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Land2020,9,73;doi:10.3390/land9030073www.mdpi.com/journal/land
Opinion
LawnsinCities:FromaGlobalisedUrbanGreen
SPACEphenomenontoSustainable
Nature‐BasedSolutions
MariaIgnatieva
1,
*,DagmarHaase
2,3
,DianaDushkova
3
andAnnegretHaase
4
1
TheUniversityofWesternAustralia,SchoolofDesign,35StirlingHighway,Perth,WA6001,Australia
2
HumboldtUniversityBerlin,DepartmentofGeography,UnterdenLinden6,10099Berlin,Germany;
dagmar.haase@ufz.de(D.H.);diana.dushkova@geo.hu‐berlin.de(D.D.)
3
HelmholtzCentreforEnvironmentalResearch–UFZ,DepartmentofComp.LandscapeEcology,
Permoserstr.15,04318Leipzig,Germany
4
HelmholtzCentreforEnvironmentalResearch–UFZ,DepartmentofUrbanandEnvironmentalSociology,
Permoserstr.15,04318Leipzig,Germany;annegret.haase@ufz.de
*Correspondence:maria.ignatieva@uwa.edu.au;Tel.:+61864886000
Received:29January2020;Accepted:27February2020;Published:2March2020
Abstract:Thisopinionpaperdiscussesurbanlawns,themostcommonpartofopengreenspaces
andurbangreeninfrastructures.Ithighlightsboththeecosystemservicesandalsodisservices
providedbyurbanlawnsbasedontheauthors’experienceofworkingwithininterdisciplinary
researchprojectsonlawnsindifferentcitiesofEurope(Germany,SwedenandRussia),New
Zealand(Christchurch),USA(Syracuse,NY)andAustralia(Perth).Itcomplementsthisexperience
withadetailedliteraturereviewbasedonthemostrecentstudiesofdifferentbiophysical,social,
planninganddesignaspectsoflawns.Wealsousedaninternationalworkshopasanimportantpart
oftheresearchmethodology.WearguethatalthoughlawnsofEuropeandtheUnitedStatesof
Americaarenowrelativelywellstudied,otherpartsoftheworldstillunderestimatetheimportance
ofresearchinglawnsasacomplexecologicalandsocialphenomenon.Oneofthecoreobjectivesof
thispaperistoshareaparadigmofnature‐basedsolutionsinthecontextoflawns,whichcanbean
importantsteptowardsfindingresilientsustainablealternativesforurbangreenspacesinthetime
ofgrowingurbanisation,increasedurbanlandusecompetition,varioususerdemandsandrelated
societalchallengesoftheurbanenvironment.Wehypothesisethatthesesolutionsmaybefoundin
urbanecosystemsandvariouslocalnativeplantcommunitiesthatarerichinspeciesandableto
withstandharshconditionssuchasheavytramplinganddroughts.Tosupportthetheoretical
hypothesisoftherelevanceofnature‐basedsolutionsforlawnswealsosuggestanddiscussthe
conceptoftwonatures—differentapproachestothevisionofurbannature,includingthe
understandingandappreciationoflawns.Thiswillhelptoincreasetheawarenessofexistinglocal
ecologicalapproachesaswellasanimportanceofintroducinginnovativelandscapearchitecture
practices.Thisarticlesuggeststhatthereisapotentialforfuturetransdisciplinaryinternational
researchthatmightaidourunderstandingoflawnsindifferentclimaticandsocio‐cultural
conditionsaswellasdeveloplocallyadapted(toenvironmentalconditions,socialneedsand
managementpolicies)andacceptednature‐basedsolutions.
Keywords:lawns;ecosystemservicesanddisservices;nature‐basedsolutionsforlawns;alternative
tolawns;sustainablelawns;twonatures
1.Introduction
Therecentworldwidechangesinclimate,includingheatwavesandlongdroughtperiods,has
resultedinthedegradationofurbangreenspaces.Regardlessofclimaticconditions,water
Land2020,9,732of27
availabilityorculturaltraditions,lawnsarethemostcommonelementsofgreencityspacesacross
theglobe,coveringupto50%–70%ofurbangreenareas[1].InGermancitieslikeLeipzig,publicpark
lawnscoveratleast50%[2].Similarly,inSweden,lawnsmakeup50%ofurbangreenareas[3].
Interestingly,Chinesecitiesarecurrentlyoneofthelargestusersoflawns[4]andintheUS,lawn
(oftencalledturforgrass)surfacesdominateurbanandsuburbanlandscapesandcoveralmost2%
ofthecountry’sterrestrialarea[5].ThetotalareaunderturfinAustraliaisaround4400hectares
makingupanaverageof11%ofthetotalareasofcities[6].
Lawnsarehighlyrecognisedandmassivelyprefabricatedlandscapedesignelement.Inmany
cases,turfisusedastheeasiestandmostcost‐effectiveshort‐termsolutiontocovering“leftover
places”afterthedemolitionofbuildingsorforthe“beautification”ofabandonedplaces[1].For
shrinkingcities,lawnsactasaninterimsuccessionalstageaftertheabandonmentordemolitionof
builtstructures[7–10].Whileurbanisationhasledtoadramaticincreaseinlawnsurfaces,these
surfacesrequiresignificantinputofenergyandresourcesandtheuseofseedmixturesfromglobal
lawnnurseries.Thishasresultedinbiologicalandvisualhomogenisationofurbanenvironments
[11–13].
