ArticlePDF Available

Lawns in Cities: From a Globalised Urban Green SPACE phenomenon to Sustainable Nature-Based Solutions

Authors:

Abstract and Figures

This opinion paper discusses urban lawns, the most common part of open green spaces and urban green infrastructures. It highlights both the ecosystem services and also disservices provided by urban lawns based on the authors' experience of working within interdisciplinary research projects on lawns in different cities of Europe (Germany, Sweden and Russia), New Zealand (Christchurch), USA (Syracuse, NY) and Australia (Perth). It complements this experience with a detailed literature review based on the most recent studies of different biophysical, social, planning and design aspects of lawns. We also used an international workshop as an important part of the research methodology. We argue that although lawns of Europe and the United States of America are now relatively well studied, other parts of the world still underestimate the importance of researching lawns as a complex ecological and social phenomenon. One of the core objectives of this paper is to share a paradigm of nature-based solutions in the context of lawns, which can be an important step towards finding resilient sustainable alternatives for urban green spaces in the time of growing urbanisation, increased urban land use competition, various user demands and related societal challenges of the urban environment. We hypothesise that these solutions may be found in urban ecosystems and various local native plant communities that are rich in species and able to withstand harsh conditions such as heavy trampling and droughts. To support the theoretical hypothesis of the relevance of nature-based solutions for lawns we also suggest and discuss the concept of two natures-different approaches to the vision of urban nature, including the understanding and appreciation of lawns. This will help to increase the awareness of existing local ecological approaches as well as an importance of introducing innovative landscape architecture practices. This article suggests that there is a potential for future transdisciplinary international research that might aid our understanding of lawns in different climatic and socio-cultural conditions as well as develop locally adapted (to environmental conditions, social needs and management policies) and accepted nature-based solutions.
Content may be subject to copyright.
Land2020,9,73;doi:10.3390/land9030073www.mdpi.com/journal/land
Opinion
LawnsinCities:FromaGlobalisedUrbanGreen
SPACEphenomenontoSustainable
NatureBasedSolutions

MariaIgnatieva
1,
*,DagmarHaase
2,3
,DianaDushkova
3
andAnnegretHaase
4
1
TheUniversityofWesternAustralia,SchoolofDesign,35StirlingHighway,Perth,WA6001,Australia
2
HumboldtUniversityBerlin,DepartmentofGeography,UnterdenLinden6,10099Berlin,Germany;
dagmar.haase@ufz.de(D.H.);diana.dushkova@geo.huberlin.de(D.D.)
3
HelmholtzCentreforEnvironmentalResearchUFZ,DepartmentofComp.LandscapeEcology,
Permoserstr.15,04318Leipzig,Germany
4
HelmholtzCentreforEnvironmentalResearchUFZ,DepartmentofUrbanandEnvironmentalSociology,
Permoserstr.15,04318Leipzig,Germany;annegret.haase@ufz.de
*Correspondence:maria.ignatieva@uwa.edu.au;Tel.:+61864886000
Received:29January2020;Accepted:27February2020;Published:2March2020
Abstract:Thisopinionpaperdiscussesurbanlawns,themostcommonpartofopengreenspaces
andurbangreeninfrastructures.Ithighlightsboththeecosystemservicesandalsodisservices
providedbyurbanlawnsbasedontheauthors’experienceofworkingwithininterdisciplinary
researchprojectsonlawnsindifferentcitiesofEurope(Germany,SwedenandRussia),New
Zealand(Christchurch),USA(Syracuse,NY)andAustralia(Perth).Itcomplementsthisexperience
withadetailedliteraturereviewbasedonthemostrecentstudiesofdifferentbiophysical,social,
planninganddesignaspectsoflawns.Wealsousedaninternationalworkshopasanimportantpart
oftheresearchmethodology.WearguethatalthoughlawnsofEuropeandtheUnitedStatesof
Americaarenowrelativelywellstudied,otherpartsoftheworldstillunderestimatetheimportance
ofresearchinglawnsasacomplexecologicalandsocialphenomenon.Oneofthecoreobjectivesof
thispaperistoshareaparadigmofnaturebasedsolutionsinthecontextoflawns,whichcanbean
importantsteptowardsfindingresilientsustainablealternativesforurbangreenspacesinthetime
ofgrowingurbanisation,increasedurbanlandusecompetition,varioususerdemandsandrelated
societalchallengesoftheurbanenvironment.Wehypothesisethatthesesolutionsmaybefoundin
urbanecosystemsandvariouslocalnativeplantcommunitiesthatarerichinspeciesandableto
withstandharshconditionssuchasheavytramplinganddroughts.Tosupportthetheoretical
hypothesisoftherelevanceofnaturebasedsolutionsforlawnswealsosuggestanddiscussthe
conceptoftwonatures—differentapproachestothevisionofurbannature,includingthe
understandingandappreciationoflawns.Thiswillhelptoincreasetheawarenessofexistinglocal
ecologicalapproachesaswellasanimportanceofintroducinginnovativelandscapearchitecture
practices.Thisarticlesuggeststhatthereisapotentialforfuturetransdisciplinaryinternational
researchthatmightaidourunderstandingoflawnsindifferentclimaticandsociocultural
conditionsaswellasdeveloplocallyadapted(toenvironmentalconditions,socialneedsand
managementpolicies)andacceptednaturebasedsolutions.
Keywords:lawns;ecosystemservicesanddisservices;naturebasedsolutionsforlawns;alternative
tolawns;sustainablelawns;twonatures
1.Introduction
Therecentworldwidechangesinclimate,includingheatwavesandlongdroughtperiods,has
resultedinthedegradationofurbangreenspaces.Regardlessofclimaticconditions,water
Land2020,9,732of27
availabilityorculturaltraditions,lawnsarethemostcommonelementsofgreencityspacesacross
theglobe,coveringupto50%–70%ofurbangreenareas[1].InGermancitieslikeLeipzig,publicpark
lawnscoveratleast50%[2].Similarly,inSweden,lawnsmakeup50%ofurbangreenareas[3].
Interestingly,Chinesecitiesarecurrentlyoneofthelargestusersoflawns[4]andintheUS,lawn
(oftencalledturforgrass)surfacesdominateurbanandsuburbanlandscapesandcoveralmost2%
ofthecountry’sterrestrialarea[5].ThetotalareaunderturfinAustraliaisaround4400hectares
makingupanaverageof11%ofthetotalareasofcities[6].
Lawnsarehighlyrecognisedandmassivelyprefabricatedlandscapedesignelement.Inmany
cases,turfisusedastheeasiestandmostcosteffectiveshorttermsolutiontocovering“leftover
places”afterthedemolitionofbuildingsorforthe“beautification”ofabandonedplaces[1].For
shrinkingcities,lawnsactasaninterimsuccessionalstageaftertheabandonmentordemolitionof
builtstructures[7–10].Whileurbanisationhasledtoadramaticincreaseinlawnsurfaces,these
surfacesrequiresignificantinputofenergyandresourcesandtheuseofseedmixturesfromglobal
lawnnurseries.Thishasresultedinbiologicalandvisualhomogenisationofurbanenvironments
[11–13].
