance and

uncertainty avoidance have a low degree of delegation (Levi & Zehavi (2017).

Mental beliefs, values, norms, attitudes, communication, mental processes and

learning are central to the DNA of organisations (Cascio, 2016). The success of

organisations has a dependency on the type of leaders and how they improve

their leadership styles from dictating to consulting (Evenden & Anderson, 1992).

2.6. Dynamic Delegation

Before any work or project can be done, managers need to identify the people

with the right skills and are competent in the job. This might be done using job

design processes followed by observations, interviews and questionnaires to

bring in the right talent (Cascio, 2013). Because dynamic delegation involves

changing priorities, needs, requirements, roles, and resources, it needs all team

members to be aware of the dynamics that are at play (Evenden & Anderson,

1992). Once the participants understand the nature of the situation, dynamic

delegation has a potential to succeed. This can be done through awareness

where team members are aware of themselves including the skills within the

team (Evenden & Anderson (1992).

Dynamic delegation frees the managers from the responsibility of having to

worry about dealing with individuals when there are changes but allow the group

to handle the changes as a team. To succeed, it requires the self-confidence of

both the delegator and delegatee where the delegator believes that the

approach will work and the delegatee will achieve the intended outcome by

influencing each other positively (Evenden & Anderson, 1992).

Delivery is done through teams with managers playing the role of team leaders.

Attaining results, delivery and performance are the reasons why teams exist,

and should form part of team values that are celebrated by everyone. The

success of teams depends on having clear goals, the work and why it must be

done. This should be done through assessments, having room for flexibility,

communication, continuous improvements, high standards, leadership and

maximising the use of available resources (Evenden & Anderson, 1992).

As much as delivery is done through teams, teams are made of individuals with

different skills sets that need to be natured. For team members to succeed, they

need to be motivated. Managers need to use modelling techniques, e.g.

behaviour modelling and set goals that are meaningful and achievable as part of

self-development and create room for growth. This should be supported by an

effective performance management system where constructive criticism is

provided with the sole purpose of grooming talent.

Change is good but too much change can be bad. Managers dealing with

dynamic delegation need to strike the right balance on the number of changes,

frequency and how to communicate the changes. Mahathi, Rupayan and

Ramani (2016) state that dynamic delegation tends to work when there is an

incentive to both the delegator and delegatee which should be communicated

upfront to manage expectations. If not handled properly, dynamic delegation can

be a disaster and frustrating to the delegatee because of the changing needs. In

situations where there is a need for dynamic delegation, emphasis should be on

the success of the task than individual self-interests.

2.7. Information and Knowledge

Organisations need to understand the importance of information literacy in the

workplace. Knowledge workers are at the centre of business strategy because

of their critical thinking abilities and effective communication (Klusek &

Bornstein, 2006). Due to changes in the work environment from routine and

repetitive tasks to dynamic activities, it requires advanced communication. Work

complexity equally increases communication complexity, sophistication, and

processes. In turn, information availability affects decision making and thus work

quality. Both delegator and delegatee directly affect information quality while

communication and direction shapes delegation and thus quality and outcomes

(Anthony & Vidal, 2010).

Moss and Warnaby (1998) stressed the importance of communication in

delegation to make sure the message is received and understood as well as

making sure that tasks and activities are done expeditiously. Fluid and dynamic

work conditions may result in heavy information loads. Stacking is a cognitive

skill that improves information handling but can adversely impact quality.

Stacking can be prevalent in delegation and must be managed accordingly

(Anthony & Vidal, 2010).

Mindful communication focuses on flexibility of the communicator and staying

true and genuine to self. It is driven by awareness of the environment,

reflections and being attentive (Omilion-Hodges & Swords, 2016). Anthony and

Vidal (2010) state that mindfulness is a state in which there is keen awareness

of the situation; it is being “in the moment,” and a way of directing attention on

everyday tasks in the present moment and promotes delegation. When

professionals engage in mindful communication, information processing is

redirected, resulting in a unique set of decisions and actions. Mindfulness

impacts delegation through information quality. Relationship and trust affect

communication and delegation. Knowledge and experience embedded in the

organisation impact delegation performance (Klein, Ziegert, & Knight, 2006).

2.8. Management theories on Delegation

Models, frameworks and management theories of effective delegation have

been developed and researched over the years including game theory which

puts an emphasis on the manager (principal) and subordinate (agent) to make

their own decisions (Bendor, Hammond, & Glazer, 2011). In the first scenario,

the game theory assumes that the agent’s effort is valuable to the principal and

the agent is informed, acquires information and automatous. In this is scenario,

it is a win/win for both without any conflicts.

The second scenario can result in different outcomes such as where the agent

is not interested in the work and can stall it. There can also be scenarios where

the agent does not want to be controlled and the principal is risk averse and

wants full control. Other scenarios are where the principal and the agent are

interested in the outcome and both give it their best to get to the desirable result.

The model builds different scenarios based on the variation of parameters which

include increased conflict where both the principal and agent struggle to agree,

increased policy uncertainty and increased aversion of risk where the principal

starts to delegate less (Bendor, Hammond, & Glazer, 2011). These scenarios

are not exhaustive and only tries to emulate possible outcomes depending on

the character of both the principal and the agent and their combinations.

2.9. Summary of Literature Review

Delegation is a complex process that can be underestimated because it looks

like a simple process of handing over tasks to others (Webb, 2002). Several

factors determine the success of delegation, and whether organisational

performance can be attained through it. Although literature highlights many

factors that can impact delegation success, the view is that more research on

delegation success is still possible particularly in the South African context of

high knowledge workers using a qualitative research method. Some of the

factors the research will cover include leadership, competency, job satisfaction,

relationship and trust, culture and communication

The literature review concludes with the following research question: what

determines delegation success by looking at the themes below:

How is accountability ensured?

How is the quality of work and output ensured?

How is compliance ensured?

3. Research Methodology

A research outcome is guided by the chosen methodology which can be

quantitative using numerical data or qualitative using descriptive data. Research

has advanced where both methods referred as mixed method can be used (De

Villiers & Fouché, 2015). To determine which methodology will yield the best

results, researchers need to understand the paradigm of the research.

3.1. Research Paradigm

Paradigm, a term derived from the evolution in science, is defined as the cluster

of beliefs and dictates scientists in a discipline of influence on what should be

studied, the research area and topic and how to interpret the results (Bryman,

2016). Quantitative method uses an approach based on science, systematic and

positivism, while the qualitative method uses an approach based on

ethnographic, ecological and naturalistic approach (Kumar, 2014). Kumar (2014)

strongly advise that the research methodology should be directed by the

purpose of the research rather than choosing what suits the researcher. He

further warns against the pitfalls of not making a distinction between qualitative

and qualitative research data. This research study is interested in the views of

professionals about delegation, and a qualitative research methodology has

been used.

Qualitative research methodology focuses on empirical evidence, is very open,

flexible and follows an unstructured approach. Qualitative research study aims

to explore diversification of findings rather than quantification and uses

descriptors, perceptions, experience and communicates them without

generalisation (Kumar, 2014). It uses interviews, observations, field work,

documents and case studies to collect data (Patton, 2015).

3.2. Research Design

Bryman (2016) defines research design as the framework for collecting and

analysing data. Research design focuses on the decisions and the priorities of

the research process which includes, 1) the causal expressions between

variables, 2) determine whether it warrants generalising to larger groups than

the sample size, 3) understanding behaviour in a specific context, 4)

appreciation of a phenomena and its interactions.