TherecenthotanddrysummersinEurope(2017–2019)andseveredroughtconditionsinmany
othercountriesaroundtheworld—California,Arizona,andMid‐WestofUSA,CapeTowninSouth
AfricaandacrossAustralia—revealedparticularissuesrelatedtotherestrictionsofwateruse[14–
16].Manyurbangrassysurfacesdegradefromtramplingandextremesunorshadeexposure,and
thusquicklybecomebrownscapeswhilealsolosingtheecosystemservicesthatlawnstypically
perform[7,8].
Oneofthereactionstolawndegradationistheuseofsyntheticlawnsinsteadoflivinggrassed
surfaces.Alongwiththegrowingcontaminationofaquatichabitatsfromplasticparticles[17],the
useofartificiallawnsiscontributingtothepollutionofurbanenvironments.Asignificantvolumeof
polymergranulesandsyntheticgrassfragmentsareintroducedbywaterandwindintothe
environmenteachyearandneedtobebetterrecognisedasaformofmicroplasticpollutionaffecting
soil,waterways,andultimatelytheocean[18,19].Theseproblemshavehighlightedtheneedto
investigateanddevelopalternative,moreresistantsustainablesolutionsforlawnsthatwithstand
impendingclimatechangeconditionsand,atthesametime,createenvironmentallyfriendlyand
aestheticallyacceptableurbangreenopenspaces.
Inthisarticle,weanalysetheecosystemservicesanddisservicescreatedbylawns.Wefurther
discussexistingalternativevisionsforurbanlawnsfromdifferentcountriesinboththenorthernand
southernhemispheres.Inthisstudy,weusetheconceptofnature‐basedsolutionasanimportant
foundationforsearchingofsustainablelawns.Weacceptthedefinitionofnature‐basedsolutionsas
proposedbyEuropeanCommission[20]andRaymondetal.[21],thattheyare“…actionsand
solutionstosocietalchallengeswhichareinspiredandsupportedbyorcopiedfromnatureand
provideatthesametimemultipleenvironmental,social,economicco‐benefitssuchasthe
improvementofplaceattractiveness,ofhealthandqualityoflife,creationofgreenjobs,etc.”Our
visionofnature‐basedsolutionsisgroundedintheacceptanceandrespectoflocalpeculiaritiesfrom
countrytocountryandisfoundedonacomplexapproachwhichincludesbiological,planningand
designelements,providesocialandeconomicbenefits(suchastheimprovementofplace
attractiveness,ofhealthandqualityoflife,creationofgreenjobs,etc.)aswellassustainable
managementandstewardshipthatisdrivenbymunicipalities.
Despitetheuniversaladoptionoflawns,thereareavarietyoflawntypesanddifferencesin
technologicalpeculiaritiesofconstructionandmanagementregimes.Thesetypesarerootedinthe
historyoftheintroductionoflawnsandareconnectedtoclimatic,economic,andculturalconditions,
aswellastospecificlanduseandlandscapedesigntraditions[1].Thereisanurgentneedtoexplore
nature‐basedsolutionsinordertobetteradaptlawnstocurrentchangingclimaticconditionswithin
particulargeographicalzones,localculturalperceptionsandexpectations,socialwantsandneeds,
andeconomicopportunities.
Land2020,9,733of27
2.ConceptualAnalyticalFramework
Thisopinionpaperdiscussesthephenomenonoflawnsbasedontheauthors’long‐termproject
experienceofworkingwithintheinterdisciplinaryresearchprojectsonlawnsindifferentcitiesof
Europe(LeipzigandBerlininGermany,Uppsala,MalmoandGothenburginSweden,Moscow,St.
Petersburg,KirovskandApatityinRussia),NewZealand(Christchurch),USA(Syracuse,NY)and
Australia(Perth).Theseprojectsprovidedtheopportunitytoobtainandanalyselargeamountsof
qualitativeandquantitativedataaswellastotestsomealternativenature‐basedandlocallyadapted
solutionsrelatedtolawns.
ThedetailedconceptualanalyticalframeworkofthisarticleispresentedinFigure1.Toidentify
keyquestionsrelatedtoexistinglawnresearchanddiscoveraresearchgap,weusedaliterature
reviewbasedonSCOPUS,ISIWebofSciencesandGoogleScholar(Figure2).Wespecificallytargeted
keytermsrelatedtotheparticularecosystemservicesanddisservicesoflawns(analysedindetailin
Section3).Thesearchkeywordswere“lawnasahabitat,“useoflawns”“lawnasasymbol”,“plastic
lawn”,“heatislandmitigationbylawn”.Tosupportthetheoreticalhypothesisoftherelevanceof
nature‐basedsolutionsforlawnswealsosuggestanddiscusstheconceptoftwonatures—different
approachestothevisionofurbannature,includingunderstandingandappreciationoflawns(Section
4).Thisconcepthelpedustoexplainthedirectionsforlawnalternativesandtheircorrelationwith
localnaturalandsocialconditions(Section5).Forlawnalternatives,thechoiceofcasestudiesand
referenceswasbasedontheanalysisofexistingprojectsinwhichauthorshadparticipated(urban
meadows,pictorialmeadows,woodymeadows,etc.)orrelatedliteraturereview.Weprioritisedthe
mostrecentpublications(2011–2019)butalsoincludedearlierpeer‐reviewedworks.Therewere139
publicationsrelatedtothekeywords;92publicationswereincludedinthefinallistofreferencesand
47publicationswereexcludedfromthefinallist.Thereweretwomaincriteriaforexclusion:non‐
urbanareasandifthearticledidnotaddressoneofthekeysearchingaspects(keywords).The
structuralanalysisoftheliteraturereviewusedinthepaperispresentedinTable1.