TherecenthotanddrysummersinEurope(2017–2019)andseveredroughtconditionsinmany
othercountriesaroundtheworld—California,Arizona,andMidWestofUSA,CapeTowninSouth
AfricaandacrossAustralia—revealedparticularissuesrelatedtotherestrictionsofwateruse[14–
16].Manyurbangrassysurfacesdegradefromtramplingandextremesunorshadeexposure,and
thusquicklybecomebrownscapeswhilealsolosingtheecosystemservicesthatlawnstypically
perform[7,8].
Oneofthereactionstolawndegradationistheuseofsyntheticlawnsinsteadoflivinggrassed
surfaces.Alongwiththegrowingcontaminationofaquatichabitatsfromplasticparticles[17],the
useofartificiallawnsiscontributingtothepollutionofurbanenvironments.Asignificantvolumeof
polymergranulesandsyntheticgrassfragmentsareintroducedbywaterandwindintothe
environmenteachyearandneedtobebetterrecognisedasaformofmicroplasticpollutionaffecting
soil,waterways,andultimatelytheocean[18,19].Theseproblemshavehighlightedtheneedto
investigateanddevelopalternative,moreresistantsustainablesolutionsforlawnsthatwithstand
impendingclimatechangeconditionsand,atthesametime,createenvironmentallyfriendlyand
aestheticallyacceptableurbangreenopenspaces.
Inthisarticle,weanalysetheecosystemservicesanddisservicescreatedbylawns.Wefurther
discussexistingalternativevisionsforurbanlawnsfromdifferentcountriesinboththenorthernand
southernhemispheres.Inthisstudy,weusetheconceptofnaturebasedsolutionasanimportant
foundationforsearchingofsustainablelawns.Weacceptthedefinitionofnaturebasedsolutionsas
proposedbyEuropeanCommission[20]andRaymondetal.[21],thattheyare“…actionsand
solutionstosocietalchallengeswhichareinspiredandsupportedbyorcopiedfromnatureand
provideatthesametimemultipleenvironmental,social,economiccobenefitssuchasthe
improvementofplaceattractiveness,ofhealthandqualityoflife,creationofgreenjobs,etc.”Our
visionofnaturebasedsolutionsisgroundedintheacceptanceandrespectoflocalpeculiaritiesfrom
countrytocountryandisfoundedonacomplexapproachwhichincludesbiological,planningand
designelements,providesocialandeconomicbenefits(suchastheimprovementofplace
attractiveness,ofhealthandqualityoflife,creationofgreenjobs,etc.)aswellassustainable
managementandstewardshipthatisdrivenbymunicipalities.
Despitetheuniversaladoptionoflawns,thereareavarietyoflawntypesanddifferencesin
technologicalpeculiaritiesofconstructionandmanagementregimes.Thesetypesarerootedinthe
historyoftheintroductionoflawnsandareconnectedtoclimatic,economic,andculturalconditions,
aswellastospecificlanduseandlandscapedesigntraditions[1].Thereisanurgentneedtoexplore
naturebasedsolutionsinordertobetteradaptlawnstocurrentchangingclimaticconditionswithin
particulargeographicalzones,localculturalperceptionsandexpectations,socialwantsandneeds,
andeconomicopportunities.
Land2020,9,733of27
2.ConceptualAnalyticalFramework
Thisopinionpaperdiscussesthephenomenonoflawnsbasedontheauthors’longtermproject
experienceofworkingwithintheinterdisciplinaryresearchprojectsonlawnsindifferentcitiesof
Europe(LeipzigandBerlininGermany,Uppsala,MalmoandGothenburginSweden,Moscow,St.
Petersburg,KirovskandApatityinRussia),NewZealand(Christchurch),USA(Syracuse,NY)and
Australia(Perth).Theseprojectsprovidedtheopportunitytoobtainandanalyselargeamountsof
qualitativeandquantitativedataaswellastotestsomealternativenaturebasedandlocallyadapted
solutionsrelatedtolawns.
ThedetailedconceptualanalyticalframeworkofthisarticleispresentedinFigure1.Toidentify
keyquestionsrelatedtoexistinglawnresearchanddiscoveraresearchgap,weusedaliterature
reviewbasedonSCOPUS,ISIWebofSciencesandGoogleScholar(Figure2).Wespecificallytargeted
keytermsrelatedtotheparticularecosystemservicesanddisservicesoflawns(analysedindetailin
Section3).Thesearchkeywordswere“lawnasahabitat,“useoflawns”“lawnasasymbol”,“plastic
lawn”,“heatislandmitigationbylawn”.Tosupportthetheoreticalhypothesisoftherelevanceof
naturebasedsolutionsforlawnswealsosuggestanddiscusstheconceptoftwonatures—different
approachestothevisionofurbannature,includingunderstandingandappreciationoflawns(Section
4).Thisconcepthelpedustoexplainthedirectionsforlawnalternativesandtheircorrelationwith
localnaturalandsocialconditions(Section5).Forlawnalternatives,thechoiceofcasestudiesand
referenceswasbasedontheanalysisofexistingprojectsinwhichauthorshadparticipated(urban
meadows,pictorialmeadows,woodymeadows,etc.)orrelatedliteraturereview.Weprioritisedthe
mostrecentpublications(2011–2019)butalsoincludedearlierpeerreviewedworks.Therewere139
publicationsrelatedtothekeywords;92publicationswereincludedinthefinallistofreferencesand
47publicationswereexcludedfromthefinallist.Thereweretwomaincriteriaforexclusion:non
urbanareasandifthearticledidnotaddressoneofthekeysearchingaspects(keywords).The
structuralanalysisoftheliteraturereviewusedinthepaperispresentedinTable1.
Figure1.Conceptualframeworkofthispaper.
Tosupportthetheoreticalhypothesisoftherelevanceofnaturebasedsolutionsforlawnswe
alsosuggestanddiscusstheconceptoftwonatures—differentapproachestothevisionofurban
nature,includingunderstandingandappreciationoflawns.
Land2020,9,734of27
Wealsousedaworkshopaspartoftheresearchmethodology.Theinternationallawnexperts’
workshop“UrbanBiodiversityandNatureBasedDesignmethodologyandpracticalapplicationsfor
interdisciplinaryresearch”inBerlinonNovember28–29,2019wasorganisedbytheGeography
DepartmentofHumboldtUniversity,Berlin.Participantsfromdifferentscientificbackgroundand
differentpartoftheglobe,whohavebeendealingwiththedifferentaspectsofurbanlawnsand
naturebasedsolutionsgatheredtogether,discussedmethodologyandthefutureperspectivesof
lawnresearch.Thus,thisarticlealsoprovidesthetheoreticalandconceptualfoundationforfuture
internationalandinterdisciplinaryresearchprojectonlawns(FigureinSection7).
Figure2.Literaturereviewprocess.
Table1.Structuralanalysisoftheliteraturereviewusedinthispaper.
