ArticlePDF Available

Abstract

In recent years, vision has become a major theme in language motivation research, capturing a core feature of modern theories of language motivation. However, empirical investigations have mostly followed the prototypical design of administering self-report questionnaires and examining correlations among a handful of variables. At the same time, substantial overlap can be found between the current conceptualization of vision theory and the long-standing tradition of goal-setting theory. After demonstrating this substantial overlap, and taking our cues from goal-setting theory, this paper highlights critical gaps in current research into vision, including its sensory element, characteristics of effective vision, vision evolution over time, vision multiplicity and potential inter-vision conflict, vision mediators, collective vision, and the role of emotions and self-satisfaction at the end. The ultimate aim of this article is to propose a research agenda to examine the extent to which vision can be meaningfully distinguished from goal.
Porta Linguarum 33, enero 2020 217-229
217
Vision Theory vs. Goal-Setting Theory: A Critical
Analysis
aLi H. aL-Hoorie
aHmed aL SHLowiy
English Language and Preparatory Year Institute
Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu
Saudi Arabia
Received: 18 October 2019 / Accepted: 27 March 2020
ISSN paper edition: 1697-7467, ISSN digital edition: 2695-8244
ABSTRACT: In recent years, vision has become a major theme in language motivation re-
search, capturing a core feature of modern theories of language motivation. However, empir-
ical investigations have mostly followed the prototypical design of administering self-report
questionnaires and examining correlations among a handful of variables. At the same time,
substantial overlap can be found between the current conceptualization of vision theory and
the long-standing tradition of goal-setting theory. After demonstrating this substantial over-
lap, and taking our cues from goal-setting theory, this paper highlights critical gaps in current
research into vision, including its sensory element, characteristics of effective vision, vision
evolution over time, vision multiplicity and potential inter-vision conict, vision mediators,
collective vision, and the role of emotions and self-satisfaction at the end. The ultimate aim
of this article is to propose a research agenda to examine the extent to which vision can be
meaningfully distinguished from goal.
Keywords: language motivation, second language acquisition, vision, goal.
Teoría de la visión versus teoría del establecimiento de objetivos: un análisis crítico.
RESUMEN: En los últimos años, la visión se ha convertido en un tema principal en
la investigación sobre la motivación del lenguaje, capturando una característica central
de las teorías modernas sobre motivación del lenguaje. Sin embargo, las investigaciones
empíricas han seguido principalmente el diseño prototípico de administrar cuestionarios
de autoevaluación y examinar las correlaciones entre un puñado de variables. Al mismo
tiempo, se puede encontrar una superposición sustancial entre la conceptualización actual
de la teoría de la visión y la larga tradición de la teoría del establecimiento de objetivos.
Después de demostrar esta superposición sustancial, y teniendo en cuenta nuestras indi-
caciones sobre la teoría del establecimiento de objetivos, este artículo destaca las brechas
críticas en la investigación actual sobre la visión, incluyendo su elemento sensorial, carac-
terísticas de visión efectiva, evolución de la visión a lo largo del tiempo, multiplicidad de
visiones y posible conicto entre ellas, mediadores visuales, visión colectiva y el papel de
las emociones y la autosatisfacción al nal. El propósito nal de este artículo es proponer
una agenda de investigación para examinar hasta qué punto la visión puede distinguirse
signicativamente del objetivo.
Palabras clave: motivación del lenguaje, adquisición de un segundo idioma, visión, ob-
jetivo
Porta Linguarum Nº 33, enero 2020
218
1. Intro ductIon
In recent years, the second language (L2) motivation literature has witnessed the emer-
gence of what Muir and Dörnyei (2013, p. 362) call vision theory. This idea refers to the
proposal that imagery and vision of a desired, long-term goal could be a motivating factor
in language learning. Vision theory has provided the foundation of the L2 Motivational Self
System (Dörnyei, 2005, 2009). Although the L2 Motivational Self System draws from both
the socio-educational model (Gardner, 1985, 2010) and self-discrepancy theory (Higgins,
1987), it admittedly draws most heavily from possible selves theory (Markus & Nurius,
1986) as is evident in theory (focusing on vision and visualization), measurement (omitting
discrepancy), and general methodological approach (relying on questionnaires rather than
experimental manipulation of ideals and oughts). Just as Dörnyei, Henry, and Muir (2016)
put it, the L2 Motivational Self System “is centered on a key premise rooted in the under-
standing that the way in which people imagine themselves in the future plays an important
role in energizing their learning behavior in the present” (p. 53).
In addition to the above-mentioned theories, vision theory also draws from a fourth—
though less-acknowledged—tradition, namely goal-setting theory (cf. Dörnyei et al., 2016,
chap. 3; Locke & Latham, 1990, 2013c). In fact, Muir and Dörnyei (2013) describe goal-set-
ting theory as “[t]he most obvious connection” (p. 366) to vision theory. Goal-setting theory
has a long-standing tradition predating even the cognitive revolution itself (Locke, 1996;
Locke & Latham, 1990). Locke and Latham (2006) report that it had been developed over
a 25-year period from the results of around 400 laboratory and eld studies. Despite all of
this, goal-setting theory does not feature prominently in current vision theory literature or
the language motivation eld more generally. Closer comparison between these two theories
however reveals considerable overlap, to the extent that it is not clear what contribution
vision theory makes to knowledge of learner motivation over and above knowledge already
known from goal-setting theory. Considering the decades-long history of goal-setting theory,
it is important to examine how this new vision theory contributes to this literature in order
to avoid repackaging existing constructs into new terminology (Al-Hoorie, 2018). In this
article, we rst overview some examples of the overlap between these two theories. We
then highlight important gaps in vision theory literature that are yet to be addressed to a
satisfactory extent in L2 research.
2. Paral lel betwe en vIsIon theory and g oal-settI ng theory
As Muir and Dörnyei (2013) explain, albeit briey, there are a lot of themes in com-
mon between vision theory and goal-setting theory. These themes have not been explicitly
discussed in the eld to date, perhaps raising the perception that there is not much overlap
between the two theories. This is especially problematic considering the occasionally dif-
ferent terminology used, and the somewhat different foci of the two theories considering
their applied contexts and histories. In this section, therefore, we survey some examples of
similarities between the two theories.
According to Dörnyei (2009; see also Dörnyei & Kubanyiova, 2014; Hadeld & Dörnyei,
2013), the effect of the proposed vision-based approach requires the satisfaction of certain
Ali H. Al-Hoorie And AHmed Al SHlowiy Vision Theory vs. Goal-Setting...
219
conditions—or moderators to use a more technical language. These moderators have received
considerable attention in the goals literature. In this section, we show some parallels and
ndings from the goals literature in mainstream psychology.
The rst condition is that the ideal vision needs to exist. That is, the learner should
formulate an ideal vision that s/he considers to be personally important. This idea can also
be found in the goals literature. For example, Austin and Vancouver (1996) discuss the
importance of “goal establishment”. They argue that the origin of a goal could be external
to the individual, internal, or a combination of the two. Austin and Vancouver (1996) then
review research showing that external goals can be internalized through different mechanisms,
most notably persuasion. Persuasion has been shown to facilitate both goal acceptance and
subsequent commitment. In fact, the name of goal-setting theory demonstrates the impor-
tance of this step.