In our research, we focused on personal experiences of senior managers and

executives to determine the success factors of delegation looking at leadership,

competency, job satisfaction, relationship, trust and culture for views, opinions,

commonality, perceptions and facts. This was done in a form of semi-structured

interviews and questions were prepared beforehand. The flow of the interviews

was dependent on the interview responses without losing focus on the core

themes. Interviews were face-to-face for a maximum of an hour and

interviewees were asked for permission to record.

Advantages of Interviews

Provides different perspective on the same questions.

Provides flexibility for both the interviewer and interviewee to explore

unknown territories.

There is no right or wrong answer.

Disadvantages of Interviews

Normally focuses on a small sample.

Resource intensive on a bigger sample.

Poor quality of response if the interviewer is not skilled in doing

interviews.

Biasness of the interviewer on the research topic.

3.3. Population and Sample

3.3.1. Population

Bryman (2016) defined population as the universe of units from which a sample

is selected. He stressed the need to consider the heterogeneity and

homogeneity of the population and use bigger and smaller samples

respectively. Because delegation is done at all levels in organisations, the

research focused on senior managers and executives in South Africa. All

participants were managers and had a minimum of 5 years experience in

management.

3.3.2. Sample and Sampling Method

Kumar (2014) argued that sample size is more relevant in quantitative research

because the outcome is based on inferences and must show that it was

unbiased and can be extended to represent a larger population. Qualitative

research methodology is designed to gain more in-depth knowledge about a

topic and does not put a strong emphasis on a predetermined sample size. The

size of the sample is mainly guided by the type of information that is gathered

along the way until the researcher has reached a saturation point (Kumar,

2014). To create flow, a total of 11 interviews were conducted.

Patton (2016) provides a list of potential sampling strategies that can be used

depending on the research problem. Because of the research topic, purposeful

sampling was used to target senior managers and executives with experience,

knowledge and insights.

3.4. Research Instrument

An interview guide or schedule is a brief list of memory points and questions

(Bryman, 2016). The interviews were semi-structured, face-to-face and venues

were agreed beforehand. The questions were sent on time for the interviewees

to go through them and prepare. The following human behaviours were

observed during the interviews to determine the quality of responses;

participation, rapport, confidence, aggressiveness, friendliness and aloofness.

The interview questions are attached as a supplementary document.

3.5. Data Collection

The research used primary sources of data in the form of interviews. Based on

the resources available at our disposal, data was collected using semi

structured interviews. Emails were used to contact the interviewees to ask for

permission to interview them. Additional information about the interviews were

sent to the ones who accepted; dates, times and venues were sent via email.

Bryman (2016) emphasised the importance of knowing the research subject

which increases the interviewer’s level of confidence. Follow ups were made

with the interviewees closer to the interview dates by sending a reminder on the

initial meeting invite. The advice below by Bryman (2006) were noted.

Creating rapport – rapport was created, and all the interviewees were

interested in the topic because it touched on their delegation style.

Recording the interviews – all the interviewees agreed to record the

interviews. Focus was on the interview with few notes taken.

Order of questions – the order of the questions was not changed

immensely though some questions were skipped because the

interviewees have answered them in earlier questions.

3.6. Data Analysis and Interpretation

There are various methods of analysing qualitative data such as coding,

thematic analysis, hermeneutics, semiotics, narrative analytics and

metaphorical (Meyers, 2013). The choice depends on the purpose of the

research and its intent. The advancements in technology has made it possible

to develop software that can analyse qualitative data (Bryman, 2016).

Bryman (2016) argued that thematic analysis and coding are similar because

both use codes and themes in the analysis. Based on the nature of the

research, we used coding method defined as reviewing transcripts, audios, field

notes and assigned them labels to component parts that were salient.

Kumar (2014) emphasised the need for researchers to transcribe the interviews

and share them with the respondents of the interviews. To analyse the contents

of the audio recording for codes and themes, Kumar (2014) and Meyers (2013)

defined the steps below which were followed:

Step 1: Identify the main themes – main themes were identified as shown

in the results chapter.

Step 2: Building codebooks – codes, hierarchies and definitions were

organised.

Step 3: Classify responses under the main themes – responses were

classified under main themes.

Step 4: Constructing models – themes, concepts, beliefs, and behaviours

were linked together.

Step 5: Integrate themes and response into the report – themes and

responses were integrated into the report.

3.7. Limitations of the study

The study has the following limitations:

Honesty from the respondents.

The quality of the interviewer to conduct highly effective interviews and

get quality responses.

Biasness of the researcher – it is not possible for the researcher to

suppress his own views on the topic.

Interpretations and meaning from the respondents.

Challenges interviewing a larger sample.

3.8. Validity and Reliability

3.8.1. Validity

Validity focuses on integrity of conclusions and how they were obtained

(Bryman, 2016). Kumar (2014) stressed the need to focus on the

appropriateness, quality and accuracy of the procedure or instrument used.

Whilst the instrument used can be valid, it is important to make sure that it is

used in the correct manner based on the types of questions asked. A link was

created back to the themes that are part of the research. The quality of

questions was strengthened by grouping them under themes to avoid ended

questions.

Internal validity is defined as the level of confidence that one variable is

dependent or not dependent on another variable including inferring causality

from an outcome of a research study (Rubin & Babbie, 2010). Internal validity is

ensured through running pilot studies and interviews to make sure research

instrument measures what it is supposed to.

External validity is concerned with generalising from causal relationships (Rubin

& Babbie, 2010). External validity is less of a concern in qualitative research

studies because it focuses on getting more insights than generalising results.

3.8.2. Reliability

Reliability is concerned with consistency, stability, and accuracy (Kumar, 2014).

To make sure that the responses were reliable, we were consistent with reading

the questions and ensured that the interviewees understood them.

4. Results of Study

Research interviews were used to collect data grouped into five categories;

basics of delegation, objectives and biases of delegation, leadership in

delegation, competency, job satisfaction, relationship and trust and delegation

culture.

A total of 11 semi-structured interviews were conducted and recorded for

analysis purposes. Invitations were sent on time and the interviews were

conducted in an office environment and limited to an hour. All respondents were

executives and senior managers working in corporate South Africa and one from

the public sector. The responses were grouped according to four themes with

sub-themes as listed below:

Objectives of delegation.

How accountability is ensured?

How quality and output are ensured?

How compliance is ensured?

The table below shows the profiles of the respondents.

Respondent Number Position

Respondent 1 Executive

Respondent 2 Executive

Respondent 3 Senior Manager

Respondent 4 Senior Manager

Respondent 5 Executive

Respondent 6 Senior Manager

Respondent 7 Regional Manager

Respondent 8 Executive

Respondent 9 Executive

Respondent 10 Executive

Respondent 11 Senior Manager

4.1. Objectives of delegation

To get the basics of delegation, the respondents were asked what they see as

the objectives of delegation and they shared similar and complementing views

grouped into the sub-themes listed below:

Freeing up the manager.

Sharing responsibility.

Empowerment.

Growth and development.

Introducing efficiencies.

4.1.1. Freeing up manager’s time

The respondents highlighted freeing up the manager as one of the objections of

delegation. Delegation frees up time and enables managers to do more. It is

about getting work done and the comfort that delegated tasks will be delivered as

expected. It frees up the manager to focus on other strategic initiatives of the

organisation.

Some respondents noted that delegation enables continuity of a function, division

or department. By delegating more, managers expose others how to run

divisions and equip them to take over in case the they move on. It creates

capacity to do more by sharing the workload and keeps them interested.