Figure1.Conceptualframeworkofthispaper.
Tosupportthetheoreticalhypothesisoftherelevanceofnature‐basedsolutionsforlawnswe
alsosuggestanddiscusstheconceptoftwonatures—differentapproachestothevisionofurban
nature,includingunderstandingandappreciationoflawns.
Land2020,9,734of27
Wealsousedaworkshopaspartoftheresearchmethodology.Theinternationallawnexperts’
workshop“UrbanBiodiversityandNature‐BasedDesignmethodologyandpracticalapplicationsfor
interdisciplinaryresearch”inBerlinonNovember28–29,2019wasorganisedbytheGeography
DepartmentofHumboldtUniversity,Berlin.Participantsfromdifferentscientificbackgroundand
differentpartoftheglobe,whohavebeendealingwiththedifferentaspectsofurbanlawnsand
nature‐basedsolutionsgatheredtogether,discussedmethodologyandthefutureperspectivesof
lawnresearch.Thus,thisarticlealsoprovidesthetheoreticalandconceptualfoundationforfuture
internationalandinterdisciplinaryresearchprojectonlawns(FigureinSection7).
Figure2.Literaturereviewprocess.
Table1.Structuralanalysisoftheliteraturereviewusedinthispaper.
Categoryof
researchon
lawn
AspectsReferences
Environmental
aspectsoflawns
Estimationoflawncover
usingremotesensing
andearthobservation
methods
Attwell,2000[23];Hedblometal.,2017[3];Milesietal.,2005[24];
RobbinsandBirkenholz,2003[25]
Biodiversityand
vegetationaspects
Gastonetal.,2005[26];HahsandMcDonnell,2007[27];
Lindenmayeretal.,2008[28];Müller,1990[29];Stewartetal.,2009
[30];SukoppandKowarik,1990[31];Threlfallet.al.,2015[32]
Ecosystemservices
providedbylawns
Amani‐Benietal.,2018[33];Armsonetal.,2013[34];Beardand
Green,1994[35];Bruntonetal.,2010[36];Burgin,2016[37];
Cumming,2018[6];Fischeretal.,2013[38];Fischeretal.,2016[39];
Haaseetal.,2014a[7];Haaseetal.,2014b[8];Johnson,2013[40];
Leleetal.,2013[41];Monteiro,2017[42];Stirlingetal.,2013[43];
ThompsonandKao‐Kniffin,2017[5];TriggerandMulcock,2005
[44];Wangetal.,2016[45];Wastianetal.,2004[46]
Ecosystemdisservices
providedbylawns:
Bruntonetal.,2010[36];Burgin,2016[37];Campagneetal.,2018
[47];Cumming,2018[6];DöhrenandHaase,2015[48];Dunn,2010
[49];IgnatievaandHedblom,2018[1];Lyytimäki,2013[50];
McKinney,2006[12];Milesietal.,2005[24];MüllerandSukopp,
2016[51];Priestetal.,2000[52];Runolaetal.,2013[53];Shackleton
etal.,2016[54];Schapeletal.,2018[55];Sharmaetal.,1996[56];
Filnallistofappropriate
publications
Searchingforpotentially
relevantpublications:
“lawnasahabitat,“useoflawns”
“lawnasasymbol”,“plasticlawn”,
“heatislandmitigationbylawn”,
“lawnperception”
Searchtofindkeywordsand
directionsinurbanlawn
research
SCOPUS,ISI
WebofSciences
andGoogle
Scholar
139publications
relatedtothe
keywords
92publications
includedinthe
finallistof
references
47publications
excludedfrom
thefinallist
filteringprocess
eliminationofpublictions:
‐non‐urbanareas;
‐notaddressingoneofthe
keysearchingaspects
Land2020,9,735of27
Stirlingetal.,2013[43];TriggerandMulcock,2005[44];Wheeleret
al.,2017[13]
Socialaspectsof
lawns
Publicperception,
attitudeandpreferences
Elgizawy,2016[57];Hanetal.,2013[58];Ignatieva,2017[22];
Jenkins,1994[59];Pisa,2019[60];PoškusandPoškienė,2015[61];
Ralletal.,2017[62];Rameretal.,2019[63];Robbins,2007[64];
Seweletal.,2017[65];Teysott,1999[66];Müller,1990[29];Trigger
andMulcock,2005[44];Yangetal.,2019[4,67]
Urbanisationand
homogenisation
Antrop,2004[68];Groffmanetal.,2014[11];Ignatievaand
Hedblom,2018[1];Pondichie,2012[69]
Healthandwell‐being
aspects
Elgizawy,2016[57];PayneandBruce,2019[70];Stolzetal.,2018
[71]
Historyoflawns
Historyofdevelopment
Ignatieva,2017[22];Ignatieva,2018[72];IgnatievaandHedblom,
2018[1];Fischeretal.,2013[38];Gaynor,2017[73];Hipple,1957
[74];Jenkins,1994[59];Robins,2007[64];Robinson,1991[75];Yang
etal.,2019[4,67]
Lawnasasiteof
conflictsGreenbaum,2000[76];Harari,2016[77];Trudgilletal.,2010[78]
Lawn
alternatives
Searchingforlawn’s
alternativesand
sustainablelawn
management