Another condition is substantiating the vision. This idea refers to the need for the
learner to believe that the vision is plausible. Again, this notion is pervasive in the goals
literature. As Bandura (2013) explains, self-efcacy plays a major role in goals. Cognitively,
self-efcacy inuences whether the individual thinks in a self-enhancing or self-debilitating
way while they try to achieve their goals. Motivationally, self-efcacy has an effect on the
level of goal difculty that one selects, how much effort one then invests, and the degree of
persistence at the face of setbacks. Affectively, one’s beliefs in their coping ability inuence
their emotional life and vulnerability to depression and stress during the goal accomplishment
struggle. Decisionally, self-efcacy inuences what decisions are made and how well they
are, then, implemented.
Vision theory also emphasizes the motivational effect of visualization. In contrast to
vision—which concerns an ultimate end-state one strives to achieve, as explained above—
visualization is typically a technique of mentally practicing task performance without a
physical stimulus. Visualization has also been investigated in goal-setting theory for decades.
For example, Morin and Latham (2000) conducted an experiment where they trained super-
visors on mental practice to improve their communication skills and interaction with others.
Six months later, trained supervisors exhibited higher self-efcacy compared to those in the
control group. Self-efcacy, in turn, predicted both goal commitment and communication
skills. As Austin and Vancouver (1996; see also Bandura, 1986) argue, mental simulation
during planning can achieve comparable results to those obtained from behavioral practice.
A further condition is the development of an action plan. That is, the vision needs to
be operationalized so that the learner has a roadmap of what needs to be done. A very sim-
ilar notion is found in the goals literature. An important characteristic of effective goals is
specicity. Interestingly, some goals literature actually downplays the role of specic goals
on performance improvement, unless they are additionally coupled with an appropriate level
of difculty (see Locke & Latham, 1990). Without the difculty dimension, the primary
effect of goal specicity is to simply reduce variance among individuals since they are all
following the same roadmap.
Besides, the vision needs to be activated in order to keep it alive. Similar to the previous
factors, activation has also received substantial attention in the goals literature. Research-
ers have investigated factors such as salience, availability, and accessibility in memory. In
fact, as Austin and Vancouver (1996) argue, the “more common understanding of goals is
as dynamically conscious—shuttling in and out of working memory as required” (p. 345).
Porta Linguarum Nº 33, enero 2020
220
Continuous awareness of the goal is not required. Once a goal is adopted, it remains in the
background of consciousness guiding and giving meaning to mental and physical actions
leading to a goal (Locke & Latham, 1990). Actually, “at any point in time, more nonconscious
goals are operating than conscious ones” (Austin & Vancouver, 1996, p. 346).
Another condition postulated in the vision tradition is considering failure. This is pro-
posed to counterbalance the vision. In goal-setting theory, a somewhat similar aspect has
been investigated, namely fear of failure (e.g., Latham & Locke, 2013). This tradition has
focused on the need to decrease fear of failure in order to counteract its debilitating effects.
A slightly different construct is that of balance between positive and negative expectations
in the same domain (Oyserman & Fryberg, 2006). However, evidence seems mixed in this
regard. For example, Knox (2006) suggests that feared possible selves are not salient for
males. Furthermore, hardly any evidence for an independent effect of this negative dimension
is currently available in the context of L2 learning.
This brief overview shows that there are a lot of shared themes between these two
theories. It also points out some interesting avenues for future research. The next section
focuses more explicitly on potential future research directions that could help delineate the
distinction between these two theories.
3. contr IbutIon o f vIsIon theory
3.1. Does the sensory element of vision make a unique contribution to language learning
motivation?
Although the term vision has a broad denition referring to a desired, long-term goal
as explained above, vision theory advocates a narrower dimension emphasizing the sensory
element of one’s vision. To quote Hadeld and Dörnyei,
When we use the word ‘vision’, we use it literally: possible selves are more than mere
long-term goals or future plans in that they involve tangible images and senses. If we have a
well-developed possible future self, we can imagine this self in vivid, realistic situations….
possible selves are a reality for the individual: people can ‘see’ and ‘hear a possible self.
(Hadeld & Dörnyei, 2013, p. 2, original emphasis)
Similarly, Dörnyei and Chan (2013) dene vision as “the sensory experience of a future
goal state or… a personalized goal that the learner has made his/her own by adding to it
the imagined reality of the goal experience” (pp. 454-455). Based on this view, Dörnyei
(2014) argues that there is a “qualitative difference” (p. 12) between goal and vision in that
the latter contains sensory elements and tangible images of the desired outcome and how to
achieve it, which is “unlike an abstract, cognitive goal” (p. 12).
Dörnyei and colleagues (e.g., Dörnyei, 2014; Dörnyei et al., 2016) additionally argue that
a key brainchild of vision theory is directed motivation currents (henceforth, DMC), or what
Ibrahim and Al-Hoorie (2019) call sustained ow. DMC is the unique ow-like motivational
surge one can experience for a prolonged period of time. Dörnyei, Muir, and Ibrahim (2014)
argue that vision is an integral component of the DMC experience, in that “the intensity of
a DMC cannot be achieved without adding this visionary quality to guiding goals” (p. 13).
Ali H. Al-Hoorie And AHmed Al SHlowiy Vision Theory vs. Goal-Setting...
221
Considering the overlap between vision theory and goal-setting theory discussed in
the previous section, it is essential to closely examine the role of vision and its unique
contribution to the existing goals literature. Despite claims about the role of vision and its
sensory element in particular, hardly any quantitative analysis has been conducted to examine
the extent to which a sensory element contributes to learning motivation. Some qualitative
research conducted to date, however, do not seem to support this hypothesis. For example,
Ibrahim (2016b) found that his participants’ DMC was fueled not by their visions but by
the DMC experience itself. Vision was not a salient aspect for these learners, and was often
completely absent. In fact, some participants reported deliberately avoiding visualization
(see Ibrahim, 2016a). Similar ndings were obtained by Henry, Davydenko, and Dörnyei
(2015). In this study of female migrants and asylum seekers, the results also showed that
the participants, despite the DMC experience, had only vague future visions. The authors
conclude that “our analyses failed to reveal long-term goals that were explicitly dened.
Nor did the women give voice to idealised versions or describe specic visions of future
selves” (pp. 341–342). Instead, their motivation seemed to be sustained by classic factors
such as goal-setting, appraisal of ability, and feedback. A further study was conducted by
Murphy, Stubbings, and Uemura (2017). These researchers interviewed high-ability Japanese
learners of English about their DMC experiences. The participants did not report vision or
visualization of a future state to be a salient motivator for their DMC experience. In fact,
even after direct questioning, only three out of the nine participants reported engaging in
some form of visualization—and it was not reported as a key component.