Managers leverage delegation because of the additional resources at their

disposal. To achieve greatness, managers need to rally people around them to

accomplish goals and ideas done through delegation.

4.1.2. Sharing responsibility

During the interviews, the respondents reiterated sharing responsibility as one of

the objectives of delegation. Delegation is done through sharing of information

which is key in executing and delivering tasks. Knowledge is power, and

delegation provides the means to share. It builds continuity in a rapidly changing

environment. Delegation starts by knowing your own limitations and that you can

only do so much. Delegation deals with a value system of wanting to share. It

comes from within and having the love to share and see others succeed.

4.1.3. Empowerment

Most of the respondents stated empowerment as one of the key focus areas of

delegation. They said delegation is about empowering others through the

transfer of knowledge and skills. It is a tool that enables development of others

beyond their core job responsibilities. Respondent 8 further said that delegation

allows managers to give delegatees tasks that can challenge them, harness their

skills and develop their leadership qualities. Delegatees must be empowered to

deal with tasks and build their confidence. Delegation is empowerment

regardless of whether a task is big or small.

Some of the respondents said that delegating tasks at a higher level empowers

individuals because it enables them to design solutions and stretches them to

think beyond tasks. Analysing and getting to an understanding defeats the

premise of delegation and denies the individuals from having first-hand

experience of coming up with own solutions to get to the expected results.

Managers need to delegate and focus on the expected and desired outcome.

Other views were managers must empower others and prepare them to take on

responsibilities beyond levels. Managers have a responsibility to create value for

others by empowering them. It should never be a reason that you are delegating

because you don’t know how to do something but an interest to grow someone.

Focus must be on empowering others to grow in their roles and support them.

4.1.4. Growth and development

The respondents noted that empowerment and growth and development go

together because it provides an opportunity to grow and develop others.

Managers need to build environments for others to excel. Delegation develops

and grows both the individual and the team. Delegation is a form of developing

others to reach their goals and dreams to reach higher levels of output. Having

enough time provides managers with the opportunity to look at the team and

identify areas of improvements.

One of the respondents said that delegation should not be limited based on fear

of people leaving the team because they have been empowered but encouraged

for the greater good of human kind. Delegation must be encouraged and not be a

short-term fix but development of individuals to use their skills in and outside the

organisation. Holding back on delegation can have detrimental effects on people

not staying in the team because they feel unchallenged. Delegating more creates

a sense of belonging and an appreciation that people can do more.

4.1.5. Introducing Efficiencies through Delegation

Delegation makes sure work gets done faster. Speed is important, and

delegation provides the means to do different initiatives at the same time.

Respondents noted that knowledge is transferred making sure there is no void

between managers and their subordinates. It maintains accountability by doing

more and not necessarily pushing work out to the team just for the sake of it.

Learning and understanding that you can't do everything on your own, and that

you are more efficient when you work in a team is important.

Delegation makes better use of resources and enables individuals to be efficient.

It increases operational efficiency that can result in strategic advantages.

4.2. How accountability is ensured?

4.2.1. Accountability

The respondents were asked about how they see accountability and responsibility

in the delegation process. The questions were asked to get an understanding of

who they see as the accountable person in the delegation process. How do they

split accountability and responsibility between them as delegators and delegatees

and when do they hold delegatees accountable? Does responsibility sit squarely

with the delegatees or it is shared?

Some respondents stressed the importance of separating accountability and

responsibility. The delegated person takes full ownership and responsibility of the

work, but the accountability remains with the delegator. Not everything can be

delegated, and managers need to differentiate tasks that can be delegated and

those that cannot. Failure to do this, the lines of accountability and responsibility

are blurred which creates a challenge to determine at what point someone needs

to be held accountable.

Lack of ownership from the delegator may result in delegation failing because the

accountability has been shifted to the delegated person as noted by respondent

5. Delegating responsible and not accountability makes sure that tasks are not

just forwarded to the next person. Delegation is a joint effort, deciding who to

delegate to and making sure that tasks delegated are in line with the interest of

the person are important.

4.2.2. Power Dynamics in Delegation

All the respondents noted that power dynamics exist in their departments and the

broader organisation. Some believe that power dynamics can impact delegation

if not managed properly while some think it is not a major problem for delegation.

Respondent 1 highlighted the need for managers to know their power base and

guard against abuse. Managers need to take full control and ownership. The

respondents felt that it makes delegation difficult if people don’t have the relevant

power and authority to do their work. Subordinates need to be granted

authoritative powers to make decisions to complete their tasks successfully. The

ones given the power must have a clear understanding and limitations how to

use it to benefit their organisations.

4.2.3. Politics and Delegation

There were mixed views on whether politics can impact delegation or not. Some

of the respondents believe that, politics can have a negative bearing on

delegation while some think it does not impact delegation.

The respondents who felt that politics impact delegation said that ignoring politics

can make delegation fail because it can influence decisions. Due to internal

politics, delegated tasks can be delayed unnecessarily to settle political scores.

Both the delegator and delegatee need to lobby to get work done. Managers

need to be aware of these organisational challenges and where possible steer

away from getting involved in political alliances because they can impact

delegation and minimise the chances of success.

Politics in organisations can be silent making it difficult to know if you are part of

a political challenge or you are delegated work that is in the interest of the

organisation. Understanding this dynamic is very important mainly at a senior

level because there are invisible groups and camps. Managers must read

between the lines to understand where the organisation is going, its strategy and

determine whether delegated work is aligned with these. It requires an inquisitive

mindset to determine right from wrong.

Respondent 2 noted that due to organisational complexities, it can be difficult to

analyse the pollical landscape in organisations. Politics can influence delegation

because people have associations, both formal and informal. It is difficult to

break a circle of managers who have similar thinking.

4.2.4. Monitoring, Timelines and Feedback

Monitoring of tasks is key in delegation and the respondents were asked how

they monitor delegated tasks. Both formal and informal meetings and weekly

reports are the common tools used to monitor delegated tasks. Meetings are

used to solicit feedback on progress made including tracking progress.

The respondents mentioned that delegated work must be completed within the

agreed timeline. Respondent 6 cited managers who are faced with juggling tasks

and an understanding of what a team can do work is important to avoid wasting

time. Focus must be on delivery dates and the commitment from the delegatees

that they will deliver. Agreeing to the expected timelines is important because it

gives delegatees a sense of comfort and that the timelines will be met.

4.3. How quality of work and output are ensured?

4.3.1. Competency

The respondents were asked questions on how they determine the best

candidate to delegate to and the feedback was split between skills and

competencies and others leaning towards attitude, aptitude and the rest a

combination of these.

Different respondents said that skills play a critical role in executing tasks, but it

should not be the primary focus of delegation. Individuals need to be given a

chance based on their aptitude and ability to learn new things which would build

new skills over time. Looking at skills alone would create a level of dependency

on certain individuals which would benefit some members of the team.

To get a better understanding between skills and competencies, respondents

were asked whether lack of skills can be a hindrance to delegation and

respondent 9 said that, lack of skills is not a hindrance to delegation but a way to

get to an outcome. People are capable and can find answers and solutions on

their own. One of the respondents said that we live in an era dominated by

technology where skills can be learnt, and information can be found with ease.

What is key is the attitude of the individual to go the extra mile and seek

information.