Categoryof
researchon
lawn
AspectsReferences
Environmental
aspectsoflawns
Estimationoflawncover
usingremotesensing
andearthobservation
methods
Attwell,2000[23];Hedblometal.,2017[3];Milesietal.,2005[24];
RobbinsandBirkenholz,2003[25]
Biodiversityand
vegetationaspects
Gastonetal.,2005[26];HahsandMcDonnell,2007[27];
Lindenmayeretal.,2008[28];Müller,1990[29];Stewartetal.,2009
[30];SukoppandKowarik,1990[31];Threlfallet.al.,2015[32]
Ecosystemservices
providedbylawns
AmaniBenietal.,2018[33];Armsonetal.,2013[34];Beardand
Green,1994[35];Bruntonetal.,2010[36];Burgin,2016[37];
Cumming,2018[6];Fischeretal.,2013[38];Fischeretal.,2016[39];
Haaseetal.,2014a[7];Haaseetal.,2014b[8];Johnson,2013[40];
Leleetal.,2013[41];Monteiro,2017[42];Stirlingetal.,2013[43];
ThompsonandKaoKniffin,2017[5];TriggerandMulcock,2005
[44];Wangetal.,2016[45];Wastianetal.,2004[46]
Ecosystemdisservices
providedbylawns:
Bruntonetal.,2010[36];Burgin,2016[37];Campagneetal.,2018
[47];Cumming,2018[6];DöhrenandHaase,2015[48];Dunn,2010
[49];IgnatievaandHedblom,2018[1];Lyytimäki,2013[50];
McKinney,2006[12];Milesietal.,2005[24];MüllerandSukopp,
2016[51];Priestetal.,2000[52];Runolaetal.,2013[53];Shackleton
etal.,2016[54];Schapeletal.,2018[55];Sharmaetal.,1996[56];
Filnallistofappropriate
publications
Searchingforpotentially
relevantpublications:
“lawnasahabitat,“useoflawns”
“lawnasasymbol”,“plasticlawn”,
“heatislandmitigationbylawn”,
“lawnperception”
Searchtofindkeywordsand
directionsinurbanlawn
research
SCOPUS,ISI
WebofSciences
andGoogle
Scholar
139publications
relatedtothe
keywords
92publications
includedinthe
finallistof
references
47publications
excludedfrom
thefinallist
filteringprocess
eliminationofpublictions:
nonurbanareas;
notaddressingoneofthe
keysearchingaspects
Land2020,9,735of27
Stirlingetal.,2013[43];TriggerandMulcock,2005[44];Wheeleret
al.,2017[13]
Socialaspectsof
lawns
Publicperception,
attitudeandpreferences
Elgizawy,2016[57];Hanetal.,2013[58];Ignatieva,2017[22];
Jenkins,1994[59];Pisa,2019[60];PoškusandPoškienė,2015[61];
Ralletal.,2017[62];Rameretal.,2019[63];Robbins,2007[64];
Seweletal.,2017[65];Teysott,1999[66];Müller,1990[29];Trigger
andMulcock,2005[44];Yangetal.,2019[4,67]
Urbanisationand
homogenisation
Antrop,2004[68];Groffmanetal.,2014[11];Ignatievaand
Hedblom,2018[1];Pondichie,2012[69]
Healthandwellbeing
aspects
Elgizawy,2016[57];PayneandBruce,2019[70];Stolzetal.,2018
[71]
Historyoflawns
Historyofdevelopment
Ignatieva,2017[22];Ignatieva,2018[72];IgnatievaandHedblom,
2018[1];Fischeretal.,2013[38];Gaynor,2017[73];Hipple,1957
[74];Jenkins,1994[59];Robins,2007[64];Robinson,1991[75];Yang
etal.,2019[4,67]
Lawnasasiteof
conflictsGreenbaum,2000[76];Harari,2016[77];Trudgilletal.,2010[78]
Lawn
alternatives
Searchingforlawn’s
alternativesand
sustainablelawn
management
Alumai,2008[79];Burgin,2016[37];Chawlaetal.,2018[80];
Cumming,2018[6];Gaynor,2017[73];HogueandPinceti,2015[16];
Ignatieva,2010[81];IgnatievaandAhrné,2013[82];Johnson,2013
[40];PineoandBarton,2010[83];Schapeletal.,2018[55];Steinberg,
2006[84];Teysott,1999[66];WasowskiandWasowski,2002[85];
WasowskiandWasowski,2004[86];Wastianetal.,2004[46];Wilson
andFeuch,2018[87];Zollner,2018[88]
Alternativetolawns
Bormannetal.,2001[89];Daniels,1995[90];Hitchmough,2004[91];
Ignatieva,2017[22];Ignatieva,2018[72];IgnatievaandHedblom,
2018[1];Robinson,1991[75];Sprajcar,2017[92]
Artificiallawnrelated
aspects
BrooksandFrancis,2019[93];Chawlaetal.,2018[80];Flemingetal.,
2013[18];Kaminski,2019[19];Lovedayetal.,2019[94]
TwonaturesNovelanddesigned
ecosystemsHiggs,2017[95];Hobbsetal.,2006[96];Kowarik,2011[97]
3.EcosystemServicesandDisservicesofUrbanLawns
LawnsarespeciallydesignedecosystemsthatoriginatedinEuropeinMedievaltimes[22].We
definelawnasamanaged,artificiallycreatedgrassdominatedplantcommunity,designedfor
fulfillingarangeofecosystemservices.Thisplantcommunitypredominantlyconsistsofgrass
species—cultivars,aswellasspontaneouslyoccurringandunwantedherbaceousspeciesknownas
“lawnweeds”[22,29].Onecrucialaspectoflawnsistheuniformphenomenonofaturf(sod),which
istheupperlevelofsoilthatiscoveredbycloselyknitgrassesandforbsintertwinedwiththeirroots
or/andstolons,andwhichareinsymbiosiswithsoilandfauna.Turf,inparticular,isresponsiblefor
creatingtheuniformand“durable”surfacecommonlyusedbypeopleforrecreationandsport.
Lawnsprovideafullrangeofecosystemservicessuchasregulatingthewatercycleby
promotinginfiltration,thusfacilitatingregenerationofgroundwaterstocksandevapotranspiration
[42].Inaddition,lawnsmitigatetheheatislandeffectthroughtranspirationandevaporationand
providecoolermicroclimates[98].Anotherimportantecosystemserviceoflawnsishabitatprovision
forsomeurbanfaunaspecies[37].Lawnsalsosupportsoilorganisms.Sincetheirintroduction,the
mostrecognisedecosystemserviceoflawnshasundoubtedlybeentheculturalaspect,i.e.,the
creationofthespeciallydesignedleisurespaces(Figure3).
Land2020,9,736of27
(a)(b)(c)
Figure3.Lawnasaspecialleisurespaceinurbanparksworldwide:a)King’sParkinPerth,Australia;
b)LeneVoigtParkinLeipzig,Germany;c)oneofthepublicparksinXian,China.
Photos:M.Ignatieva,D.Dushkova.
Alongwiththesepositivecontributionstohumanlifeandwellbeing,thereareanumberof
ecosystemdisservicescreatedbyurbanlawns,suchasthosepresentedinFigure4.Accordingto
Shackletonetal.[54],ecosystemdisservicesarecommonlyunderstoodas“theecosystemgenerated
functions,processesandattributesthatresultinperceivedoractualnegativeimpactsonhumanwell
being”.Thesenegativeeffectsarisefromecosystemcharacteristicsthatareeconomicallyorsocially
harmfulorthatendangerhealthormayevenbelifethreatening[47–50].Thisincludessheltering
speciessuchaspathogensandparasitesharmfultohumanhealth,damagingpests[41]orthosethat
attackhumans[49].Inthecaseoflawns,amongthemostrecognisabledisservicesaredustpollution
andlossofaestheticqualitiesduringhotanddrysummersandsurfaceandgroundpollutionasa
resultofusingherbicidesandpesticides.Inthefollowingsubchapters,wediscussecosystem
servicesanddisservicesindetails.Thereisaclearpatternrelatedtohumanactivity,economics
(availabilityofresourcesformanagement)andenvironmentalfactorsbeyondhumancontrol
(draughts,heatwaves,floods).Atsomestage,adefinitepositiveecosystemservicecanturnintoa
definitedisservice.Forinstance,oneofthemainecosystemservicesoflawnsthattheyareaplacefor
recreation,however,whentherearetoomanyusersandheavytrampling,thelawn’ssurfacebecomes
degraded,unevenandevendangerousforusers.Duetotheparticularsignificanceofculturalaspects
oflawnsandanumberofstudiesofthisparticularphenomenon,theculturalservicesoflawns
receivedadditionalscrutinyinthispaper(Sections3.1–3.3).