The results of these studies suggest that, although a future vision might play some
role in triggering DMC, there is currently no reason to believe that it is an indispensable
component throughout the DMC experience. It is possible that DMC could instead be sus-
tained by, for example, the pleasure of the activity or the sense of progress felt during the
DMC experience. Considering the central role ascribed to the sensory element of vision,
hypothesized as a qualitative difference between goals and visions, it is important to ex-
amine whether and to what extent this sensory element contributes to the DMC experience
and to motivation more generally. It is equally important to quantify this effect in order to
facilitate comparison to the effect of conventional goals. Two interventions (Chan, 2014;
Magid, 2014) showed positive results but they lacked blinding and a control group. A third
intervention (Mackay, 2014) found no signicant differences between the treatment and the
control groups. Ideally, an intervention study should include a control group that receives a
conventional goal treatment (i.e., not involving a sensory element) in order to compare its
effect on a visualization intervention.
3.2. What are the characteristics of effective vision?
Whether or not the sensory element plays a role, it is important to nd out what char-
acteristics make a vision more effective in motivating language learning. It has been argued
that a special feature of vision is that it sheds light on goal importance and commitment.
Dörnyei and colleagues (2016) argue that goal-setting theory “only goes as far as to state
that high commitment is achieved if an individual is convinced that the goal is important,
without elaborating much on what it is that makes goals ‘important’” (Dörnyei et al., 2016,
p. 41). However, it would be fair to say that goal-setting theory has paid a decent amount of
Porta Linguarum Nº 33, enero 2020
222
attention to what makes goals important and consequently enhances commitment. In fact, in
their 1990 book, Locke and Latham devote two chapters to this topic. They set off stating that,
The integrating principle behind the factors discussed in this section is that they
lead the individual to believe that trying for or attaining the goal is important and
do so without arousing conict between the goal in question and other goals, or
do so by eliminating such conict. (Locke & Latham, 1990, pp. 132-133, original
emphasis).
Locke and Latham (1990) then go on to review these commitment factors, including the
role of authority (e.g., the teacher in the context of language learning), peers, and whether
commitment is made publicly or privately. Locke and Latham (1990) also compare the ef-
fectiveness of self-set goals versus assigned goals (see pp. 167–169). Their review shows,
for example, that self-set goals are not always superior to assigned goals in either goal
commitment or performance improvement. Other characteristics inuencing the effectiveness
of goals include goal specicity, appropriate level of difculty, feedback availability, task
complexity, and situational constraints (Locke & Latham, 2006). An interesting concept in
this regard is goal intensity, which refers to “the effort needed to set a goal, the position
of a goal in an individual’s goal hierarchy, and the extent to which a person is committed
to goal attainment” (Locke & Latham, 2013a, p. 5).
Future research should investigate the extent to which the characteristics of an effective
vision are similar or different from those of an effective goal. For example, future research
could compare the motivational effect of self-set vision versus vision set by others such as
the teacher and peers. Another line of research could examine the effect of making one’s
vision public, whether it increases commitment, how vision is revised based on reactions
from others, and whether certain personality characteristics —including gender— plays a
moderating role. It would also be interesting to nd out whether it makes sense to speak
of ‘vision intensity’ (i.e., the effort it requires, its importance, and how committed one is
to realizing it).
3.3. Can the language learner have more than one vision? How does the learner handle
vision multiplicity effectively?
Discussion of the sensory element of vision and of its characteristics is consistent with
the general narrative in vision theory that assumes that the learner has a single vision. In
fact, one would be hard-pressed to nd the word vision in the plural form in relation to a
single learner. In goal-setting theory, researchers have explored situations where multiple
goals exist. As Locke and Latham (1990) review, goal interrelations have been conceptualized
in various ways including hierarchies, networks, branching paths or trees, graphs, lattices,
and vectors. In a similar vein, Sun and Frese (2013) discuss three types of goal typolo-
gies: independent goals (goals in different domains competing for one’s limited resources),
sequentially interdependent goals (achieving one goal leads to the other), and reciprocally
interdependent goals (goals synergetically supporting each other). This dimension is some-
times called connectedness-complexity of goals (Austin & Vancouver, 1996).
Ali H. Al-Hoorie And AHmed Al SHlowiy Vision Theory vs. Goal-Setting...
223
In the language learning domains, it is not hard to imagine a learner possessing more
than one vision. For example, a learner might hope to be a uent speaker of the target lan-
guage, and also a professional translator of legal documents. These two visions fall under
the overall umbrella of linguistic prociency but have different linguistic emphases and
training requirements. A second learner, on the other hand, might have a linguistic vision and
a cultural vision. The cultural vision could represent an interest in the cultural products of
the target community such as their music, TV shows, and celebrities (Gardner, 1985, 2010).
Because of the resulting reciproal effects, this learner may have an additional advantage in
that leisure time activities become further learning opportunities. In contrast, a third learner
might have conicting visions. One vision might relate to academic achievement while the
other to belonging to a certain social group, sometimes resulting in what have been called
the norm of mediocrity (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011).
Locke and Latham (2013b) describe vision as “a form of superordinate goal” (p. 629).
According to the goals literature, one particular advantage of possessing such a long-term
vision is that it reduces goal conict (for a review, see Sun & Frese, 2013). That is, a su-
perordinate goal can combine supporting subgoals performed daily, give an overall meaning
to them, and facilitate synergy among them. Freitas, Clark, Kim, and Levy (2009) illustrate
this notion by giving the example of the goal of “being excellent at work” and the goal of
“eating healthy food”. Although these two goals might at rst seem too disparate, they can be
sensibly combined under the higher-level goal of being “a successful, self-disciplined person”.
Little language learning motivation research has explored the (possibly common)
scenario of vision multiplicity. Lack of motivation may not only be because of a lack of
vision, but also due to the presence of other visions competing for attention and energy. To
better understand these processes, future research should examine how learners manage this
multiplicity and how vision conict could be resolved effectively.
3.4. How does vision evolve over time?
Whether the learner has one or multiple visions, it is also insightful to understand how
they evolve over time. Goal-setting researchers have examined the developmental stages of
goals. Austin and Vancouver (1996) describe four stages: establishing, planning, striving,
and revising. That is, individuals rst decide on what goals to pursue, make plans on how
to go about doing that, exert effort trying to achieve these goals, and nally reect on
their experience and its outcomes. Other models propose three similar phases: forethought,
performance, and self-reection (Bandura, 1986; Zimmerman & Campillo, 2003). These
models show how goal pursuit unfolds over time. Some researchers have also questioned
the linearity of this process, arguing for the possibility of nonlinear and parallel processes
(Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Simon, 1994).
Some language researchers have already explored the possibility of viewing motivation as
a complex dynamic process (Dörnyei, MacIntyre, & Henry, 2015; Hiver & Al-Hoorie, 2016).