4.3.2. Support Structures in Delegation

Throughout the interview process, the respondents amplified the need to have

support structures for delegation to succeed. The support ranged from guidance,

growth and development, empowerment, who to speak to for help, availability of

managers, supporting tools and training. For delegation to succeed, it must have

support structures where delegatees can seek help. On a continuous basis,

managers need to review the work done and motivate delegatees including

giving them the necessary skills and knowledge.

According to respondent 7, delegation is not dumping, managers need to provide

continuous support and guide delegatees to deliver the agreed tasks. When

managers have seen that work can continue with minimal support, they can

detach and allow the delegatees to execute on their own. Respondent 4 noted a

flaw in management where it is assumed that executives and senior managers

operate at a higher level of maturity and have networks to deliver on their

mandates. He said that delegation should never be confused with level, because

even at a senior level, mistakes and misalignments happen which require a need

to engage once tasks have been delegated.

4.3.3. Mentoring and Coaching

Respondents used coaching and mentoring interchangeably. Some respondents

were of the view that, as much as mentoring is important for delegation to

succeed, it is not the responsibility of the direct managers to mentor their

subordinates. Focus should be on growing and empowering the individuals and

teams because it can create a level of biasness or favouritism. Furthermore,

respondents who were against managers mentoring direct reports said that,

mentoring direct reports can create conflicts of interest because the relationship

between a manager and his subordinates is different to a mentor and mentee.

Respondents who were pro managers mentoring direct reports said that it is

important to support subordinates and delegatees in their development journeys.

Mentoring provides a mirror that is different to what the individuals see and

promotes room for growth. With the right level of mentorship, delegatees can

excel at their jobs to an extent that they can deal with work with minimal help

from their managers.

4.3.4. Motivation, Building and Working in Teams

The respondents highlighted the importance of motivation and self-drive. They

highlighted working in teams because delegatees need to engage with teams

outside their own to complete tasks successfully and on time. Interest is created

from within because you cannot motivate individuals beyond their self-motivation.

Energy is created by having a culture where individuals can express themselves.

When individuals are given a platform to learn and being innovative, it creates a

sense of self-fulfilment which in reverse creates positive energy. When

individuals are motivated, and they successfully deliver on work, it creates a

sense of pride and ownership which propels them to do more

Responded 10 cautioned that there must be a fine balance between motivation

and recognition. Motivation must come from within while recognition is received.

Any delegated work done successfully must be recognised and where there are

additional incentives like a reward, it must be done transparently.

4.3.5. Rewards and Recognition in Delegation

The respondents agreed that recognition is important in delegation. They

stressed that recognitions and good performance should not be confused.

People need to be recognised and where possible be rewarded which should not

only be limited to financial reward. Respondent 2 mentioned other forms of

reward like global travel and working closely with executives on how to run

organisations.

Recognition is a must-do to appreciate the effort and to thank people for going

the extra-mile. Managers need to have an appreciation of the work their teams

are doing and thank them for doing so.

The respondents highlighted that there must be a fine balance between

motivation and recognition. Motivation comes from within while recognition is

something that is received. Rewards cannot be used to motivate people because

it can create a wrong impression that people cannot be motivated if there is

nothing for them. Recognising good work is appreciating others for their effort

and hard work.

4.3.6. Delegation and Leadership

All the respondents agreed that leadership is important for delegation to succeed

but differed on the leadership style. Most mentioned situational leadership citing

different situations and circumstances. Others reemphasised a leadership style

that focuses on growth and development, influence and trust.

Leaders need to have a sense of authority and control, provide direction and

show they are in charge. The respondents agreed that there is no school that

teaches delegation, it is something that leaders learn throughout their leadership

journeys. Being exposed to different situations helps with learning how to

delegate because it is contextual. It challenges leaders how to deal with different

people at all levels of the organisation. Leadership and delegation is about being

true to self and respond to the dynamics of the environment and the people.

4.3.7. Communication

The respondents emphasised communication and language as key enablers for

successful delegation because information can be lost in translation. Respondent

4 commented that language is important in communication and English is the

professional language used in the delegation process. He further said that it

remains to be seen if language can be a barrier to successful delegation though

evidence suggests that focusing on the outcome and making sure that there is

alignment between the manager and the person delegated to leads to successful

delegation.

Most of the respondents support face-to-face communication because it gives

managers comfort based on demeanour of the delegated person. Other mode of

communication is mainly email because it provides a tool where verbal

discussions and requirements can be sent and used for references. Other

technologies such as mobile are also used to complement emails where clarity

might be required.

Overall, the respondents agreed that communicating requirements, messages of

encouragement and support in the delegation process is very important.

4.4. How compliance is ensured?

4.4.1. Contracting

Respondents were asked their views on how they ensure that output is in line

with the objectives and here are some of the responses. Respondents from the

private sector said that contracting is important in delegation, but it is not done

formally. There is no need for formal contracts because it is assumed that

managers need to delegate to their subordinates. They referred to the of

employment contract as the official contract that supports delegation. For

delegation, there must be clear goals, objectives and expectations, it helps with

clearing the ambiguities before any work is done.

Respondent 7 from the public sector had a different view as quoted below:

“Right, it goes back to the time of delegation. You see, delegation to me

should not be a verbal agreement. Delegation should first be written. There

should be an understanding from the one who’s being delegated in terms of

the set objectives; and then, at the same time, what should go into that

agreement, it is timeframes for reporting; and timeframes for reporting allows

me as the one delegating to monitor progress, and that will assist in the

event where you realise that things might not be going according to plan; it’s

kind of a control measure.”

4.4.2. Prerequisites of delegation

Respondents were asked what they see as the foundation of delegation to

succeed. Most respondents identified trust as a foundation for delegation while

some saw skills as the precursor for delegation. Most of the respondents said

that the premise of delegation is trust than knowing that someone can do the

task. Being capable does not necessary mean that delegated tasks will be done

as per the expectations. Delegation is an extension of empowerment because it

allows managers to hand over tasks to delegatees to showcase their skills and

talent.

Trust is the foundation of successful delegation supported by the systems in

organisations to make delegation work. People must be empowered to deal with

tasks to avoid constantly second-guessing themselves.

4.4.3. Trust and Relationships in Delegation

Respondents were asked whether they believe in the statement that says,

“Managers only delegate to those they trust” and all the respondents agreed in

some shape or form as per the table below.

Respondent # Response

Respondent 1 “I believe leaders and managers delegate to people they

trust. I also believe they will surround themselves with people

they trust. I think it’s a human element. People must be

dependable”

Respondent 2 “So yes, I do believe this statement is true. I’ve seen it time

and time again. I believe I’m also not immune to it. I’m sure

I’ve fallen victim to it before. But, ya, it does happen, it does

happen”

Respondent 3 “I’m fifty-fifty on that one, right? Because it depends on the

sort of, the urgency or the complexity sometimes”

Respondent 4 “So, I believe in the statement, right. And I firmly believe in it”

Respondent 5 “I believe in it in as far as it’s the natural inclination”

Respondent 6 “I totally believe in it. I totally believe in it”

Respondent 7 “Yes, I believe in that statement”

Respondent 8 “So first and foremost, I, trust; yes, we do believe in it”

Respondent 9 “I think it’s partly true”.

Respondent

“I do believe that managers delegate to those they trust.”

Respondent

“I suppose it can be true”

Because all the respondents agreed that trust influences delegation, they were

asked how they build on it to minimise bias delegation and build relationships.

The responses were all encircling and included the following; being honest,

focusing on the intrinsic value of people, being vulnerable, having clear

principles, being considerate, patience, showing interest on others including their

growth and development, open communication, having frank conversations and

delegating to those managers don’t trust.