Alumai,2008[79];Burgin,2016[37];Chawlaetal.,2018[80];
Cumming,2018[6];Gaynor,2017[73];HogueandPinceti,2015[16];
Ignatieva,2010[81];IgnatievaandAhrné,2013[82];Johnson,2013
[40];PineoandBarton,2010[83];Schapeletal.,2018[55];Steinberg,
2006[84];Teysott,1999[66];WasowskiandWasowski,2002[85];
WasowskiandWasowski,2004[86];Wastianetal.,2004[46];Wilson
andFeuch,2018[87];Zollner,2018[88]
Alternativetolawns
Bormannetal.,2001[89];Daniels,1995[90];Hitchmough,2004[91];
Ignatieva,2017[22];Ignatieva,2018[72];IgnatievaandHedblom,
2018[1];Robinson,1991[75];Sprajcar,2017[92]
Artificiallawnrelated
aspects
BrooksandFrancis,2019[93];Chawlaetal.,2018[80];Flemingetal.,
2013[18];Kaminski,2019[19];Lovedayetal.,2019[94]
TwonaturesNovelanddesigned
ecosystemsHiggs,2017[95];Hobbsetal.,2006[96];Kowarik,2011[97]
3.EcosystemServicesandDisservicesofUrbanLawns
LawnsarespeciallydesignedecosystemsthatoriginatedinEuropeinMedievaltimes[22].We
definelawnasamanaged,artificiallycreatedgrass‐dominatedplantcommunity,designedfor
fulfillingarangeofecosystemservices.Thisplantcommunitypredominantlyconsistsofgrass
species—cultivars,aswellasspontaneouslyoccurringandunwantedherbaceousspeciesknownas
“lawnweeds”[22,29].Onecrucialaspectoflawnsistheuniformphenomenonofaturf(sod),which
istheupperlevelofsoilthatiscoveredbycloselyknitgrassesandforbsintertwinedwiththeirroots
or/andstolons,andwhichareinsymbiosiswithsoilandfauna.Turf,inparticular,isresponsiblefor
creatingtheuniformand“durable”surfacecommonlyusedbypeopleforrecreationandsport.
Lawnsprovideafullrangeofecosystemservicessuchasregulatingthewatercycleby
promotinginfiltration,thusfacilitatingregenerationofground‐waterstocksandevapotranspiration
[42].Inaddition,lawnsmitigatetheheat‐islandeffectthroughtranspirationandevaporationand
providecoolermicroclimates[98].Anotherimportantecosystemserviceoflawnsishabitatprovision
forsomeurbanfaunaspecies[37].Lawnsalsosupportsoilorganisms.Sincetheirintroduction,the
mostrecognisedecosystemserviceoflawnshasundoubtedlybeentheculturalaspect,i.e.,the
creationofthespeciallydesignedleisurespaces(Figure3).
Land2020,9,736of27
(a)(b)(c)
Figure3.Lawnasaspecialleisurespaceinurbanparksworldwide:a)King’sParkinPerth,Australia;
b)Lene‐VoigtParkinLeipzig,Germany;c)oneofthepublicparksinXian,China.
Photos:M.Ignatieva,D.Dushkova.
Alongwiththesepositivecontributionstohumanlifeandwell‐being,thereareanumberof
ecosystemdisservicescreatedbyurbanlawns,suchasthosepresentedinFigure4.Accordingto
Shackletonetal.[54],ecosystemdisservicesarecommonlyunderstoodas“theecosystem‐generated
functions,processesandattributesthatresultinperceivedoractualnegativeimpactsonhumanwell‐
being”.Thesenegativeeffectsarisefromecosystemcharacteristicsthatareeconomicallyorsocially
harmfulorthatendangerhealthormayevenbelife‐threatening[47–50].Thisincludessheltering
speciessuchaspathogensandparasitesharmfultohumanhealth,damagingpests[41]orthosethat
attackhumans[49].Inthecaseoflawns,amongthemostrecognisabledisservicesaredustpollution
andlossofaestheticqualitiesduringhotanddrysummersandsurfaceandgroundpollutionasa
resultofusingherbicidesandpesticides.Inthefollowingsub‐chapters,wediscussecosystem
servicesanddisservicesindetails.Thereisaclearpatternrelatedtohumanactivity,economics
(availabilityofresourcesformanagement)andenvironmentalfactorsbeyondhumancontrol
(draughts,heatwaves,floods).Atsomestage,adefinitepositiveecosystemservicecanturnintoa
definitedisservice.Forinstance,oneofthemainecosystemservicesoflawnsthattheyareaplacefor
recreation,however,whentherearetoomanyusersandheavytrampling,thelawn’ssurfacebecomes
degraded,unevenandevendangerousforusers.Duetotheparticularsignificanceofculturalaspects
oflawnsandanumberofstudiesofthisparticularphenomenon,theculturalservicesoflawns
receivedadditionalscrutinyinthispaper(Sections3.1–3.3).
Land2020,9,737of27
Figure4.Ecosystemservicesanddisservicesprovidedbylawns.