However, there seems to be less interest in how vision itself changes over time. Currently,
it is not clear how visions form in the rst place, and what role parents, peers, and teachers
play in shaping vision. Other factors could also contribute to vision change, including the
source of the vision, its attainability, and the level of satisfaction from it. Investigations of
change could be at different time-scales, ranging from micro to macro. Micro time-scales can
Porta Linguarum Nº 33, enero 2020
224
shed light on change within seconds and minutes and typically requires specialized software
to capture variations accurately (e.g., the idiodynamic approach, MacIntyre, 2012) while
macro investigations can extend years and even decades, which makes them less popular
(Sugita McEown, Noels, & Chaffee, 2014). Investigating vision at these varying time-scales
would enrich our understanding of learning motivation.
3.5. What are the mediators of vision? Through what mechanisms does vision exert
their inuence?
As surveyed in the rst part of this article, some attention has been directed toward
moderators, or what Dörnyei (2009) calls conditions of visions. However, less attention has
been paid to mediators of visions. While moderators inuence the effectiveness of vision,
mediators explain the mechanisms of how vision exerts its effect. The goal-setting literature
has a number of mechanisms including directive function (directing attention and effort to-
ward goal-relevant activities and away from goal-irrelevant activities), energizing function
(expending more effort, especially with difcult goals), persistence, and indirectly through
arousal, discovery and use of relevant strategies and knowledge (Locke & Latham, 2002).
More recently, goal researchers have examined additional mechanisms such as attributions,
emotions, goal self-setting, and self-efcacy (Eberly, Liu, Mitchell, & Lee, 2013; Heslin &
Caprar, 2013).
A potential mechanism through which vision exerts its effect is unconscious processes.
Within goal-setting theory, some research has investigated this possibility. For example, Stajk-
ovic, Locke, and Blair (2006) compared “assigned conscious goals” and “primed unconscious
goals” and found that each made a contribution to improving performance. Interestingly, the
researchers also found an interaction between the two, in that congruence between conscious
and unconscious goals further improved performance to achieve conscious goals. Similarly,
research by Shantz and Latham (2009, 2011) has shown that priming goals both in lab and
eld experiments can have a positive impact on motivated behavior. Shantz and Latham (2011)
meta-analyzed the results from their research and found a moderate effect size of d = 0.56.
In their discussion of DMCs in language learning, Dörnyei et al. (2016) describe uncon-
scious self-regulation as “admittedly an oxymoron” (p. 85). Language learning is a long-term
enterprise with many intermediary steps. It would not be too surprising that unconscious
processes play a role (Al-Hoorie, 2016a; Al-Hoorie, 2016b). A better understanding of the
steps involved in actualizing vision, how learners struggle while doing so, what strategies
and techniques are utilized by different learners during vision striving are important questions
for future research. Little attention has been directed toward the process by which vision
can have its effect and whether it is distinct from that of conventional goals.
3.6. Does collective vision exist? Is it possible to foster it?
Apart from what makes vision effective or how, most discussion of vision has assumed
that it is held by an individual learner. Little attention has been paid to the possibility that
a group of learners might share a collective vision and its dynamics. In goal-setting theory,
group goals have been shown to be distinct personal goals. For example, group performance
improves when personal goals are in line with group goals, but deteriorates when they are
Ali H. Al-Hoorie And AHmed Al SHlowiy Vision Theory vs. Goal-Setting...
225
in conict (Seijts & Latham, 2000). Another difference is that personal goals are mediated
by task strategy and individual effort, whereas group goals are mediated by team-related
effort only (DeShon, Kozlowski, Schmidt, Milner, & Wiechmann, 2004).
When it comes to language learning, Ibrahim and Al-Hoorie (2019) examined collective
DMCs, or what they call shared, sustained ow. They found that class projects can help
foster the collective DMC experience. At the same time, their results also point to certain
facilitative conditions including forming a group identity, attaching personal value, and
providing partial autonomy. Research into collective vision is still at its infancy. It would
be informative to investigate the visions held by learners in one class, how comparable they
are, and to what extent such comparability contributes to motivation, effort, and eventual
language learning achievement success.
3.7. How does vision relate to emotions and self-satisfaction?
Locke and Latham (2006) argue that goals are closely related to affect in that “goals
set the primary standard for self-satisfaction with performance” (p. 265). In fact, Locke
and Latham (1990, p. 234) report a strong weighted mean correlation (r = .51) between
goal success and satisfaction. During the activity, also, goal setting is closely related to
moment-to-moment affective states in that appropriate goals can increase interest and reduce
boredom. Plemmons and Weiss (2013) go as far as to claim that it is “virtually impossible
to discuss goal processes without reference to affect, just as it is impossible to discuss affect
processes without reference to goals” (p. 117).
Within language learning motivation, there has been some interest in emotions lately
(see Al-Hoorie, 2017). As vision is posited to represent the ultimate desire of the individual,
or what the learner would like to become in the long run (Dörnyei, 2014), it would seem
commonsense to argue that vision is rmly tied to emotions. When it comes to the DMC
experience, it “offers an exciting and fully satisfying experience against which the emotional
state of everyday life does not always compare” (Dörnyei et al., 2014, p. 99).
However, little research has investigated the interconnections between emotion and
vision outside the admittedly extraordinary experience of DMC. It is likely that emotion
plays a role in inuencing vision selection, revision, and perception of performance out-
comes. Different emotions (e.g., anxiety, sadness, anger) might also have different effects
on these vision processes.
4. concludIng remar ks
Just as Muir and Dörnyei (2013) put it, vision theory is “only one part of a wider
narrative” (p. 362). It is therefore essential not to lose sight of the overall picture but care-
fully examine the unique contribution of vision theory to this wider narrative. This type of
examination might, in turn, suggest avenues for expanding current vision theory, including
aspects that are taken for granted. For example, while current vision theory emphasizes
discrepancy reduction, other theories additionally emphasize discrepancy creation (Locke &
Latham, 2006) and discrepancy production (Bandura, 1997). Indeed, “negative discrepancy
tells only half the story and not necessarily the more interesting half” (Bandura, 1997, p. 131).
Porta Linguarum Nº 33, enero 2020
226
The above discussion has also shown that an important tool to investigate vision is
intentional intervention. Most research to date has relied on questionnaire-based observational
designs and qualitative methods (Al-Hoorie, 2018; Lamb, 2017), leading Ushioda (2016)
to describe such approaches as “rather dull” (p. 565). This status quo may be attributed to
historical reasons, but for vision research to gain credibility, grappling with experimentation
seems inevitable (Hiver & Al-Hoorie, 2020).
A running theme of this paper is the need to pinpoint what unique contribution vision
theory can make to effective language over and above what is already known from the goals
literature. The ability to visualize desired outcomes to improve motivation and performance
has been around for decades (e.g., Clark, 1960). Back in the 1980s, Bandura argued that vis-
ualization exerts its effect through classical factors already known to psychologists back then,
Having people visualize themselves executing activities skillfully raises their
perceived self-efcacy that they will be able to perform better… Such boosts of
self-efcacy are likely to improve performance by reducing impeding self-doubts
and by enlisting the effort needed to do well. (Bandura, 1986, p. 62).
If this is the case, theorists should consider why vision should be considered qualita-
tively different from goals. Future research on this issue would hopefully shed more light
on the apparently considerable overlap between these two theories.
5. ackn owledgme nts
We would like to thank Beatriz González-Fernández for her assistance in translating
the abstract into Spanish.