4.4.4. Biases of Delegation and impact

Delegation is an art, and because it involves human beings, there are biases on

how managers delegate. The list below shows what the respondents identified

as the biases of delegation.

Job insecurity which might lead to managers not delegating effectively

because of fear of losing their jobs.

Lack of trust where managers only delegating to those they trust or friends

which is form of favouritism.

Historical factors including grudges, disputes, arguments and quarrels.

Delegating what can be termed boring stuff to certain individuals.

Management style, e.g. delegating specific tasks to specific people.

The impact of bias delegation was renowned based on the responses. The list

below summarises the impact of bias delegation.

People leaving the team and/or organisation.

Team members disengaging because of lack of interest and unhappiness.

Low team morale.

Low productivity.

Specialisation which might put people in boxes and minimise room for

growth and development.

Overall, the respondents acknowledged that delegation biases have the potential

to make delegation fail if not managed properly.

4.4.5. Delegation and Culture

To get a better perspective between delegation and the culture of delegation, the

respondents were asked the following questions, 1) does delegation require a

specific culture? 2) what kind of culture is required for delegation to work? The

responses were plausible based on the answers provided.

Delegation needs a culture of sharing and empowering others. When people are

willing to share, it enables delegation to succeed. Delegation requires a culture of

maturity from the managers. The respondents acknowledged that managers

have a way of doing things which creates a culture of its own. A flat support

structure, a culture of openness and team cohesion supports delegation to

succeed. Managers need to cultivate a culture that is embedded in the

organisation. Trust and team work are key in creating a culture of delegation.

4.4.6. Conflict Resolution in Delegation

Conflict is a common theme in everyday life and delegation is not immune to it.

The respondents were asked how they deal with conflict to enable delegation.

Respondent 2 mentioned that as a manager is it important to guide and provide

direction though ill-discipline and poor quality should be censored and be dealt

with right away. Conflicts arise because roles and responsibilities have not been

clearly articulated. It is the responsibility of managers to pave a way for

delegation to succeed by clearing the path for the delegated person to execute.

Respondent 4 shared similar views that managers need to focus on delivery of

tasks and where there is evidence of conflicts, they must find ways of resolving

them. Respondent 7 said that managers need to have clear terms of reference

on what needs to be done with clear guidelines and scope. Establishing ways of

resolving conflict is very important. Mangers must have clear procedures on how

to deal with conflicts and not duplicate effort as well as having clear boundaries

and make sure the delegated person understands what needs to be done.

Respondent 9 summed it and said that managers need to deal with conflict

directly and look for root causes including personality clashes. What is important

it to make sure there is an interest between the work and the delegated person.

4.4.7. Organisational Hierarchy and Job Design in Delegation

In organisations, levels and hierarchy are created to have structure and enable

flow of information. Because delegation is handing over responsibility and giving

authority to the next person, it is important to understand if organisational

hierarchy and job design can impact delegation. The views from the respondents

were split between having an impact and not having an impact. Responded 2

said that organisational hierarchy should not impact delegation. Delegation must

not be limited based on levels but on individuals who have the right aptitude and

attitude to do the work.

Some of the respondents said job design and organisation hierarchy can affect

delegation. The hierarchy must be flexibility to enable delegation to work. If jobs

are designed using a vertical structure with information flowing from the top to

the bottom, delegation will suffer because only certain people can speak to

certain individuals.

Respondent 8 concluded by saying that, because job design is linked to

hierarchy, it can impact delegation because people are occupying positions

which are linked to their jobs. Job design can impact delegation because of

limited communication channels embedded in the design.

5. Discussion of Results

This chapter presents the connections between the results, themes and sub-

themes and the literature to get a better understanding of the successful factors

of delegation. The section has been grouped based on the themes of the results

in chapter 4.

5.1. Objectives of Delegation

The research results support the views of the respondents about the objectives

of delegation as highlighted by different authors below.

Freeing manager’s time. In his book, Baer (1999) emphasised that

delegating more frees up manager’s time to focus on other bigger picture

strategies of the organisation, reduces stress and prepares the manager

to be a potential candidate for promotions.

Sharing responsibility. Delegation is sharing responsibilities which

enables the manager to focus on setting priorities and allocation of

resources (Bell & Bodie, 2012).

Empowerment and growth and development. Weshah (2012) indicated

that, delegation of authority enables empowerment because it improves

decision quality, commitment to implement decisions, increases job

satisfaction and effective time management.

Delegation supports growth and development because it enables

delegatees to develop new expertise gained from learnings in the

delegation process (Sev, 2017).

Introducing efficiencies. Delegation enables managers to use available

human resources efficiently, get prompt responses and do away with red-

tapism (Igbal, 2010).

5.2. How accountability is ensured?

To be accountable, means to account for responsibilities, give an explanation,

respond or submit to a judgement or assume obligations (Gül, 2009). It means

taking ownership and bearing the consequences including non-delivery.

Managers are always concerned with non-delivery because delegation does not

mean they are no longer accountable. Delegation passes on the responsibility of

task but not the outcome (Whitman, 2005).

Respondent 2 and 6 mentioned being accountable as the ceiling to delegation.

Due to this complexity, it is the responsibility of managers to increase the

chances of success because it reflects on them. In his research, Sev (2017)

emphasised the importance of effective delegation of authority because it gives

delegatees power and ownership. He acknowledged that, training of delegatees

is important because it minimises delegating to unqualified or less qualified

subordinates.

Power dynamics can be a challenge to delegation because it is invisible. It is

important for managers to know their power because it determines their

influence. Managers need to understand their organisations, where it is going

and support it to meet its strategic objectives. They need to pay attention on the

influencers to understand their own power and decision making. In line with

dealing with power dynamics, managers need to encourage a spirit of

collaboration and distribute responsibility evenly and fairly.

If people don’t have the relevant power and authority, delegation becomes

difficult. People need powers to make decisions and complete their tasks

successfully. The ones given the power must have a clear understanding and

limitations of how to use it to benefit their organisations. Delegation of authority is

meant to improve job performance and improve efficiencies (Hamadat, Al-

Jammal, & Al-Khasawneh, 2015).

Political economists have tried to form models that show that politics are formed

to empower bureaucracies (Volden, 2002). However, it has also been proved

that delegation is higher in unified teams and organisations (Volden, 2002).

Politics impacts delegation and managers need to be vigilant of the political

nuances. Delegated tasks can be used as political weapons to stall and delay

delivery unnecessarily. Understanding the politics of an organisation can help

with knowing how to delegate. Selling an idea for others to see value provides

the means to get buy-in and delegate accordingly.

Continuous and consistent feedback that is honest must be given to everyone in

the same manner. Providing feedback should not be seen a yardstick but a way

to reflect on delegated tasks. Weekly check-in and stand-up sessions provide the

means to showcase what was done. Weekly meetings are for presence and to

get a sense of where people are. It creates environments where individuals have

space to apply their mind and provide feedback based on their understanding of

the task.

Riisgaard et al. (2016) argued that getting feedback is a way to obtain knowledge

on how well employees are performing. Delegatees must be encouraged to

solicit feedback from the people they worked with in the delegation journey.

Feedback must be requested from stakeholders about their satisfaction and key

questions asked must include getting an understanding of how delegatees

influenced the outcome, identification of blind spots, areas of development, and

any information that can help to do better going forward.