Land2020,9,737of27
Figure4.Ecosystemservicesanddisservicesprovidedbylawns.
Themajorityofresearchthatanalyseslawnecosystemservices(directlyorindirectlyfor
exampleintheresearchofwildlifeinprivateurbangardens)isbasedoncasestudiesfromthe
temperatelatitudesofthenorthernhemisphere,namelyfromEurope(40%ofpublications)andthe
US—60%[3,5,16,22,24,29,42,46,59,65,72,86].Fromsourcesrelatedtothestudyoflawns(notincluding
alternativelawns),onlythreewerefromChinadirectlyconnectedtoecologicalandculturalaspects
ofChineselawns[4,67,99].Australiahadthemostpublicationsrelatedtoculturalaspects(historyof
lawnsandtheirconnectiontocolonialculture[73],positiveoutcomesoflawnsforhotanddryurban
environmentandhowtodevelopsustainablemanagementoflawns(waterwiseirrigation,relevant
soilpreparationandspeciesselection).TherearenumberofpublicationsonAustralianurbanprivate
gardenwildlifewherelawnsarementionedasanewhabitatforexoticandnativewildlifespecies
[44].Thefirstdirectecologicalresearchonlawns(thebiodiversityoflawns)inNewZealandresulted
inseveralpublicationsinthelate2000s[30,81].
3.1.CulturalandAestheticServicesofLawns:HistoricalRoots
Fromasocietalandculturalperspective,lawnsareoneofthemostimportantandfrequently
usedtypesofurbangreeninfrastructure.FromtheveryintroductionoflawnsintoEuropeasacrucial
gardenelementduringtheMiddleAges,theirmostadvertisedvaluewasprimarilyculturaland
aestheticfunction.Inactualfact,lawnswereintroducedpurelyasadecorativeelementforhuman
enjoyment,andnotassociatedwithanydirecteconomicvalue.Subsequently,theyhavebeenrapidly
developedinperiodsofpoliticalstabilityandtechnologicalprogressinWesternEurope[22].
Sincetheirdevelopment,lawnshaverequiredbothspace(land)andlabourtoprovideconstant
management(especiallyintheearlystagesoftheiruseinthe16thand17thcenturies).Oneimportant
purposeoflawnswasintangible—assymbolsofpowerandprosperity.Thisimportantsymbolismof
power,orderandcontrolovernaturecanbefoundinallcountriesacrossthecenturies—fromFrench
andEnglishgardensdesignedforthearistocracy,toimportantcontemporarypublicbuildingsand
privateresidencesofhighincomeurbanitesaroundtheglobe[76,77](Figure5).Fromthe18th
centuryonwards,lawnsweredesignedaccordingtotheideasofthepicturesquemovement(endof
the18thcenturytothebeginningofthe19thcentury).Atthatparticulartime,smoothandgently
rollingturfsurfaceswerereveredasthemost“beautiful”landscapes[76].Europeancountriesand
coloniesdesignednumerousparklikelandscapesaccordingtothisstandardofEnglish“beauty”.
(a)(b)(c)
Figure5.Lawnsassymbolsofbeauty,powerandprosperity:a)Lawnsareadominantfeatureof
decorativeparterreintheformal(Frenchstyle)gardenofZwingerPalace,Dresden,Germany;b)
LawninfrontofamosqueinDoha,Qatar;c)Manicuredlawninaprivatevilla,suburbofMoscow,
Russia.Photos:M.Ignatieva.
TheEnglishgardenwithitsadmirationofthecountrysideandpastorallandscapes(andusing
bothpasturesandlawnsintheirvocabulary)becameakindof“buffer”between“wildnessofnature
andthestiffnessofart”[74],(p.241).ThemajorityofEnglishgardeningpractitionersandscholarsof
Land2020,9,738of27
thepicturesquemovementagreedthatthegardenareanexttothemainhouseshouldbecoveredby
cutlawns,otherwiseitwoulddemonstrateastepawayfromcivilisation[75].
Itisveryimportanttonote,thatEnglishparksusednativegrasslandspeciesfortheirlawnsthat
werealsowidelyusedinpastures.Thesuccessofthesespeciesonlawnsurfaceswasduetothemild
Englishclimate,highrainfallandappropriatesoils.
Fromtheverybeginningofthepublicparksmovementinthemid19thcenturylawnshave
servedthefunctionofpublicrecreation[59,64,66,75,78,84].Publicparksarebasedonthemodelof
theBritishpastorallandscapeaestheticwheregreengrassareasplayedtheessentialrole.Another
highlyrecognisedrecreationalbenefitoflawnsistheirprovisionofsurfacesforsportslikefootball,
cricketandgolf.AllthesegamesarerootedintheBritishIsles.
Withtechnologicalprogressandtheinventionofmowersforthecommonman,lawnsbecame
morewidespreadinprivatesuburbangardensintheUK,Australia,NewZealandandtoasignificant
extentintheUSA(Figure6).Themajorityofexistingliteratureoncoloniallawnsisdedicatedto
researchingthesocialperceptionandanalysisoftheAmericanattachmenttoperfecthomelawns
[59,66,79].Americanauthorsbelievedthat,despitethelawnbeingprimarilyanEnglishfeature,the
US“frontlawn”becamethemostpowerfulsociologicalmanifestationandanobligatoryelementof
theAmericanlifestyle.LawnsinAmericastandforpersonalrespectandbeingagoodcitizen,and
areassociatedwithpublichealthandevensafety.Forexample,inshortcutlawnsdangerous
creaturessuchassnakesortickswouldhavenochancetoappear[66].Today,theUnitedStatesis
oneofthelargestproducersandconsumersofturf,andturfrepresentsthelargestirrigatednonfood
cropinthecountry[24,79,80,83].
(a)(b)(c)
Figure6.Lawnsinprivategardens:a)USA(Syracuse,NY),b)Australia(Perth)andc)NewZealand
(Christchurch).Lawnsareobligatoryelementsofsuburbia.Photos:M.Ignatieva.
3.2.CulturalServicesofColonialLawns:AustraliaandNewZealand
ColoniallawnswereintroducedtoAustraliaandNewZealandastheimportantaesthetic
heritageofEngland,togetherwithothergarden,planningandarchitecturalarchetypes.InNew
Zealand,lawnsbecamepartofthenewlyestablishedpublicparks,privateestates,andsuburban
gardensandtheyusedthepicturesquegardenesqueaesthetics.Europeangrasseswerewelladapted
toNewZealand’stemperateclimate.Christchurch,forexample,iscalled“themostEnglishcity
outsideofEngland”[100].