6. refer ences
Al-Hoorie, A. H. (2016a). Unconscious motivation. Part I: Implicit attitudes toward L2 speakers.
Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 6(3), 423–454. doi:10.14746/
ssllt.2016.6.3.4
Al-Hoorie, A. H. (2016b). Unconscious motivation. Part II: Implicit attitudes and L2 achieve-
ment. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 6(4), 619–649. doi:10.14746/
ssllt.2016.6.4.4
Al-Hoorie, A. H. (2017). Sixty years of language motivation research: Looking back and looking
forward. SAGE Open. doi:10.1177/2158244017701976
Al-Hoorie, A. H. (2018). The L2 motivational self system: A meta-analysis. Studies in Second
Language Learning and Teaching, 8(4), 721–754. doi:10.14746/ssllt.2018.8.4.2
Austin, J. T., & Vancouver, J. B. (1996). Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and
content. Psychological Bulletin, 120(3), 338–375. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.120.3.338
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efcacy: The exercise of control. Freeman.
Bandura, A. (2013). The role of self-efcacy in goal-based motivation. In E. A. Locke & G. P.
Ali H. Al-Hoorie And AHmed Al SHlowiy Vision Theory vs. Goal-Setting...
227
Latham (Eds.), New developments in goal setting and task performance (pp. 147–157).
Routledge.
Chan, L. (2014). Effects of an imagery training strategy on Chinese university students’ possible
second language selves and learning experiences. In K. Csizér & M. Magid (Eds.), The
impact of self-concept on language learning (pp. 357–376). Multilingual Matters.
Clark, L. V. (1960). Effect of mental practice on the development of a certain motor skill. Re-
search Quarterly. American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation,
31(4), 560–569. doi:10.1080/10671188.1960.10613109
DeShon, R. P., Kozlowski, S. W. J., Schmidt, A. M., Milner, K. R., & Wiechmann, D. (2004).
A multiple-goal, multilevel model of feedback effects on the regulation of individual and
team performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(6), 1035–1056. doi:10.1037/0021-
9010.89.6.1035
Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second
language acquisition. Lawrence Erlbaum.
Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The L2 Motivational Self System. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Mo-
tivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 9–42). Multilingual Matters.
Dörnyei, Z. (2014). Future self-guides and vision. In K. Csizér & M. Magid (Eds.), The impact
of self-concept on language learning (pp. 7–18). Multilingual Matters.
Dörnyei, Z., & Chan, L. (2013). Motivation and vision: An analysis of future L2 self images,
sensory styles, and imagery capacity across two target languages. Language Learning,
63(3), 437–462. doi:10.1111/lang.12005
Dörnyei, Z., Henry, A., & Muir, C. (2016). Motivational currents in language learning: Fra-
meworks for focused interventions. Routledge.
Dörnyei, Z., & Kubanyiova, M. (2014). Motivating learners, motivating teachers: Building vision
in the language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dörnyei, Z., MacIntyre, P. D., & Henry, A. (Eds.). (2015). Motivational dynamics in language
learning. Multilingual Matters.
Dörnyei, Z., Muir, C., & Ibrahim, Z. (2014). Directed Motivational Currents: Energising language
learning by creating intense motivational pathways. In D. Lasagabaster, A. Doiz, & J. M.
Sierra (Eds.), Motivation and foreign language learning: From theory to practice (pp.
9–29). John Benjamins.
Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, U. (2011). Teaching and researching motivation (2nd ed.). Pearson.
Eberly, M. B., Liu, D., Mitchell, T. R., & Lee, T. W. (2013). Attributions and emotions as me-
diators and/or moderators in the goal-striving process. In E. A. Locke & G. P. Latham
(Eds.), New developments in goal setting and task performance (pp. 35–50). Routledge.
Freitas, A. L., Clark, S. L., Kim, J. Y., & Levy, S. R. (2009). Action-construal levels and percei-
ved conict among ongoing goals: Implications for positive affect. Journal of Research
in Personality, 43(5), 938–941. doi:doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2009.05.006
Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes
and motivation. London: Edward Arnold.
Gardner, R. C. (2010). Motivation and second language acquisition: The socio-educational model.
Peter Lang.
Hadeld, J., & Dörnyei, Z. (2013). Motivating learning. Routledge.
Henry, A., Davydenko, S., & Dörnyei, Z. (2015). The anatomy of Directed Motivational Currents:
Exploring intense and enduring periods of L2 motivation. The Modern Language Journal,
99(2), 329–345. doi:10.1111/modl.12214
Porta Linguarum Nº 33, enero 2020
228
Heslin, P. A., & Caprar, D. V. (2013). Goals and self-efcacy as mediators. In E. A. Locke & G.
P. Latham (Eds.), New developments in goal setting and task performance (pp. 213–230).
Routledge.
Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review,
94(3), 319–340. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.94.3.319
Hiver, P., & Al-Hoorie, A. H. (2016). Putting complexity theory into practice: A dynamic en-
semble for second language research. The Modern Language Journal, 100(4), 741–756.
doi:10.1111/modl.12347
Hiver, P., & Al-Hoorie, A. H. (2020). Research methods for complexity theory in applied linguis-
tics. Multilingual Matters.
Ibrahim, Z. (2016a). Affect in directed motivational currents: Positive emotionality in long-term
L2 engagement. In P. D. MacIntyre, T. Gregersen, & S. Mercer (Eds.), Positive psychology
in SLA (pp. 258–281). Multilingual Matters.
Ibrahim, Z. (2016b). Directed Motivational Currents: Optimal productivity and long-term sustaina-
bility in second language acquisition. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Nottingham.
Ibrahim, Z., & Al-Hoorie, A. H. (2019). Shared, sustained ow: Triggering motivation with co-
llaborative projects. ELT Journal, 73(1), 51–60. doi:10.1093/elt/ccy025
Knox, M. (2006). Gender and possible selves. In C. Dunkel & J. Kerpelman (Eds.), Possible
selves: Theory, research and applications (pp. 61–77). Nova Science Publishers.
Lamb, M. (2017). The motivational dimension of language teaching. Language Teaching, 50(3),
301–346. doi:10.1017/S0261444817000088
Latham, G. P., & Locke, E. A. (2013). Potential pitfalls in goal setting and how to avoid them.
In E. A. Locke & G. P. Latham (Eds.), New developments in goal setting and task per-
formance (pp. 569–579). Routledge.
Locke, E. A. (1996). Motivation through conscious goal setting. Applied and Preventive Psycho-
logy, 5(2), 117–124. doi:10.1016/S0962-1849(96)80005-9
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting & task performance. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task
motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57(9), 705–717. doi:10.1037/0003-
066X.57.9.705
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2006). New directions in goal-setting theory. Current Directions
in Psychological Science, 15(5), 265–268. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2006.00449.x
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2013a). Goal setting theory, 1990. In E. A. Locke & G. P. Latham
(Eds.), New developments in goal setting and task performance (pp. 3–15). Routledge.