Themajorityofresearchthatanalyseslawnecosystemservices(directlyorindirectlyfor
exampleintheresearchofwildlifeinprivateurbangardens)isbasedoncasestudiesfromthe
temperatelatitudesofthenorthernhemisphere,namelyfromEurope(40%ofpublications)andthe
US—60%[3,5,16,22,24,29,42,46,59,65,72,86].Fromsourcesrelatedtothestudyoflawns(notincluding
alternativelawns),onlythreewerefromChinadirectlyconnectedtoecologicalandculturalaspects
ofChineselawns[4,67,99].Australiahadthemostpublicationsrelatedtoculturalaspects(historyof
lawnsandtheirconnectiontocolonialculture[73],positiveoutcomesoflawnsforhotanddryurban
environmentandhowtodevelopsustainablemanagementoflawns(waterwiseirrigation,relevant
soilpreparationandspeciesselection).TherearenumberofpublicationsonAustralianurbanprivate
gardenwildlifewherelawnsarementionedasanewhabitatforexoticandnativewildlifespecies
[44].Thefirstdirectecologicalresearchonlawns(thebiodiversityoflawns)inNewZealandresulted
inseveralpublicationsinthelate2000s[30,81].
3.1.CulturalandAestheticServicesofLawns:HistoricalRoots
Fromasocietalandculturalperspective,lawnsareoneofthemostimportantandfrequently
usedtypesofurbangreeninfrastructure.FromtheveryintroductionoflawnsintoEuropeasacrucial
gardenelementduringtheMiddleAges,theirmostadvertisedvaluewasprimarilyculturaland
aestheticfunction.Inactualfact,lawnswereintroducedpurelyasadecorativeelementforhuman
enjoyment,andnotassociatedwithanydirecteconomicvalue.Subsequently,theyhavebeenrapidly
developedinperiodsofpoliticalstabilityandtechnologicalprogressinWesternEurope[22].
Sincetheirdevelopment,lawnshaverequiredbothspace(land)andlabourtoprovideconstant
management(especiallyintheearlystagesoftheiruseinthe16thand17thcenturies).Oneimportant
purposeoflawnswasintangible—assymbolsofpowerandprosperity.Thisimportantsymbolismof
power,orderandcontrolovernaturecanbefoundinallcountriesacrossthecenturies—fromFrench
andEnglishgardensdesignedforthearistocracy,toimportantcontemporarypublicbuildingsand
privateresidencesofhigh‐incomeurbanitesaroundtheglobe[76,77](Figure5).Fromthe18th
centuryonwards,lawnsweredesignedaccordingtotheideasofthepicturesquemovement(endof
the18thcenturytothebeginningofthe19thcentury).Atthatparticulartime,smoothandgently
rollingturfsurfaceswerereveredasthemost“beautiful”landscapes[76].Europeancountriesand
coloniesdesignednumerouspark‐likelandscapesaccordingtothisstandardofEnglish“beauty”.
(a)(b)(c)
Figure5.Lawnsassymbolsofbeauty,powerandprosperity:a)Lawnsareadominantfeatureof
decorativeparterreintheformal(Frenchstyle)gardenofZwingerPalace,Dresden,Germany;b)
LawninfrontofamosqueinDoha,Qatar;c)Manicuredlawninaprivatevilla,suburbofMoscow,
Russia.Photos:M.Ignatieva.
TheEnglishgardenwithitsadmirationofthecountrysideandpastorallandscapes(andusing
bothpasturesandlawnsintheirvocabulary)becameakindof“buffer”between“wildnessofnature
andthestiffnessofart”[74],(p.241).ThemajorityofEnglishgardeningpractitionersandscholarsof
Land2020,9,738of27
thepicturesquemovementagreedthatthegardenareanexttothemainhouseshouldbecoveredby
cutlawns,otherwiseitwoulddemonstrateastepawayfromcivilisation[75].
Itisveryimportanttonote,thatEnglishparksusednativegrasslandspeciesfortheirlawnsthat
werealsowidelyusedinpastures.Thesuccessofthesespeciesonlawnsurfaceswasduetothemild
Englishclimate,highrainfallandappropriatesoils.
Fromtheverybeginningofthepublicparksmovementinthemid‐19thcenturylawnshave
servedthefunctionofpublicrecreation[59,64,66,75,78,84].Publicparksarebasedonthemodelof
theBritishpastorallandscapeaestheticwheregreengrassareasplayedtheessentialrole.Another
highlyrecognisedrecreationalbenefitoflawnsistheirprovisionofsurfacesforsportslikefootball,
cricketandgolf.AllthesegamesarerootedintheBritishIsles.
Withtechnologicalprogressandtheinventionofmowersforthecommonman,lawnsbecame
morewidespreadinprivatesuburbangardensintheUK,Australia,NewZealandandtoasignificant
extentintheUSA(Figure6).Themajorityofexistingliteratureoncoloniallawnsisdedicatedto
researchingthesocialperceptionandanalysisoftheAmericanattachmenttoperfecthomelawns
[59,66,79].Americanauthorsbelievedthat,despitethelawnbeingprimarilyanEnglishfeature,the
US“frontlawn”becamethemostpowerfulsociologicalmanifestationandanobligatoryelementof
theAmericanlifestyle.LawnsinAmericastandforpersonalrespectandbeingagoodcitizen,and
areassociatedwithpublichealthandevensafety.Forexample,inshortcutlawnsdangerous
creaturessuchassnakesortickswouldhavenochancetoappear[66].Today,theUnitedStatesis
oneofthelargestproducersandconsumersofturf,andturfrepresentsthelargestirrigatednon‐food
cropinthecountry[24,79,80,83].