InAustralia,establishingturfwasmoredifficultduetotheheat,frequentdroughtsand
unsuitablesoilsforEuropeanturfspecies.Inotherwords,thesewereunusualandhostile
environmentalconditionsforlawns.WhereasmostlawngrassesinEuropehavetheiroriginsinthe
nativeorsecondarygrasslandsofthatregion,inthesouthernhemisphere,allsuitableturfspecies
werenonnativeplants.Itwasthereforealongandpainfulprocesstofindappropriatenonnative
speciesandlawnmanagementregimesforlawnsinthesouthernhemisphere.Particularlyinthedry
climatesofWesternandSouthAustralia,theturfindustryfacedmanychallenges.Grassesinpoor
soilswouldnotgrowwithoutconstantirrigationandfertiliserapplication.
ConcerningtheearlydaysofsettlersinPerth,Gaynor[73](p.4)statesthat“grassandother
gardenplantswerealliesinawaragainsttheheatanddirtthatperpetuallyinvadedsettlers’homes
andtheirdreamsofcreatinga‘civilised’city,andthealliancewasforgedandmaintainedwith
Land2020,9,739of27
water”.ForearlyAustraliansettlers,lawns,aspartofacultivatedandirrigatedgarden,werea
powerfulsymbolofthesupposedsuperiorityofEuropeancivilisationincontrasttotheIndigenous
(Aboriginal)wilderness.Theselawnscapeswereinoppositiontothewildnessof“thebush”andthe
bushreferredtothe”wild”places,theshrublands,forests,mountains,desertsandsometimeseven
theruralcountryside[101].
TothefirstsettlersinAustraliaandNewZealand,nativeplantswereunattractiveandappeared
“alienating”.PlantswereneverasgreenasthoseinEngland.Asimilarattitudetowardsthe
surrounding“messy”wildnesshaspersistedinthemodernlandscape.Thecolonialsymbolismofthe
wellkeptprivategardenhasnotchangedinthe20thandthe21stcentury.Aneatgardenindicates
neighbourhoodstatusandhighpropertyvalues.Thisseparationofurbanlandscapeswherelawn
andexoticdecorativeplantsaredelineatedfromnativebushlandisthefoundationfortheexistence
oftwodifferent“natures”inAustralianandNewZealandcities(Part4).
3.3.CulturalServicesofLawns:Recreation
Fromanurbansociologicalstandpoint,therearevariouswaysthatlawnsareutilised.Oneof
themainvaluesofconventionallawnsisthespacetheyprovideforsocialactivitiessuchas
picnicking,resting,sunbathing,walkingdogs,gamesandsports[102].Anotherimportantfunction,
whichwasconnectedtothe19thcenturygardenesquestyle,wastheuseoflawnsasaesthetic
backgroundsforarchitectureandartelements[22].
RecentstudiesfromEuropeandUSAhaverevealedthatpeople’sloveoflawnsisconnectedto
theintegralrolelawnsplayintheeverydaylandscape[1,22,60–63,71,72].Shortcutlawnscapesare
associatedwithimprovedqualityoflifeandpersonalsafety.Lawns,withtheiropennessandgood
visibility,areopposedtodenseshrubsandwoodlandswhichcanhidedangerouspeople.Inarid
developingcountrieswherewatershortageisparamount,lawnsareneverthelessusedtogreen
workplacesandareseenasprimaryvehiclesforenhancingthequalityofhumanlife[57].
InScandinaviancountries,duetothecoldclimateandsubsequentlifestyles,lawnscanonlybe
usedfromlateMaytoOctober[22].InpartsofCentralandWesternEuropewithmilderclimates,
lawnscanbeusedforlongerperiodsoftime.InEurope,duetothechangingclimateandwithwarmer
wintersandextendedsummertemperatures,lawnsareusedthroughoutthewholeyear.Thereis
evidencethatsomeGermancitylawnsinurbanparksarebeingusedfromFebruarytoNovember,
whichisfarlongerthaninpreviousdecades.Thisprolongationofthegrowingseasonhasledto
lawnsbeingoverusedandnotbeingaffordednecessaryrecoveryperiods.
InChina,duetotheveryrecentintroductionoflawnstourbanpublicspacesandtocertain
specificsocioculturalpractices(overuseofgreenspaces),lawnsarenotaccessibleforgeneral
recreationbutonlyplayadecorative(aesthetic)roleinurbanlandscapes[4].Inwarm,humidorarid
climatecountries,lawnsareusedallyearround,however,theirconditionisdependentonirrigation
whichraisesconcernsofoveruseofwater,particularlyinaridcities.
Thesedays,lawnsareusedforabroadrangeofactivities—forquietrecreation(reading,talking
andwalking)tosports,plays,parties,barbecuesandpicnics(Figure7).Duetothe
“mediteranianisation”ofEuropeanlifestyles,peoplewouldliketospendmoretimeoutside[62].
(a)(b)(c)
Land2020,9,7310of27
Figure7.Lawnsprovidethemainarenaofhumanactivitiesincitiestoday:a)ParkinTokyo(Japan),
b)RabetParkinLeipzig(Germany),c)GujiazhaiParkinShanghai(China).Photos:M.Ignatieva,D.
Dushkova.
Today,thelawnisidealisedasauniversalculturalnormandisconsideredthemost“beautiful”
aestheticfunctionofurbanlandscapes,whichinturn,helpstocreatepositivehumanpsychological
andphysicalhealth[22,78,103].
Inrecentyears,themainculturalandaestheticdisservicesoflawnarecausedbytheincreasing
recreationalpressureputonpubliclyaccessibleparksresultinginlargecompacted,trampledareas.
Therearesimplymorepeoplewhowanttouselawns.Thisleadstodegradationofthelawnsurface,
toagreaterinputofresources(watering,aerationandfertilisers)andtoconstantrepairsofdamaged
areas.OneoftheexamplesisGörlitzerParkinBerlinwhichiswidelyusedbylocalpeople(parties
andfestivals)andbytourists.AnotherexampleispublicparksinLeipzigwhererecreationalpressure
significantlyincreasedduetothegrowingpopulation(Figure8a).AcrossEurope,inmanycitiesthat
havebecomethedestinationofyouthimmigration,parklawnsareespeciallyindemandandunder
pressure[104,105].
InEuropeandsomecountrieswherewateringisrestrictedorprohibitedduringdrysummers,
lawnsareturningbrownandbecomingasignificantsourceofdust[69](Figure8).
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure8.Degradationoflawnsfromoveruse(trampling)anddrought.Lawnswereestablishedon
formerpostindustrialsite(a)orwasteland(c):a)LeneVoigtPark,Leipzig(Germany),b)Zaryadye
Park,Moscow(Russia),c)publicgreenspacenearahospitalinKirovsk,Russia.Photos:D.Dushkova.
InshrinkingEuropeanpostindustrialcities,urbanlawnsarealsofrequentlyusedafterthe
demolitionofhousingorindustrialstructures.Thisisafastmethodforrevivingopenspaceand
makingitaccessibleforrecreation[106,107].Insuchareas,thesoilcanoftenbeverythinandgrass
speciesstruggletosurvive.Incontrast,plantedtreesandshrubsinsuchareasreceivemoreattention
andbettermaintained.Thisisparticularlyacuteinurbanparksthatarecreatedonformer
brownfields.Thoseparkssuffermuchmoreduringhotanddrysummers.Thus,lawnsbecome
almostunusableandcannotfulfiltheirrecreationalfunction.