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2013b). Goal setting theory: The current state. In E. A. Locke
& G. P. Latham (Eds.), New developments in goal setting and task performance (pp.
623–630). Routledge.
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2013c). New developments in goal setting and task performance.
Routledge.
MacIntyre, P. D. (2012). The idiodynamic method: A closer look at the dynamics of communication
traits. Communication Research Reports, 29(4), 361–367. doi:10.1080/08824096.2012.723274
Mackay, J. (2014). Applications and implications of the L2 Motivational Self System in a Catalan
EFL context. In K. Csizér & M. Magid (Eds.), The Impact of Self-Concept on Language
Learning (pp. 377–400). Multilingual Matters.
Magid, M. (2014). A motivational programme for learners of English: An application of the L2
Motivational Self System. In K. Csizér & M. Magid (Eds.), The impact of self-concept
on language learning (pp. 333–356). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Ali H. Al-Hoorie And AHmed Al SHlowiy Vision Theory vs. Goal-Setting...
229
Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41(9), 954–969.
doi:10.1037/0003-066X.41.9.954
Morin, L., & Latham, G. P. (2000). The effect of mental practice and goal setting as a transfer of
training intervention on supervisors’ self-efcacy and communication skills: An exploratory
study. Applied Psychology, 49(3), 566–578. doi:10.1111/1464-0597.00032
Muir, C., & Dörnyei, Z. (2013). Directed Motivational Currents: Using vision to create effective
motivational pathways. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 3(3), 357–375.
Murphy, R. S., Stubbings, C., & Uemura, T. (2017). NeuroELT perspectives: Directed Motivational
Currents —Theoretical, experimental, and pedagogical research. University of Kitakyushu
Kiban Center Journal, 29, 19–135.
Oyserman, D., & Fryberg, S. (2006). The possible selves of diverse adolescents: Content and
function across gender, race and national origin. In C. Dunkel & J. Kerpelman (Eds.),
Possible selves: Theory, research and applications (pp. 17–39). Nova Science Publishers.
Plemmons, S. A., & Weiss, H. M. (2013). Goals and affect. In E. A. Locke & G. P. Latham
(Eds.), New developments in goal setting and task performance (pp. 117–132). Routledge.
Seijts, G. H., & Latham, G. P. (2000). The effects of goal setting and group size on performance
in a social dilemma. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des
sciences du comportement, 32(2), 104–116. doi:10.1037/h0087105
Shantz, A., & Latham, G. P. (2009). An exploratory eld experiment of the effect of subcons-
cious and conscious goals on employee performance. Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision Processes, 109(1), 9–17. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2009.01.001
Shantz, A., & Latham, G. P. (2011). The effect of primed goals on employee performance: Impli-
cations for human resource management. Human Resource Management, 50(2), 289–299.
doi:10.1002/hrm.20418
Simon, H. A. (1994). The bottleneck of attention: Connecting thought with motivation. In W.
D. Spaulding (Ed.), Integrative views of motivation, cognition, and emotion: Nebraska
Symposium on Motivation (Vol. 41, pp. 1–21). University of Nebraska Press.
Stajkovic, A. D., Locke, E. A., & Blair, E. S. (2006). A rst examination of the relationships bet-
ween primed subconscious goals, assigned conscious goals, and task performance. Journal
of Applied Psychology, 91(5), 1172–1180. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.91.5.1172
Sugita McEown, M., Noels, K. A., & Chaffee, K. E. (2014). At the interface of the Socio-Edu-
cational Model, Self-Determination Theory and the L2 Motivational Self System models.
In K. Csizér & M. Magid (Eds.), The impact of self-concept on language learning (pp.
19–50). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Sun, S. H., & Frese, M. (2013). Multiple goal pursuit. In E. A. Locke & G. P. Latham (Eds.),
New developments in goal setting and task performance (pp. 177–194). Routledge.
Ushioda, E. (2016). Language learning motivation through a small lens: A research agenda. Lan-
guage Teaching, 49(4), 564–577. doi:10.1017/S0261444816000173
Zimmerman, B. J., & Campillo, M. (2003). Motivating self-regulated problem solvers. In J. E.
Davidson & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), The psychology of problem solving (pp. 233–262).
Cambridge University Press.
... L2MSS has been widely adopted by researchers and has generated numerous studies examining how learners' future self-guides influence their motivation and L2 achievement (Liu, 2024). In recent years, however, a number of criticisms of L2MSS have started to emerged, including theoretical ambiguities (Al-Hoorie & Al Shlowiy, 2020;Henry & Liu, 2023;MacIntyre, 2022), problematic psychometrics of its measures (Al-Hoorie, 2018;Al-Hoorie et al., 2024), and failed replications (Hiver & Al-Hoorie, 2020a). Recent reexaminations of vision (from the L2MSS) and integrativeness (from the socio-educational model) have pointed to the superiority of the socioeducational model (Gearing & Roger, 2019;Oakes & Howard, 2022). ...
Preprint
Language learner psychology investigates the mental experiences, processes, thoughts, feelings, motives, and behaviors of individuals involved in language learning. Over the past few decades, this field has evolved from focusing on stable learner traits to embracing more dynamic, situated, and complex understandings of learner psychology. This entry traces the historical development of language learner psychology, outlines its key theoretical frameworks and constructs, and discusses current trends and methodological approaches. It highlights the field's shift towards more dynamic perspectives, the influence of positive psychology, and the growing recognition of its interdisciplinary nature. The entry concludes by emphasizing the continuing importance of language learner psychology in understanding and enhancing second language acquisition processes.
... In recent times, however, criticisms have grown (Al-Hoorie et al., 2024;MacIntyre, 2022). Beyond problems associated with a model of motivation constructed around the self (MacIntyre et al., 2009), concerns involve the conceptualization of model constituents (e.g., Al-Hoorie, 2018;Al-Hoorie & Al Shlowiy, 2020;Hiver, Al-Hoorie, & Mercer, 2020;MacIntyre, 2022;Papi et al., 2019), the adequacy of outcome variables (e.g., Al-Hoorie, 2018;Al-Hoorie et al., 2024;Hiver, Al-Hoorie, & Mercer, 2020), scale validity (e.g., Al-Hoorie et al., 2024), measurement of the motivation-generating mechanism (e.g., Thorsen et al., 2020), and the timescale at which the model is operative (e.g., Henry, 2010). Moreover, Dörnyei also came to revise some of his original thinking. ...
Article
Full-text available
Motivation and self-regulated learning (SRL) are interrelated constructs. Motivation can be a precursor, a mediator, and an outcome of SRL. In L2 learning, the interrelatedness of motivation and self-regulation has long been recognized (Dornyei, 2005). However, a conceptualization of the connections is lacking. This article models the L2 motivation –SRL relationship. Drawing a distinction between personal and social sources of motivation (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2008), attention is directed to variation in self-evaluation processes. With a focus on self-evaluation where social standards provide points of reference (Higgins, 1990), and drawing on a model where connections between the self-system and SRL are conceptualized at the timescale of working cognition (McCombs & Marzano, 1990), a model of the L2 motivation–SRL relationship is presented. The model identifies paths of influence relating to (i) self-evaluation focused on personal criteria, and (ii) self-evaluation where reference points are provided by social standards. The model provides a conceptual framework for systemically structured investigation, a heuristic for the interpretation of research findings, and a tool to support L2 learners’ motivation and SRL. Explanations of how socially focused self-appraisal can promote proactive learning behaviours are provided.