Monitoring is a control function that helps managers develop systems to measure

performance, productivity and cost, and align with members on delegated tasks

(Du Brin, 2008). Defining milestones helps with monitoring progress to determine

whether the goals will be achieved or not within the specified timelines. It is an

important checkpoint to safeguard identifying issues at the end and provides an

opportunity to finetune and align. Milestones are supported with regular check-

ups defined upfront to avoid any ambiguities. Managers need to provide

guidance to deliver tasks successfully and delegatees are encouraged to ask

questions and bring their own expertise and experience.

5.3. How quality of work and output are ensured?

The calibre, capability and competencies of delegatees are important for

delegation to succeed. The focus must be on delivering results by identifying the

right person to do the work (Bell & Bodie, 2012). Skills and competencies are

finite and independent on the level of the individual but dependent on the

aptitude, potential and willingness of a person. Delegation must not be

prescriptive on what the delegatees must do but provide high level of what needs

to be done and let them run with it. Understanding what individuals can or cannot

do beyond tasks is important. Interest from delegatees is important because

when people are assigned tasks they enjoy, they give it their best and results

follow.

For delegation to succeed, it must have support structures where delegatees can

seek help when faced with challenges (Bell & Bodie, 2012). Delegation is not a

once off exercise and expect results but a process that needs active involvement

once tasks have been delegated. In the initial stages, leaders need to spend time

with delegatees to make sure that both are aligned. Support of who they need to

speak to for information is important.

Furthermore, understanding gaps and support mechanisms improves delegation.

Understanding strength and weaknesses of the delegated person is important for

delegation because it provides a lens of when and what to delegate (Muir, 1995) .

When managers delegate, they improve on it over time. Lessons learnt during

delegation are taken into learning process and improves the quality of

delegation.

Mentoring is a necessity and supports growth and development (Moed, 2012) .

Managers must provide parameters for delegation and avoid being too close but

work on co-ordination of resources including mentoring, reviewing progress and

provide support when required (Morake, Monobe, & Mbulawa, 2012). Mentoring

is important for delegation and must be done fairly to support the delegation

process. With the right level of mentorship, delegatees can improve the quality of

work.

Research has shown there is a relationship between performance and motivation

(Robescu & Iancu, 2016). Managers need to build and attract people into their

teams. When people are given a platform to learn and innovate, it creates a

sense of self-fulfilment and improves the quality of the output. When individuals

are given meaningful tasks and they successfully deliver on them, it creates a

sense of pride and ownership and propels them to do more.

Organisations must be transparent by making information available to everyone

who needs it (Flyverbom, 2016). Energy is the drive that enables others to do

their work and more. Managers need to be transparent about their intentions

right from the start to get buy-in. People feel comfortable if they know what is in it

for them. By being honest and staying true to self creates a sense of belonging

that attracts people. It creates a level of transparency and openness where

everyone feels part of the team.

Managers must focus on cross-skilling, increase openness, and encourage the

team to take on more challenges. People need to see what managers are doing

and how it contributes to the broader organisation. Managers need to be

available for their teams because people come from different backgrounds and

everyone needs to feel special to be part of the team. There must be a balance

between work and personal lives.

Reward and recognition must be included as part of business as usual and not

be treated separately because individuals provide their service to organisations

and must be rewarded for doing so. It is an extension of our social context where

a reward is seen as a stimulus to do more. Because you are dealing with human

beings, it is important to recognise and acknowledge achievements. Sev (2017)

stressed the importance of having reward a policy to encourage both the

delegator and delegatee to increase performance.

True leadership starts from within. Building leaders of tomorrow should not be

limited to own team but to everyone. Leadership is influencing considering the

complexity and dynamism of the environment, and interactional context

(Bamidele & Olubunmi, 2017). Understanding the individual’s maturity is key to

determine how to delegate successfully. Everyone who is in a position are

because there is something they are bringing into the organisation. Limiting

people’s thinking, by being over-prescriptive, hinders on their ability to

accelerate. Managers should not look for their replicas but potential and build on

it. It is important to have space for people to exhibit their thinking over and

beyond tasks to create value.

When people know their leaders are genuinely concerned about their wellbeing

and development, everything else falls into place. If a leader has no purpose and

is in limbo, it reflects badly on the team which creates a sense that people are

just merely resources. If people are treated as human beings with aspirations,

growth potential, delegation becomes part of the team and improves the quality

of tasks.

5.4. How compliance is ensured?

Managers need to look at the value to determine what to delegate because

human beings can deal with anything that can be thrown at them. Maturity

determines whether delegatees can deal with tasks or not.

To delegate successfully, it requires an appreciation of contract law, oral

contracts or psychological contracts (Serrat, 2010). Contracting, whether verbal

or formal provides the means to enable delegation. For delegation to work, there

must be clear goals, objectives and expectations done through contracting.

Contracting provides an opportunity for the delegatee to agree on what can be

done. If anyone deviates from that, organisational processes should be followed.

If contracting between different levels is not done properly, it affects the

delegation process.

Delegation needs managers to show a level of trust to their subordinates (Muir,

1995). Trust and relationship are key in successful delegation because it create a

level of comfort and ownership that tasks will be delivered as expected. Trust is a

human element and provided the elements of unconscious bias do not inform on

the trust position, trust will always supersede the conscious bias. If there are

conscious biases that informs trust, it is not a factual bias upon which decisions

are made.

Managers delegate to those they trust because it is a natural inclination to do so.

Trust must be supported with facts than assumptions. Because trust is infused in

letting go and handing over to someone; managers are hesitant to delegate

because of the risk of non-delivery. The focus must be on building trust done by

looking at the intrinsic value of people, behaviours, attitude and interests. Trust is

earned by being vulnerable and accepting that managers are human beings and

can also make mistakes.

Managers lack confidence in themselves and others because of varying degrees

of insecurity which brings job security and delegation into play (Ghumro, Mangi,

& Soomro, 2011). Job insecurity can create certain biases forcing managers to

delegate less and not fully exploit the power of delegation. The bias of delegation

stems from lack of trust knowing that certain individuals will deliver based on

their track record. The thinking between people who trust each other turns to be

similar because they understand the robustness of the processes they go

through to get to where they are and assume that anyone within that system can

take on whatever responsibility and has the capability to deliver.

People respond differently based on the cultural contingency of their leaders and

the organisation (Chevrier & Viegas-Pires, 2013). In delegation, creating a

working culture that is coherent with the organisation is important. Age, gender,

religion and other cultural beliefs are not the determinants of delegation. People

must be treated fairly without neglecting cultural differences to avoid potential

mismatches. People are conscious and subconscious beings and always have a

perception about things and about others (Vithoulkas & Muresanu, 2014). The

subconscious mind is not suppressed when delegation is done and being aware

of our own subconsciousness creates an elevated awareness to delegate

accordingly. Delegation is not natural, it must be supported with a culture that

allows people to fail and learn from their mistakes.

National cultures impact delegation. People do not leave their cultures when they

go to the working environment, it is part of who we are. It is not easy to detach

oneself from own culture. It is important for managers to understand these

dynamics and embrace them for delegation to succeed. Knowing people’s

cultures is important for delegation to work because it provides managers with

the necessary information to delegate and manage expectations.

Organisations are built on models and how people organise themselves to be

effective and deliver value. Job design and roles can impact delegation. If jobs

are designed using vertical structures with information flowing from the top to the

bottom, delegation will suffer because only a few can speak to certain people.

Jobs that are too restrictive prevent people from going over and beyond their job

descriptions. Managers need to be aware that their jobs go beyond what is

written on paper. Job designs that are less prescriptive enables delegation.