3.4.MitigationoftheHeatIslandEffect,CarbonSequestrationandRegulationoftheWaterCycle
Thecoolingeffectoflawnsiswellrecognisedandisalwaysusedasanargumentforthe
importanceofgrasscoveredareas(partofgreeninfrastructure)versushardurbansurfaces(grey
infrastructurenotcoveredbyvegetation).Thecoolingcapacityoflawnsisdirectlyrelatedtothe
evapotranspirationprocessandverymuchdependsonwateravailability.Intemperateclimates,
lawnshaveshowntheircapacitytodecreasethetemperaturepeaksofhotsummerdaysby
approximately1°C[42].
Properirrigationregimeenhancedthecoolingeffectofgrasses[33].Irrigatedturfhasbecome
animportantfactorforthemitigationoftheurbanheatislandeffectinhotaridclimates,suchas
Australiancities[98].Forexample,inAdelaide,whereawarmingtrendisoccurringasaresultof
climatechange,by2070themaximumtemperaturesduringJanuaryandFebruaryareexpectedto
Land2020,9,7311of27
exceed45°C,whichishigherthantheaveragemaximumtemperaturesbetween1980and1999of
43°Candbetween2000and2012of44°C.Heatmappingofurbanareasaswellashighresolution
thermalinfraredimageryof285km2regionofAdelaide’ssouthernsuburbsshowedthatthecoolest
sitesweregolfcourses,waterbodies,densewoodyvegetationandirrigatedturf,whilethehottest
areasweregenerallycomprisedofbuildings,dryagriculturalfields,dry/deadgrassandvegetation,
exposedsoilandunshadedhardsurfaces[108].Researchintosurfacetemperaturesofhardandsoft
urbanlandscapeelementsinPerth,WesternAustralia,foundthatareaswithgreypaverswerethe
hottest,whilstareaswithgroundcoverplantswerethecoolest.Intheevenings,greypavers
remainedthehottest,whilstdecking,soil,andturfgrasswerethecoolest[94].
Anotherrecognisedecosystemserviceoflawniscarbonsequestration.Intemperatezonesof
EuropeandtheUSA,carbonsequestrationhasbeenpositivelyassociatedwithcarbonaccumulating
inthesoil[42].However,otherrecentstudiesofthenorthernhemispheretemperatezoneshave
shownthatthepositiveeffectsofsoilcarbonsequestrationinintensivelymanagedlawnscanbe
negatedbygreenhousegasemissionsgeneratedbytheroutinemanagementoperationsofmowing,
fertiliserapplicationandirrigation[22].IntheNewcastleregioninAustraliadomesticlawnmowers
contributed5.2%and11.6%ofcarbonmonoxide(CO)andnonmethanehydrocarbonsemissions
(NMHC),respectively[52].
ParkandgardensoilsinwesternandeasternEuropeancountrieshaveexperiencedseveral
centuriesofenrichedsoilfertilityand,accordingly,increasedhumusamountinsoils.Incitieswhere
lawnsarecreatedonsandysoils,suchasPerth,thesesoilsrequirealotofinputfromtheoutsetto
growturfgrassesbecauseoftheirlimitedwaterandnutrientcapacity.Recentresearchhasshown
that“excessnitrogenandphosphorusleachingbeneathurbanlawnsonsandysoilsinmetropolitan
Perthmayposeaseriousthreatnotonlytothequalityoftheunderlyinggroundwaterbutalsoto
manysurfacewaterbodies”[56](p.1).
NorthernhemispherecasestudiesfromUSAandEuropehaveoutlinedtheimportanceofturf
forreductionofwaterrunoffandincreasedwaterinfiltration,withresultinginfloodingproblems
andincreaseinwaterrecharging[42].However,thedataislimitedand,inmostscenarios,itisbased
oncasesfromtemperateclimatesthatarenotdirectlyobtainedfromresearchingturfgrassurban
ecosystems.Forlawnsinaridandsemiaridregions,waterrelatedissuesaretypicallyconsidered
disservicesratherthanservices.Tomaintainlivingandgreenturfgrass,substantialirrigationis
required.StudiesfromaridzonesoftheUnitedStateshaverevealedthatlawnusedupto75%ofthe
totalannualhouseholdwaterconsumption[24].Insouthernhemispherecities,forexampleinPerth,
gardensaccountedforoverhalfofthecity’swaterusein1970’s.Perthʹstotalwaterusage,accounting
forschemewaterusage,regulatedborewaterabstractionandestimatedprivategardenboreusage
between2017and2018was629,390megalitres.Approximately258,403megalitres(41%)ofthis
amountwasusedfortheirrigationoflawnsandgardens,ofwhich79%wasdrawnfrom
groundwater[109].
Withoutirrigationinsuchdryconditions,lawnsarebecomingdry,brown,dustyand
unappealingtopeople.InGermany,SwedenandEngland,wateringisnotallowedforpublicgreen
areasduringhotsummers,thuslawnsandstreettreesarerapidlydegrading.Somegrassesrecover
afterlatesummerrainfalls,however,thedamageisvisibleandturfsurfacesoftenneedtoberepaired.
InmanyAustraliancities(forexampleinMelbourneandSydney)andsemiaridstatesofUSA(in
CaliforniaandArizona)thereareastrictwaterconservationeffortsandrestrictionpoliciesagainst
usingwaterforlawnirrigation[16].InAustraliancities,onlysomespeciesofturfgrassesarecapable
ofrevivingaftersummerdroughts.Othersjustdieandawholenewlawnneedstobereinstalled.As
theyofferaquicksolutiontokeepinganurbanyardorplayground“clean”and“green”,thesynthetic
lawnindustryhasboomedallovertheglobe.(Figure9).However,ecologicalandsociological
researchintosuchsubstitutefornatureislimited.Thereisconcernthatmaterialusedforplasticnon
livinglawnreducesurbanhabitat,suppressessoilfauna,pollutesrunoffviaplasticandsynthetic
particlesandotherunknownimpactsontheenvironment[18,19,93,110].Lovedayetal.[94]revealed
thatarticialturfgrasscanbeparticularlyhot,oftenmorethan30°Caboveturfgrass.
Land2020,9,7312of27
(a)(b)
Figure9.Synthetic(plastic)lawnsinaplaygroundinMalaga(Spain)(a),andfrontyardofa
residentialbuildinginLeipzig(Germany)(b).Photos:D.Dushkova.
Inmanycitieswhereherbicidesandpesticidesareusedtokeeplawnuniformandtidy,there
areconcernsofcontaminationofgroundwaterandrunoffwater.Forexample,in2012,UShouses
appliedupto57.6millionkilograms(12.7millionpounds)ofpesticidetolawns[111].Themostrecent
andwidelydiscussedexampleisRoundup™—oneofthemostwidelyusedherbicidesontheplanet.
TheInternationalAgencyforResearchonCancer(IARC),classifiedglyphosate(theactiveingredient
inRoundup™)as“probablycarcinogenictohumans“[112].
3.6.Habitat(Biotope)Provision
Sincelawnsconsistofsod,acombinationofgrassrootsandsoil,theysupportparticulartypeof
wildlife,forexample,insects(antsandsomespeciesofbeetles),nematodes,earthwormsandspiders.