(a)(b)(c)
Figure6.Lawnsinprivategardens:a)USA(Syracuse,NY),b)Australia(Perth)andc)NewZealand
(Christchurch).Lawnsareobligatoryelementsofsuburbia.Photos:M.Ignatieva.
3.2.CulturalServicesofColonialLawns:AustraliaandNewZealand
ColoniallawnswereintroducedtoAustraliaandNewZealandastheimportantaesthetic
heritageofEngland,togetherwithothergarden,planningandarchitecturalarchetypes.InNew
Zealand,lawnsbecamepartofthenewlyestablishedpublicparks,privateestates,andsuburban
gardensandtheyusedthepicturesque‐gardenesqueaesthetics.Europeangrasseswerewelladapted
toNewZealand’stemperateclimate.Christchurch,forexample,iscalled“themostEnglishcity
outsideofEngland”[100].
InAustralia,establishingturfwasmoredifficultduetotheheat,frequentdroughtsand
unsuitablesoilsforEuropeanturfspecies.Inotherwords,thesewereunusualandhostile
environmentalconditionsforlawns.WhereasmostlawngrassesinEuropehavetheiroriginsinthe
nativeorsecondarygrasslandsofthatregion,inthesouthernhemisphere,allsuitableturfspecies
werenon‐nativeplants.Itwasthereforealongandpainfulprocesstofindappropriatenon‐native
speciesandlawnmanagementregimesforlawnsinthesouthernhemisphere.Particularlyinthedry
climatesofWesternandSouthAustralia,theturfindustryfacedmanychallenges.Grassesinpoor
soilswouldnotgrowwithoutconstantirrigationandfertiliserapplication.
ConcerningtheearlydaysofsettlersinPerth,Gaynor[73](p.4)statesthat“grassandother
gardenplantswerealliesinawaragainsttheheatanddirtthatperpetuallyinvadedsettlers’homes
andtheirdreamsofcreatinga‘civilised’city,andthealliancewasforgedandmaintainedwith
Land2020,9,739of27
water”.ForearlyAustraliansettlers,lawns,aspartofacultivatedandirrigatedgarden,werea
powerfulsymbolofthesupposedsuperiorityofEuropeancivilisationincontrasttotheIndigenous
(Aboriginal)wilderness.Theselawnscapeswereinoppositiontothewildnessof“thebush”andthe
bushreferredtothe”wild”places,theshrublands,forests,mountains,desertsandsometimeseven
theruralcountryside[101].
TothefirstsettlersinAustraliaandNewZealand,nativeplantswereunattractiveandappeared
“alienating”.PlantswereneverasgreenasthoseinEngland.Asimilarattitudetowardsthe
surrounding“messy”wildnesshaspersistedinthemodernlandscape.Thecolonialsymbolismofthe
well‐keptprivategardenhasnotchangedinthe20thandthe21stcentury.Aneatgardenindicates
neighbourhoodstatusandhighpropertyvalues.Thisseparationofurbanlandscapeswherelawn
andexoticdecorativeplantsaredelineatedfromnativebushlandisthefoundationfortheexistence
oftwodifferent“natures”inAustralianandNewZealandcities(Part4).
3.3.CulturalServicesofLawns:Recreation
Fromanurbansociologicalstandpoint,therearevariouswaysthatlawnsareutilised.Oneof
themainvaluesofconventionallawnsisthespacetheyprovideforsocialactivitiessuchas
picnicking,resting,sunbathing,walkingdogs,gamesandsports[102].Anotherimportantfunction,
whichwasconnectedtothe19thcenturygardenesquestyle,wastheuseoflawnsasaesthetic
backgroundsforarchitectureandartelements[22].
RecentstudiesfromEuropeandUSAhaverevealedthatpeople’sloveoflawnsisconnectedto
theintegralrolelawnsplayintheeverydaylandscape[1,22,60–63,71,72].Shortcutlawnscapesare
associatedwithimprovedqualityoflifeandpersonalsafety.Lawns,withtheiropennessandgood
visibility,areopposedtodenseshrubsandwoodlandswhichcanhidedangerouspeople.Inarid
developingcountrieswherewatershortageisparamount,lawnsareneverthelessusedtogreen
workplacesandareseenasprimaryvehiclesforenhancingthequalityofhumanlife[57].
InScandinaviancountries,duetothecoldclimateandsubsequentlifestyles,lawnscanonlybe
usedfromlateMaytoOctober[22].InpartsofCentralandWesternEuropewithmilderclimates,
lawnscanbeusedforlongerperiodsoftime.InEurope,duetothechangingclimateandwithwarmer
wintersandextendedsummertemperatures,lawnsareusedthroughoutthewholeyear.Thereis
evidencethatsomeGermancitylawnsinurbanparksarebeingusedfromFebruarytoNovember,
whichisfarlongerthaninpreviousdecades.Thisprolongationofthegrowingseasonhasledto
lawnsbeingoverusedandnotbeingaffordednecessaryrecoveryperiods.
InChina,duetotheveryrecentintroductionoflawnstourbanpublicspacesandtocertain
specificsocio‐culturalpractices(overuseofgreenspaces),lawnsarenotaccessibleforgeneral
recreationbutonlyplayadecorative(aesthetic)roleinurbanlandscapes[4].Inwarm,humidorarid
climatecountries,lawnsareusedallyearround,however,theirconditionisdependentonirrigation
whichraisesconcernsofoveruseofwater,particularlyinaridcities.