... 533), not to mention the effect of remembering yourself (Kahneman, 2011). This led to an urgent call for real-time analyses of DMCs, which may not only shed light on subtle changes in practices or emotions but also uncover the whole process leading to the outcome (Al-Hoorie & Al Shlowiy, 2020). Besides, what could be deduced from affective responses is that while some studies have revealed the significance of positive emotions, such as facilitation of commitment (e.g. ...
Article
Full-text available
Directed motivational current (DMC) is portrayed as a highly intense motivational surge oriented towards a much-desired goal over a prolonged period. While we have seen a proliferation of studies examining various aspects of this new construct, the current evidence on longitudinal detection seems inadequate. In response to repeated calls for research in this field, this qualitative study addresses this gap by scrutinizing the real-time experiences of seven English learners in China through three rounds of in-depth, semi-structured interviews and study diaries for each participant for a period of 3–12 months. The data acquired were analysed in line with the principles of thematic analysis. The findings in general bring insights into specific features of DMCs, especially regarding motivated behaviours and emotional responses. Along with three proposed defining characteristics of DMCs, the analysis reveals the significance of optimizing motivated behaviours and implementing coping strategies for negative emotions. Another finding is relevant to the overall developmental pathways of motivated behaviours and emotional properties of DMCs, aimed at demystifying its internal mechanism and revealing the essence of this complex and dynamic psychological phenomenon. This study also identifies the interactive relationship between motivated behaviours and positive/negative emotions. Overall, these findings carry significant implications for long-term second language learning and pedagogical purposes in English as a foreign language setting.
Article
Full-text available
In a systematic examination of scales commonly used in L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS) research, Al-Hoorie et al. (2024) found discriminant validity problems. Raising jangle fallacy concerns, they argue that substantive research should be paused until validity issues are ironed out. However, validity at the measurement level is dependent on validity at the construct level. Replication attempts can fail when models are poorly theorized. To resolve problems at the measurement level, problems at the construct level need to be addressed.
Article
Full-text available
The concepts of learner engagement and directed motivational currents (DMCs) have recently gained attention for their value in generating a powerful and action-oriented motivational force that is able to cut through the various challenges and disturbances that language learners often face in their educational journey. DMCs, as a form of sustained engagement, describes a long-term experience of intense motivational energy with the aim of achieving a highly valued goal or vision that is characteristic of heightened levels of productivity. From an instructional perspective, therefore, an important aim would be to generate conditions that would lead to such outcomes. Following the framework developed by Dörnyei et al. (2016) for generating DMCs through group projects, the aim of this teacher-based research study was to identify whether learners in a university intensive English program could experience a DMC during an 8-week play performance project conducted in small groups. Focusing specifically on one of the groups and functioning within both a self-determination theory and complex dynamic systems perspective, the study also aimed to identify the combination of elements that contribute to and/or inhibit the development of a DMC. Based on learner data from project journals and conference interviews with the teacher-researcher, the findings indicate that the group experienced a DMC and was the result of a combination of and interaction between a variety of facilitative elements related to positive emotionality; self-concordant goals; goal/vision; a sense of competence, autonomy, and relatedness; and positive group dynamics, key project characteristics, teacher support, and positive outcomes in the form of language-related gains and personal growth. The facilitative elements, furthermore, operated to mitigate against the more attenuating elements represented in the learners’ challenges, fears, anxieties, group tensions, and distractions.
Article
Directed motivational currents (DMCs) seek to account for highly intense motivational surges having the potential to fuel sustained behaviors such as the study of a second/foreign language (L2). While the positive emotional nature of this phenomenon is well-documented, relatively less is understood about its negative aspects. Following calls for a greater focus on this area, this qualitative study used an exploratory design to investigate the sources and outcomes of distressing emotions in DMCs based on the retrospective L2 (i.e., English) learning accounts of a total of 6 Turkish English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) trainee teachers gathered by means of in-depth semi-structured interviews. Thematic analysis of the dataset led to the development of three main themes (the lack of progress towards goal-achievement, negative progress feedback, the difficulties arising from multitasking) that reflect the sources of distressing emotions. The outcomes of such emotions included self-efficacy doubts and the loss of motivational momentum. Overall, these findings enrich our knowledge of the affective properties of DMCs and provide insights into the role of emotional challenges in undermining efforts to sustain motivated behaviors in the study of an L2.
Article
Full-text available
Some two decades ago, Dörnyei (2005) proposed that motivation for L2 learning could be modelled as a self-system. Despite the profound influence of Dörnyei's scholarship and impact of the L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS) model, the fundamental premise that motivation for L2 learning can constitute a self-system has escaped critical scrutiny. Highlighting how the self-system constitutes a framework within which self-referential cognition is organized, and that self-appraisal occurs in relation to socially-derived standards (Bandura, 1978; Higgins, 1990), this article critically assesses the utility of a self-system conceptualization. This is accomplished by addressing five problem areas connected with the L2MSS and which relate to the model's self-system conceptualization: the "fantasy problem" (nondifferentiation of desire and fantasy), the "ought-to L2 self problem" (unspecificity of relevant others and internalization processes), the "integrativeness problem" (difficulty of incorporating affiliation motives), the "learning experience problem" (failure to account for relational and biographical influences), and the "context problem" (inadequate modelling of learner-environment interactions). Critical engagement with these problem areas demonstrates how the self-system conceptualization embodied in the L2MSS is tightly circumscribed, and how a self-regulatory system framework can provide greater utility.
Article
Full-text available
Concerns have recently been raised about the validity of scales used in the L2 motivational self system tradition, particularly in relation to sufficient discriminant validity among some of its scales. These concerns highlight the need to systematically examine the validity of scales used in this tradition. In this study, we therefore compiled a list of 18 scales in widespread use and administered them to Korean learners of English ( N = 384). Testing the factorial structure of these scales using multiple exploratory and confirmatory factor-analytic criteria revealed severe discriminant validity issues. For example, the ideal L2 self was not discriminant from linguistic self-confidence, suggesting that participant responses to such ideal L2 self items is not driven by actual–ideal discrepancies as previously presumed but more likely by self-efficacy beliefs. We discuss these results in the context of the need to encourage systematic psychometric validation research in the language motivation field.
Article
Full-text available
This study aims to analyse the scientific outputs of Zoltán Dörnyei (1960-2022) using metadata extracted from his 84 publications indexed in the Scopus database. It describes and visually represents his network of collaboration in terms of institutions and countries, along with revealing the scope and topical foci of his research by identifying and elaborating on the main themes of his research interests, including (1) individual differences in SLA, (2) research methodology, (3) theology and biblical interpretation, and (4) multilingualism. This study can help language teachers, practitioners, and researchers better understand the abundance and quality of Dörnyei's research outputs throughout his academic career.