Olderlawnsinthenorthernhemispheretemperateclimateusuallyincludesomebroadleaf
herbaceousspecies(Trifoliumrepens,Potentillaanserina,Prunellavulgaris),thatarecapableofadapting
tothemowingheight.Thelifehabitsoftheseplantsadapttoafrequentmowingandallowedthem
togothroughtheirlifecycleandproduceflowers,thusattractingpollinatorssuchasbeesand
bumblebees[22].
SomedomesticlawnsandmoderatelyvisitedparklawnsinEuropeareattractivetosmall
herbivorousanimalssuchasrabbitsandhares.Lengtheningthemowingintervalandcreatinga
timedscheduleformowingtoallowforthefloweringofbroadleafherbaceousspeciessuchasclover,
wouldincreasethediversityofplantsinthelawnandpollinationandgrazingopportunitiesfor
wildlife.
Inthesouthernhemisphere,especiallyinAustraliaandNewZealand,theaimofmaintenance
ofdomesticandpubliclawnsistoachieveahomogenousgreencarpetlikeappearance(Figure10).
(a)(b)(c)
Figure10.Ecologicalhomogenizationofurbanenvironmentina)Australia(Perth),b)Singapore
(SingaporeBotanicGarden)andc)NewZealand(LincolnUniversityCampus).Photos:M.Ignatieva.
Land2020,9,7313of27
ComparedtoEuropeanandUSAtemperatezones,AustralianandNewZealandlawnsconsist
offarfewernativeplants,whichareunabletogrowamongstthedenseexoticgrassesduetotheir
verydifferentlifestrategies.Sincenativeplantcommunitiesareeitherdestroyedorreplacedby
irrigatedlawns,nativefaunahastoadaptanduselawngrassesasafoodsource.Forexample,the
nativebird,littlecorella(Cacatuasanguinea)isregularlyseenbrowsingonirrigatedlawns(inparks
andsportsfields)inCanberra,SydneyandBrisbane.TheAustralianmagpie,ibisandwagtailbirds
arealsoaverycommonforagerofAustralianurbanlawns[44].Amongnonaviantaxonwhoprefers
urbanlawnsinthePacificcoastofAustraliaisthecantoad(Rhinellamarinus)introducedfromSouth
Americaandbecomingaproblem.CanToad’stoxinkillhouseholdpetsandanynativespeciesthat
willattempttopreyonthem[37].Manyinvasiveurbanbirdspeciesalsofeedonurbanturfgrasses.
InAustralia’sincreasinglydryenvironment,especiallyoverthelastdecade,irrigatedurbanlawns
havebecomedesirablefoodsourcesforlargemarsupialssuchaskangaroos(Figure11)[113].The
EasternandWesterngreykangaroooftenforagesongolfcourseturfsandurbanlawns.Forlocalturf
producersandgolfcoursesgreenskeepers,kangaroosareseenasanuisance.Theycanalsoruin
fencesandcausehazardsontheroads.InCanberra,urbanlawnsareoneofthemainhabitatsforthe
rabbitanintroducedanimalthatisnowconsideredapestinAustralia.Inthesecases,thepositive
ecosystemserviceof“providingwildlifehabitat”hasturnedtoadisservice.
Figure11.UrbanlawnshavebecomeadesirablefoodsourceforKangaroosinWesternAustralia.
Photos:M.Ignatieva.
Australianlawnsalsoprovidehabitatforotherharmfulpestssuchasthestingingnematode
(Ibiporalolii).Infestationsofthisaccidentallyintroducedparasiticnematode(possiblyoriginatingin
SouthAmericaortheCaribbean)haveresultedingrasswithshallowrootsystems,sparseturfcover
andbarepatchesinmanysportsfieldsandrecreationalareas[43].
Overthelastdecade,themostnoticeableandwidelydiscussedecosystemdisserviceoflawnsis
aestheticuniformityresultingintheecologicalhomogenisationofurbanareas,withlawnplant
communitiesbecomingsimilarincompositionandstructureacrossnumerousbiogeographicalzones
[1].Thedemandforthesemonotonousgreensurfacescanonlybemetbyusingmonoculturesofone
ortwospecies.Intemperateclimates,fourEuropeanspecies,Poapratensis,Festucarubra,Lolium
perenneandAgrostisspp.arewidelygrowninturfgrassnurseries.Inwarmclimatecountries,the
mostcommonareCyonodondactylon(nativetoAfrica),Stenotaphrumsecundatum(originallyfrom
CentralandSouthAmerica),Paspalumvaginatum(fromtheAmericas),Pennisetumclandestinum(East
Africa)andZoysiajaponica(fromsoutheastAsiaandIndonesia).Themainmethodformaintaining
thehomogeneouscompositionisestablishinglawnsbyseedingorbyvegetativeplantingand
eliminatinganyotherspecies(weeds)byapplyingherbicidesandfrequentmowing.
Anotherecosystemdisserviceoflawns,especiallyinnonEuropeancountries,istheinvasive
capabilityofsomelawngrassspecies,withmanyspreadingintonativebiomes.Oneclassicexample
isthemostfamouslawnspecies,Cyonodondactylon.ThisspecieswaslistedbytheGlobal
CompendiumofWeedsasoneofthetop12citedinvasiveweedsintheworld[114].Increasingthe
biodiversityoflawnscanbeachievedbyleavingsomenativeorspontaneouslyappearingbroadleaf
floweringplantstoattractpollinatinginsects.However,thisiscontroversialinlightoftheattitudes
Land2020,9,7314of27
totheconventionallawn—thatitshouldbeahighlymanicuredandcontrolledplantcommunity
whereotherplantsareundesirable.
4.TwoNatures
Lawnscapesdominateurbanlandscapesandpeopleperceiveurban“nature”throughtheprism
oflawns[22,59,64,66,78,84].Whenapersonstepsonthegrassbesideofaroadoroutsideabuilding,
itisoftentheironlydailycontactwithnature.Incitieswithnoorverylimitedaccesstowild
vegetationorotherpristinenature,urbandwellershaveanevenstrongerconnectionandassociation
withturfgrassasnature.Turfgrassestogetherwithother“naturalfeatures”consistingofliving
organismssuchastrees,flowerbeds,shrubberiesandwaterbodiesformthisvisionofnature[57].
Historically,Europeanpreferencesforgrassysurfacesweretransferredandadoptedinother
countriesandcommunities.Formanycenturies,Europeangreenareasconsistedofnativespecies
andincludednaturalorseminaturalvegetation.Bythe19thcentury,theEnglishvisionofurban
greenspacesdominatedtheUSA,Australia,NewZealandandEuropeancolonies[81].European
settlersliterallytransferredtheirvaluesofturfgrassestotheircoloniesandcreatedanewversionof
urbannature.Itwasanew“civilised”Europeannaturebasedonexoticspeciesthatwereopposedto
wildnature.Mowedlawnwasoftenusedasademarcatedlinebetweenthesetwonatures.Weargue
thatinEuropethereisonlyoneurbannatureandinAustraliaandNewZealandtherearetwourban
natures.