Thesedays,lawnsareusedforabroadrangeofactivities—forquietrecreation(reading,talking
andwalking)tosports,plays,parties,barbecuesandpicnics(Figure7).Duetothe
“mediteranianisation”ofEuropeanlifestyles,peoplewouldliketospendmoretimeoutside[62].
(a)(b)(c)
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Figure7.Lawnsprovidethemainarenaofhumanactivitiesincitiestoday:a)ParkinTokyo(Japan),
b)RabetParkinLeipzig(Germany),c)GujiazhaiParkinShanghai(China).Photos:M.Ignatieva,D.
Dushkova.
Today,thelawnisidealisedasauniversalculturalnormandisconsideredthemost“beautiful”
aestheticfunctionofurbanlandscapes,whichinturn,helpstocreatepositivehumanpsychological
andphysicalhealth[22,78,103].
Inrecentyears,themainculturalandaestheticdisservicesoflawnarecausedbytheincreasing
recreationalpressureputonpubliclyaccessibleparksresultinginlargecompacted,trampledareas.
Therearesimplymorepeoplewhowanttouselawns.Thisleadstodegradationofthelawnsurface,
toagreaterinputofresources(watering,aerationandfertilisers)andtoconstantrepairsofdamaged
areas.OneoftheexamplesisGörlitzerParkinBerlinwhichiswidelyusedbylocalpeople(parties
andfestivals)andbytourists.AnotherexampleispublicparksinLeipzigwhererecreationalpressure
significantlyincreasedduetothegrowingpopulation(Figure8a).AcrossEurope,inmanycitiesthat
havebecomethedestinationofyouthimmigration,parklawnsareespeciallyindemandandunder
pressure[104,105].
InEuropeandsomecountrieswherewateringisrestrictedorprohibitedduringdrysummers,
lawnsareturningbrownandbecomingasignificantsourceofdust[69](Figure8).
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure8.Degradationoflawnsfromoveruse(trampling)anddrought.Lawnswereestablishedon
formerpost‐industrialsite(a)orwasteland(c):a)Lene‐VoigtPark,Leipzig(Germany),b)Zaryadye
Park,Moscow(Russia),c)publicgreenspacenearahospitalinKirovsk,Russia.Photos:D.Dushkova.
InshrinkingEuropeanpost‐industrialcities,urbanlawnsarealsofrequentlyusedafterthe
demolitionofhousingorindustrialstructures.Thisisafastmethodforrevivingopenspaceand
makingitaccessibleforrecreation[106,107].Insuchareas,thesoilcanoftenbeverythinandgrass
speciesstruggletosurvive.Incontrast,plantedtreesandshrubsinsuchareasreceivemoreattention
andbettermaintained.Thisisparticularlyacuteinurbanparksthatarecreatedonformer
brownfields.Thoseparkssuffermuchmoreduringhotanddrysummers.Thus,lawnsbecome
almostunusableandcannotfulfiltheirrecreationalfunction.
3.4.MitigationoftheHeatIslandEffect,CarbonSequestrationandRegulationoftheWaterCycle
Thecoolingeffectoflawnsiswellrecognisedandisalwaysusedasanargumentforthe
importanceofgrass‐coveredareas(partofgreeninfrastructure)versushardurbansurfaces(grey
infrastructurenotcoveredbyvegetation).Thecoolingcapacityoflawnsisdirectlyrelatedtothe
evapotranspirationprocessandverymuchdependsonwateravailability.Intemperateclimates,
lawnshaveshowntheircapacitytodecreasethetemperaturepeaksofhotsummerdaysby
approximately1°C[42].
Properirrigationregimeenhancedthecoolingeffectofgrasses[33].Irrigatedturfhasbecome
animportantfactorforthemitigationoftheurbanheatislandeffectinhotaridclimates,suchas
Australiancities[98].Forexample,inAdelaide,whereawarmingtrendisoccurringasaresultof
climatechange,by2070themaximumtemperaturesduringJanuaryandFebruaryareexpectedto
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exceed45°C,whichishigherthantheaveragemaximumtemperaturesbetween1980and1999of
43°Candbetween2000and2012of44°C.Heatmappingofurbanareasaswellashighresolution
thermalinfraredimageryof285km2regionofAdelaide’ssouthernsuburbsshowedthatthecoolest
sitesweregolfcourses,waterbodies,densewoodyvegetationandirrigatedturf,whilethehottest
areasweregenerallycomprisedofbuildings,dryagriculturalfields,dry/deadgrassandvegetation,
exposedsoilandunshadedhardsurfaces[108].Researchintosurfacetemperaturesofhardandsoft
urbanlandscapeelementsinPerth,WesternAustralia,foundthatareaswithgreypaverswerethe
hottest,whilstareaswithground‐coverplantswerethecoolest.Intheevenings,greypavers
remainedthehottest,whilstdecking,soil,andturfgrasswerethecoolest[94].
Anotherrecognisedecosystemserviceoflawniscarbonsequestration.Intemperatezonesof
EuropeandtheUSA,carbonsequestrationhasbeenpositivelyassociatedwithcarbonaccumulating
inthesoil[42].However,otherrecentstudiesofthenorthernhemispheretemperatezoneshave
shownthatthepositiveeffectsofsoilcarbonsequestrationinintensivelymanagedlawnscanbe
negatedbygreenhousegasemissionsgeneratedbytheroutinemanagementoperationsofmowing,
fertiliserapplicationandirrigation[22].IntheNewcastleregioninAustraliadomesticlawn‐mowers
contributed5.2%and11.6%ofcarbonmonoxide(CO)andnon‐methanehydrocarbonsemissions
(NMHC),respectively[52].