Article
Full-text available
Under the framework of Directed Motivational Currents (DMCs), the present study aimed to explore the motivational dynamics of Chinese tertiary-level EFL learners’ English learning and to identify the possible parameters that influence Chinese EFL learners’ DMC-typed motivational states in their English learning. Data were collected from 10 focal Chinese tertiary-level EFL learners through reflective journal, trajectory equivalent modeling and semi-structured interview over a two-semester-long IELTS training course. The collected data were examined with thematic analysis and the findings indicated that: (1) Chinese tertiary-level EFL learners experienced the clear DMC-typed motivational surges during their journey of English learning; (2) Chinese tertiary-level EFL learners’ DMCs states were affected by various contextual factors which could be examined under three major themes, namely important others, instructional elements, and the exam pressure. The findings not only add to the literature on the validity of DMCs construct in the Chinese EFL context, but offer implications about how to facilitate the DMC-typed motivations in the classroom language instruction.
Book
Full-text available
This book provides practical guidance on research methods and designs that can be applied to Complex Dynamic Systems Theory (CDST) research. It discusses the contribution of CDST to the field of applied linguistics, examines what this perspective entails for research and introduces practical methods and templates, both qualitative and quantitative, for how applied linguistics researchers can design and conduct research using the CDST framework. Introduced in the book are methods ranging from those in widespread use in social complexity, to more familiar methods in use throughout applied linguistics. All are inherently suited to studying both dynamic change in context and interconnectedness. This accessible introduction to CDST research will equip readers with the knowledge to ensure compatibility between empirical research designs and the theoretical tenets of complexity. It will be of value to researchers working in the areas of applied linguistics, language pedagogy and educational linguistics and to scholars and professionals with an interest in second/foreign language acquisition and complexity theory.
Article
Full-text available
This article reports the first meta-analysis of the L2 Motivational Self System (Dörnyei, 2005, 2009). A total of 32 research reports, involving 39 unique samples and 32,078 language learners, were meta-analyzed. The results showed that the three components of the L2 Motivational Self System (the ideal L2 self, the ought-to L2 self, and the L2 learning experience) were significant predictors of subjective intended effort (rs = .61, .38, and .41, respectively), though weaker predictors of objective measures of achievement (rs = .20, –.05, and .17). Substantial heterogeneity was also observed in most of these correlations. The results also suggest that the strong correlation between the L2 learning experience and intended effort reported in the literature is, due to substantial wording overlap, partly an artifact of lack of discriminant validity between these two scales. Implications of these results and directions for future research are discussed.
Article
Full-text available
Flow refers to a special experience of total absorption in one task. Sustained flow (also known as directed motivational currents) is the occurrence of flow in a series of tasks aimed at achieving a certain outcome (for example improving proficiency in a second language). In this article, we investigate shared, sustained flow—which occurs when a group of individuals working collaboratively experience sustained flow. Interviews were conducted with five participants (two teachers and three students) to find out the conditions perceived to have facilitated this experience during pre-sessional language courses at two British universities. The results point to three main conditions: forming a group identity, attaching personal value and providing partial autonomy. We discuss how teachers can apply these findings to design motivational out-of-class activities.
Article
Full-text available
A paper on DMC research conducted in the Japanese context. Theoretical and practical avenues are explored.
Chapter
Full-text available
Directed motivational current (DMC) is a newly conceptualized phenomenon which applies to relatively long-term, sustained and heightened motivational engagement (Dörnyei et al., 2014, 2015). DMCs organize and combine prominent concepts from positive psychology (such as eudaemonic happiness, engagement and flow) into a goal-directed process that covers a potential timescale of some months or even years. Although only recently presented as an independent theoretical framework, DMCs are believed to have occurred in virtually everybody’s life. Examples of DMCs include sticking to a strict diet for a while, or when a group of campaigners get together to work passionately toward a shared cause in which their collective energy creates a sense of momentum. In the second language (L2) learning arena, an example might be someone who has been deeply involved in improving their L2 skills for a time in pursuit of reaching a certain level of proficiency. A particular DMC example collected for this research is a student who became frustrated because she could not understand her brother and uncle, who spoke in English, and they further irritated her by saying ‘who does not understand, does not deserve to know’. This incident gave rise to her almost two-year motivational journey, which she described as not only intense, but also ‘the happiest days’ in which, not satisfied with her school’s English lessons, she started learning on her own, mainly through watching TV shows late at night to develop her listening skills.
Article
Full-text available
This article offers a historical analysis of the major themes that the language motivation field has examined in its 60-year history. The discussion starts by briefly reviewing the social-psychological and the situated–cognitive periods. The former was primarily concerned with affective factors in intergroup relations, while the latter with learners in classroom contexts. The second half of the article surveys a number of emerging themes in the field to highlight major findings and potential future directions. These themes include the dynamic, affective, unconscious, and long-term aspects of motivation to learn English and other languages, as well as the implications of the pervasive presence of technology in daily life.
Article
Full-text available
Motivation is recognised as a vital component in successful second language learning, and has been the subject of intensive research in recent decades. This review focuses on a growing branch of this research effort, that which examines the motivational effects of language teaching. This is pertinent because, despite enhanced mobility and expanding access to foreign languages online, most learners’ early encounters with the L2 still take place in classrooms, and these encounters may shape attitudes and determine their willingness to invest further in the L2. Four main types of research are reviewed: first, that which deliberately seeks to identify and evaluate strategies to motivate L2 learners; second, that which has tested the validity of psychological theories of motivation by applying their precepts in L2 classrooms; third, that which assesses the motivational effects of a pedagogical innovation or intervention; fourth, research on what has been too often the unintended outcome of language education, namely learner demotivation. The review highlights the complexity of the relationship between teaching and learner motivation, but an attempt is made to articulate some emerging verities, and to point towards the most promising avenues for future research.
Book
This volume presents a new approach to motivation that focuses on the concept of 'vision'. Drawing on visualisation research in sports, psychology and education, the authors describe powerful ways by which imagining future scenarios in one's mind's eye can promote motivation to learn a foreign language. The book offers a rich selection of motivational strategies that can help students to 'see' themselves as potentially competent language users, to experience the value of knowing a foreign language in their own lives and, ultimately, to invest effort into learning it. Transformational leaders' vision for change is one of the prerequisites of turning language classrooms into motivating learning environments, and the second part of the book therefore focuses on how to ignite language teacher enthusiasm, how to re-kindle it when it may be waning and how to guard it when it is under threat.
Article
This paper reports the first investigation in the second language acquisition field assessing learners’ implicit attitudes using the Implicit Association Test, a computerized reaction-time measure. Examination of the explicit and implicit attitudes of Arab learners of English (N = 365) showed that, particularly for males, implicit attitudes toward L2 speakers are associated with self-reported openness to the L2 group and with strength of correlations among attitudinal and motivational variables. Implicit attitudes also moderated important paths in the L2 Motivational Self System. The paper concludes that implicit attitudes seem to be a meaningful individual difference variable, adding a new dimension to our understanding of language motivation.