4.1.EuropeanUrbanNature
EuropeanresearchersintheirpostWorldWarIIstudiesofurbanecosystemssawurbannature
asaheterogeneousandcomplexphenomenon.Theirvisionofurbannatureincludedalltypesof
urbanbiotopesremnantsof“pristine”forest,seminaturalmodifiedgroves,designedurbanparks,
smallcommunitygardens,abandonedwastelandsorditchesorcracksinwallsorpavements
[31,81,82].MostWesternandCentralEuropeanlandscapesweremodifiedduringthelonghistoryof
humansettlements[68].Someintroduceddecorativeandcropspeciesthathadescapedfrom
cultivationand,withtime,becameintegralpartsofurbanecosystems.StudiesofEuropeanurban
ecologyconsiderthenaturalisationstagesofurbanfloraandvegetation[31].Thedegreeof
naturalisationandinvasivenessinNorthern,Central,EasternandWesternEuropeisstillnotas
severeasurbanenvironmentsintheNewWorld.Forexample,inCentralEuropetheoriginalflora
consistedof2,400vascularplants.Since4000BC.Morethan12,000taxahavebeenintroducedand
only279(2.3%)havenaturalisedinnaturalplantcommunities[51].InNewZealand,floracomprises
about2500indigenousplants(80%ofthemareendemic).However,sinceEuropeanarrivedinthe
1840s,over25,000exoticplantshavebeenintroducedandonetenthofthemhavealreadybecome
naturalised,withfourmoreenteringthewildeachyear[81,115].
InEurope,urbannatureisstilldominatedbynativefloraincludingurbanlawns.Duetothe
ecologyofEuropeannativebiomeswhichhaveundergonenumerousdisturbances,thereare
effectiverecoverymechanismsfordisturbedecosystems.Alargenumberofnativepioneerspecies
inthesoilseedbankallowsurbanbiotopestoquicklyregenerate.ThetypologyofEuropeanlawns
andtheircompositionandstructureisregulatedbymanagementand,firstofall,bythefrequencyof
mowing.Forexample,inSwedenthereareconventionallawnsthatarefrequentlymownand
meadowlikelawns(highgrassandmeadows),thatarecutonetotwotimesperyear.Highgrass
areashaveagreaterpotentialforbiodiversitywhenproperlymaintained(collectingclippingsafter
cuttingtorestrictsoilfertility)andwithapropermowingschedule(attherighttimeoftheseason)
[22].
ThemajorityofurbanecologyresearchinNorthAmericaisbasedontemperatecitiesandalso
regard“urbannature”asanentitythatisnotseparatedfromwildnatureandmanmade(designed)
nature.IntheUS,theurbanruralgradientapproachisthemostpopularmethodofstudyingurban
ecosystems.Americancitieshavethedominanturbanplanningmodel:centralbusiness,district
sprawlandsuburbiaruralecosystems[116].NorthAmericanurbanecologistshavealsofocused
Land2020,9,7315of27
moreonremnantindigenousvegetationforexampleurbanforest[117].However,theUSAhasquite
substantialinputonsocioculturalresearchofurbanlawns[64,118].
4.2.AustralianUrbanNature
InAustraliaandNewZealand,“nature”typicallyreferstonaturalindigenousecosystems.
WhileEuropehasalongtraditionfromthe19thcenturyofstudyingurbanfloraandvegetationwith
themostadvancedclassificationofplantnaturalisation,urbanvegetationandurbanbiotope
mapping,Australianurbanecologyismuchyounger.Urbanisationpatternsweredifferentfrom
Europeandurbandevelopmenttookplaceinrelativelyintactnativevegetation.Manyhighquality
remnantsofnativewoodlands,scrublands,grasslandsorwetlandssurvivedandcouldbefound
scatteredthroughcitiesanditssuburbs[27].Someofthesevaluablepatcheswereseverely
transformedduringurbanisation,butsomestillcontainalargeproportionoftheiroriginal
vegetation.Thatiswhyresearchoffloraandwildlifeinurbanremnantsofindigenousvegetation
(forests,woodlands,grasslands,rivers,creeksandwetlands)andprinciplesoftheirprotectionand
restorationorstudyofnativewildlifespeciesinurbanareasareprioritizedamongAustralianurban
ecologists[27,28,32].ForAustralians,“nature”equatesto“thebush”.ThisisaveryAustralianword
forwildernessusedbythegeneralpublicandbygovernmentalandpublicorganisations
(https://www.bushlandperth.org.au/bushforever/).
EuropeanandNorthAmericanecologistsintroducedandwidelyusedtermssuchas“urban
ecosystems”,“urbanplantcommunities”,“urbanbiotopes”,“urbanhabitats”.Thesetermsall
includeurbanplantsandtheirassemblageswithoutdivisionssuchas“cultivated”,“spontaneously
natural”or“natural”.Incomparison,Australianecologistsusetheconceptof“novelecosystems”,
meaningecosystemsthatdifferincompositionand/orfunctionfrompresentandpasthistorical
(meaningoriginalnative)systems[96].Originally,theterm“novelecosystems“wasintroducedby
USAecologistsChapinandStarfield[119]torecognise“theresponseoftheborealforesttocurrent
andanticipatedclimaticchanges”.
TheprimarygoalofacceptingandreinterpretingtheconceptofnovelecosystemsbyAustralian
ecologistsistounderstandinvasivespeciesbehaviourinnativeremnantsandprovidemechanisms
forsavingandrestoringnativevegetation.Australia’srapidurbanisationanduseofEuropean
landscapemodelshasresultedinadramaticlossofuniqueandfragilenativeecosystems,which
existedforthousandsofyearsinisolationwithrelativelyminorhumandisturbance.Invasivenessin
Australianecosystemsissevere,withmanyintroduceddecorativeandcropspeciesandassociated
weedsescapingfromcultivationintothewildenvironment[28].
Recentlythenewterm“designedorengineeredecosystems”hascomplemented“novel
ecosystems”.Designedecosystemsaredescribedas“requiringintensiveinterventionstocreatethem
andongoingmanagementtosustainthem”[95].Novelecosystemasatermisnowrecognisedby
EuropeanandUSAurbanecologists[97,120]andusedtoexplainthecharacterofbiodiversity,its
levelof“naturalness”andcapacityforurbanbiodiversityconservationandprotection[121].Ingo
Kowarik[97]hasevensuggestedtheconceptof“fournatures”:1naturepristine(forest,wetlands);
2natureagricultural(grasslands,fields);3naturehorticultural(parks,gardens);and4natureurban
industrial,vacantlots,industrialsitesandtransportcorridors.Thistypologyofurbannatureisalso
reflectedintheEuropeanunderstandingofurbanlandscapes.
StudyandpracticalapplicationofAustralianurbanecologyinlandscapedesigntypicallydeal
withhumanmodificationof“wild”or“natural”systemswithinurbanandagriculturallandsand
usesthisknowledgeasatoolfortheconservationof“native”nature.Asfortheother“nature”that
dominatesurbanareas,therearestillquiteafewgapsinurbanecologicalresearchespeciallyatthe
urbanbiotopelevel,suchasresearchoflawns(exceptsomehistoricalhistoryliterature),publicparks
orwastelandsandabandonedindustrialareas.Wesuggestthisurbanmanmadenaturebecalled
“designedandmanaged”nature(Table2).Dominatedbyintroducedexotictropicalandsubtropical
species,lawnsandgardensinthehotanddryAustralianclimatearecompletelydependenton
irrigation,supplementarynutrients,andmanagement.“Designedandmanaged”naturein
Australiancitiesisbasedongloballandscapedesignpatternsandsimilarexoticplantmaterial
Land2020,9,7316of27
availableinnurseries.Thereisasharpboundarybetween“wild”natureandthe“designed”urban
natureundertotalhumancontrol.
ResidentsofAustraliancitiessharesimilarattitudestothe