Delegation is rooted in organisational structures, decision making and handing

over of authority (Ferrari, 2014). Organisational hierarchy can affect delegation

positively or negatively based on how it is designed and implemented. If there is

a disconnect, delegation will fail. Managers must focus on creating an alignment

between the tiers of management and continuously monitor it for misalignments.

Focus must be on the organisation and build structures that embrace delegation.

6. Conclusion

The research has highlighted the success factors of delegation including quality

and compliance. It identified what is deemed as the premise of delegation and its

foundational elements to make it succeed. It has revealed that, there is a ceiling

in delegation and that not every task can be delegated. In the delegation

process, the manager who delegates is always accountable besides assigning

tasks to delegatees.

The findings have shown that there is no structured process for delegation.

Some managers are intentional about delegation and apply themselves on what

need to be delegated while some still battles with the concept of delegation.

Overall, there is an appreciation that delegation is meant to empower the

delegatee and delegated tasks should be done in line with this. Due to the

psychological and theoretical nature of delegation and it being a soft skill, the

lines of whether tasks are done to empower others or for business as usual are

blurred.

Since delegation comes from within and the interest to grow others, managers

accept that delegation has biases and needs maturity for it to succeed.

Delegation needs a higher level of authority, power and influence defined in

leadership. To realise its value, delegation needs managers to operate beyond

management and lead from the front. It requires a leadership and empowerment

paradigm that is intentional about the growth and development of others.

Because delegation is giving authority to the next person, the respondents

agreed that attitude, aptitude and competencies are key in the process. The

focus should be on people including their interests without neglecting the

required skills because these can be learnt. Support structures are a must for

delegation to succeed; these include training, mentoring, coaching and easy

access to information. An alignment of what needs to be done and the expected

outcome discussed up front is a key enabler for delegation. Trust is important in

delegation because without it, nothing gets done between managers and their

subordinates. Managers need to focus on building trust, teams and relationships.

Monitoring of progress made in the delegation journey is done through meetings,

stand ups and reports. Managers need to consider what delegatees think and

bring them early in the delegation journey.

The research revealed that delegation is an art and needs a meticulous

approach because it deals with people. Motivating, acknowledging and

recognising people in delegation is of utmost importance because it touches

people’s value system and that they are able and can contribute positively to

their organisations. There is a general feeling that rewards should be done fairly

and in line with the organisational standards. Rewards should go beyond money.

Delegation is silent and not an item that features a lot in boardrooms but

important for organisational success. By being in management, it is assumed

that delegation is done. Due to implicit characteristics of delegation, the

respondents found that organisational hierarchy, job design and politics can to a

certain degree impact delegation. The respondents agreed that delegation needs

a culture which must be influenced by the organisational culture.

7. Recommendations for future research

The research used purposeful sampling targeted at senior managers and

executives working in South Africa. It focused on the level without any distinction

between public and private sectors. Furthermore, the research has identified the

success factors of delegation and it is recommended that each finding be

researched in its entirety.

Delegation is a necessary management discipline (Serrat, 2010) . Organisations

and managers need to be equipped on how to deal with the realities of the

findings and getting an in-depth understanding can contribute positively on the

future success of organisations and to the body of knowledge. It is further

recommended that research be done using quantitative methods because the

qualitative method revealed the trends and would be beneficial to know the

severity of each finding. The findings that stood out and are recommended for

further research are listed.

Trust in organisation and the impact of delegation, do organisations

with a high level of trust delegate more?

The relationship between skills and delegation. Are highly skilled

employees delegated more?

It would be advisable to split the research between the private and public

sectors because the feedback suggests the approach used is different between

the two sectors; a research to ascertain this claim would be beneficial.

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Appendix

Success factors of delegaon, work quality and compliance: In-Depth Interview Guide

Denions:

Basics

5. What do you see as the goals or objectives of delegation?

6. According to you, what are some of the premises of delegation? What does it build on? What

7. makes delegation work?

8. Is there a ceiling or limit when it comes to delegation? How far can one take delegation? What

9. would be the ceiling or limit of delegation?

10.To what extent can one use delegation to increase your performance, reach, impact, domain,

and

11.output?

12.What are common biases towards delegation?

Leadership

13.Before delegation is done, seniors managers and executives need to apply their minds on how

to effectively delegate and make sure tasks are done successfully, what comes to mind when

you have a task that needs delegating?

14.Once a task has been delegated, there are no guarantees that it will be done successfully, how

do you monitor progress of tasks delegated?

15.How do you delegate work?

16.Some managers use priority, some use complexity of tasks to determine who to delegate to, do

you have a structured process on how you delegate tasks, if yes please share and if not also

share how you handle that?

17.There is certain level of expectation from and managers and they need to understand the work

they are delegating; do you first analyse the work before delegating or you delegate right away

and why?

18.There are cases where delegation fails which can be a bad reflection on managers, what do you

deem as the most critical factors for delegation to succeed?

19.Delegation involves two parties, manager assigning tasks to subordinates who need to action,

how do you deal with insubordination and disobedience?

20.Some managers are delegating because they don’t have the skills to do the work, some want to

impart knowledge, what do you aim to achieve from delegation?

21.It is believed that happy teams have a better chance of succeeding, how do you create energy

and interest in the team?

22.What leadership style or styles work best for delegation? What style of leadership do you

normally

use with delegation?

23.How did you learn to delegate? And how did you learn to improve your delegation?

Competency

24.The ultimate objective of delegation is to get the job done and do it well, how do you determine

the best candidate to do the job?

25.Skills play an important factor in making sure that tasks are completed correctly and timeously,

do you see skills and competency as a hindrance to delegation?

26.When bringing new members, where do you rank their skills and competency to enable effective

delegation?

27.Some believe that giving too much is not good because it empowers the next person, are you

concerned about that which might lead to your employees will leave your team or organisation

because they have learnt more?

28.To delegate effectively, to close the skills and competency upfront or your deal with it as you go

along?

Job Sasfacon

29.Do you ever worry that delegating too much might put your job at risk with your subordinates

knowing more that you do or doing your job better?

30.Do you worry about your team members leaving your team?

31.How do you solicit feedback after delegating?

32.How do you deal with conflict from delegating?

Relaonship and Trust

33.Managers only delegate to those they trust, do you believe in this statement and why. If not, why

and what is your preference?

34.Do you believe trust is important for effective delegation and if yes, how to do build it to

maximise delegation effectiveness?

35.How do you manage the relationships within your team and the wider organisation?

36.How do you align the delegatee with your objectives? What are some of the challenges to

getting

the delegatee on the same page? How do you get the delegatee on the same page?

37.Is it easier for you to work with and delegate to some than to others? What determines this?

38.How important is mentoring of delegatees? Do you see it as part of your duty as delegator to

mentor and invest in the delegatee? How successful are you at mentoring delegatees? What

determines this?

39.Is it necessary to motivate delegatees in a special way, particularly through reward and

recognition?

Culture

40.Do you think about the type of person you are delegating to before delegating, e.g. age, gender,

religion?

41.Which language do you use the most when delegating?

42.What method of communication do you use when delegating?

43.What is the level of power dynamics in your team or organisation?

44.At what level is the decision making in your team and the work you delegate?

45.What kind of culture is required for delegation to work? Does delegation require a specific

culture?

How do you develop the necessary delegation culture?

46.Does politics within the organization impact on delegation? If so, how do you approach it?

47.Are there any cultural factors that impact delegation? Put differently, does national culture or

various cultures impact on delegation? If so, how do you approach it?

48.How does delegation affect organizational hierarchy and organizational design and decision

making?

49.How does delegation affect job design and job security?

ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any citations for this publication.

The Impact of the Delegation of Authority on Employees' Performance at Great Irbid Municipality: Case Study

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2015

The study aimed at identifying the impact of the delegation of authority on employees' performance at great Irbid municipality. It has constructed on measuring the impact of delegation on efficiency, effectiveness and empowerment. Sample of the study represented by employees in which they are embedded in central and executive management through a random sampling reached to (200) employees from total (1500). The sample was used as a tool for achieving the results. After applying Alpha measurement, it has been shown that validity was (82%). Means, standard deviation, percentages, (T-test), and Cronbach Alpha test were used and applied. The results of the study have shown that there is a statically significant for delegation of authority on efficiency, effectiveness and empowerment of employees' performance at great Irbid municipality. 49 corresponded with the value of tasks in order to promote functional performance. Moreover, improving administrative delegation of authority in which effect on employees' satisfaction, employees' empowerment to implement tasks individually without asking high management. This method will save time and effort. It will also offer service for customers rapidly and directly.

Relations between task delegation and job satisfaction in general practice: A systematic literature review

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2016
BMC FAM PRACT

Background It has for years been discussed whether practice staff should be involved in patient care in general practice to a higher extent. The research concerning task delegation within general practice is generally increasing, but the literature focusing on its influence on general practitioners' and their staff’s job satisfaction appears to be sparse even though job satisfaction is acknowledged as an important factor associated with both patient satisfaction and medical quality of care. Therefore, the overall aim of this study was 1) to review the current research on the relation between task delegation and general practitioners' and their staff’s job satisfaction and, additionally, 2) to review the evidence of possible explanations for this relation. MethodsA systematic literature review. We searched the four databases PubMed, Cinahl, Embase, and Scopus systematically. The immediate relevance of the retrieved articles was evaluated by title and abstract by the first author, and papers that seemed to meet the aim of the review were then fully read by first author and last author independently judging the eligibility of content. ResultsWe included four studies in the review. They explored views and attitudes of the staff, encompassing nurses as well as practice managers. Only one of the included studies also explored general practitioners' views and attitudes, hence making it impossible to establish any syntheses on this relation. According to the studies, the staff’s overall attitude towards task delegation was positive and led to increased job satisfaction, probably because task delegation comprised a high degree of work autonomy. Conclusions The few studies included in our review suggest that task delegation within general practice may be seen by the staff as an overall positive issue contributing to their job satisfaction, primarily due to perceived autonomy in the work. However, because of the small sample size comprising only qualitative studies, and due to the heterogeneity of these studies, we cannot draw unambiguous conclusions although we point towards tendencies.

Transparency: Mediation and the management of visibilities

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2016

Mikkel Flyverbom

This article challenges the view of transparency as a matter of providing openness, insight, and clarity by conceptualizing it as a form of visibility management. We tend to think of transparency as a process of ensuring accountability through the timely and public disclosure of information. But with the ubiquity of digital technology and data, transparency efforts have more elaborate and complex effects. To conceptualize these, this article discusses the technological and mediated foundations of transparency and the dynamics of visibility practices resulting from efforts to make people, objects, and processes knowable and governable. This implies that we shift our attention away from the provision of information and consider the wider social processes and dynamics at work in transparency efforts. Using empirical illustrations from organizations with an explicit commitment to transparency, this article articulates the complexities and dynamics of visibility management and highlights a set of critical questions about the politics, technologies, and power effects of contemporary transparency regimes.

A General Theory of Delegation, Accountability and Empowerment

Article

Sep 1997

J. Peter Venton

Delegation, accountability, and empowerment are parts of a system aimed at high performance. This article presents definitions and purposes of these terms, describes the nature of their interrelationships and impacts on performance, and comments on how advanced program evaluation methods can render delegation and accountability more effective and empowerment less risky.

Empowerment and the Dark Side of Delegation

Article

Jan 2018

Matthias Kräkel

Philosophical Paradigms and Other Underpinnings of the Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods: An Accounting Education Perspective

Article

May 2015

The methods followed in educating society, together with the phenomena shaping them in the process, is a major area for research, specifically in the field of accounting education. The main purpose of this paper is to provide the novice accounting education researcher with some guidelines on the research methodologies that could be applied in the field of accounting education, as well as to highlight some best practices. This paper, therefore, explores various research paradigms and their ontological, epistemological and methodological assumptions and methods in an attempt to guide the accounting education researcher in selecting a research design. This is achieved by investigating quantitative and qualitative research methodologies and the theories associated with them. Recommendations are made on the way forward for the novice accounting education researcher and a final conclusion is drawn from findings of the paper.

The Effectiveness of Delegation as a Process in Primary Schools in South Central Region of Botswana

Article

Aug 2012

The purpose of the study was to examine the effectiveness of delegation as a management process in primary schools. A random sample of 10 schools was selected. A self-administered written questionnaire was designed and given to fifty (50) school teachers in Central South Regions (Serowe schools). The results of the study were analysed through the use of tables showing frequency distribution and percentages. Major findings of this study revealed that there is usually delegation of tasks to subordinates. School managers together with their subordinates share the workload. Furthermore, the study also revealed that school managers are faced with some personal problems that need to be addressed. This study recommends regular in-service training for both school management team and teachers. This will guard against any transfer or absorption of a teacher who is fully skilled in a particular subject or activity.

Personality Assessment: A Competency–Capability Perspective

Article

Oct 2017

This article begins by reviewing the proficiency of personality assessment in the context of the competencies movement, which has dominated health service psychology in recent years. It examines the value of including a capability framework for advancing this proficiency and enhancing the quality of personality assessments, including Therapeutic Assessment (Finn & Tonsager, 1997 Finn, S. E., & Tonsager, M. E. (1997). Information-gathering and therapeutic models of assessment: Complementary paradigms. Psychological Assessment, 9, 374–385. doi:10.1037//1040-3590.9.4.374[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] [Google Scholar]), that include a personality assessment component. This hybrid competency–capability framework is used to set the stage for the conduct of personality assessments in a variety of contexts and for the optimal training of personality assessment. Future directions are offered in terms of ways psychologists can strengthen their social contract with the public and offer a broader array of personality assessments in more diverse contexts and by individuals who are both competent and capable.

Erratum: A Formal Model of the Politics of Delegation in a Separation of Powers System

Article

Apr 2002
AM J POLIT SCI

Craig Volden

Delegation of Clinical Authority, Administrative Culture and Policy Adoption: A Comparative Analysis

Article

Jun 2016

Numerous countries have adopted reforms that allow medical personnel other than physicians to engage in tasks that traditionally were exclusively performed by physicians. This policy is controversial because it challenges the medical profession’s traditional boundaries. This study is an exercise in comparative policy research based on the experience of 18 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries. It evaluates the contribution of different structural factors – socioeconomic, cultural, and institutional – to policy adoption. Based on both quantitative analysis and an examination of how delegation unfolded in Israel, the role of administrative culture is highlighted: a category that combines cultural legacies and institutional properties in explaining policy adoption. It is argued that because, in entrepreneurial administrative cultures, administrators are more likely to possess a managerial mindset than in Rechtsstaat cultures, and also have more institutional leeway for action, delegation is more likely to be adopted in the former.

The factors of delegation success: accountability, compliance and work quality

Abstract

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