ParkandgardensoilsinwesternandeasternEuropeancountrieshaveexperiencedseveral
centuriesofenrichedsoilfertilityand,accordingly,increasedhumusamountinsoils.Incitieswhere
lawnsarecreatedonsandysoils,suchasPerth,thesesoilsrequirealotofinputfromtheoutsetto
growturfgrassesbecauseoftheirlimitedwaterandnutrientcapacity.Recentresearchhasshown
that“excessnitrogenandphosphorusleachingbeneathurbanlawnsonsandysoilsinmetropolitan
Perthmayposeaseriousthreatnotonlytothequalityoftheunderlyinggroundwaterbutalsoto
manysurface‐waterbodies”[56](p.1).
NorthernhemispherecasestudiesfromUSAandEuropehaveoutlinedtheimportanceofturf
forreductionofwaterrunoffandincreasedwaterinfiltration,withresultinginfloodingproblems
andincreaseinwaterrecharging[42].However,thedataislimitedand,inmostscenarios,itisbased
oncasesfromtemperateclimatesthatarenotdirectlyobtainedfromresearchingturfgrassurban
ecosystems.Forlawnsinaridandsemi‐aridregions,water‐relatedissuesaretypicallyconsidered
disservicesratherthanservices.Tomaintainlivingandgreenturfgrass,substantialirrigationis
required.StudiesfromaridzonesoftheUnitedStateshaverevealedthatlawnusedupto75%ofthe
totalannualhouseholdwaterconsumption[24].Insouthernhemispherecities,forexampleinPerth,
gardensaccountedforoverhalfofthecity’swaterusein1970’s.Perthʹstotalwaterusage,accounting
forschemewaterusage,regulatedborewaterabstractionandestimatedprivategardenboreusage
between2017and2018was629,390megalitres.Approximately258,403megalitres(41%)ofthis
amountwasusedfortheirrigationoflawnsandgardens,ofwhich79%wasdrawnfrom
groundwater[109].
Withoutirrigationinsuchdryconditions,lawnsarebecomingdry,brown,dustyand
unappealingtopeople.InGermany,SwedenandEngland,wateringisnotallowedforpublicgreen
areasduringhotsummers,thuslawnsandstreettreesarerapidlydegrading.Somegrassesrecover
afterlatesummerrainfalls,however,thedamageisvisibleandturfsurfacesoftenneedtoberepaired.
InmanyAustraliancities(forexampleinMelbourneandSydney)andsemi‐aridstatesofUSA(in
CaliforniaandArizona)thereareastrictwaterconservationeffortsandrestrictionpoliciesagainst
usingwaterforlawnirrigation[16].InAustraliancities,onlysomespeciesofturfgrassesarecapable
ofrevivingaftersummerdroughts.Othersjustdieandawholenewlawnneedstobereinstalled.As
theyofferaquicksolutiontokeepinganurbanyardorplayground“clean”and“green”,thesynthetic
lawnindustryhasboomedallovertheglobe.(Figure9).However,ecologicalandsociological
researchintosuchsubstitutefornatureislimited.Thereisconcernthatmaterialusedforplasticnon‐
livinglawnreducesurbanhabitat,suppressessoilfauna,pollutesrunoffviaplasticandsynthetic
particlesandotherunknownimpactsontheenvironment[18,19,93,110].Lovedayetal.[94]revealed
thatartificialturfgrasscanbeparticularlyhot,oftenmorethan30°Caboveturfgrass.
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(a)(b)
Figure9.Synthetic(plastic)lawnsinaplaygroundinMalaga(Spain)(a),andfrontyardofa
residentialbuildinginLeipzig(Germany)(b).Photos:D.Dushkova.
Inmanycitieswhereherbicidesandpesticidesareusedtokeeplawnuniformandtidy,there
areconcernsofcontaminationofgroundwaterandrunoffwater.Forexample,in2012,UShouses
appliedupto57.6millionkilograms(12.7millionpounds)ofpesticidetolawns[111].Themostrecent
andwidelydiscussedexampleisRoundup™—oneofthemostwidelyusedherbicidesontheplanet.
TheInternationalAgencyforResearchonCancer(IARC),classifiedglyphosate(theactiveingredient
inRoundup™)as“probablycarcinogenictohumans“[112].
3.6.Habitat(Biotope)Provision
Sincelawnsconsistofsod,acombinationofgrassrootsandsoil,theysupportparticulartypeof
wildlife,forexample,insects(antsandsomespeciesofbeetles),nematodes,earthwormsandspiders.
Olderlawnsinthenorthernhemispheretemperateclimateusuallyincludesomebroadleaf
herbaceousspecies(Trifoliumrepens,Potentillaanserina,Prunellavulgaris),thatarecapableofadapting
tothemowingheight.Thelifehabitsoftheseplantsadapttoafrequentmowingandallowedthem
togothroughtheirlifecycleandproduceflowers,thusattractingpollinatorssuchasbeesand
bumblebees[22].
SomedomesticlawnsandmoderatelyvisitedparklawnsinEuropeareattractivetosmall
herbivorousanimalssuchasrabbitsandhares.Lengtheningthemowingintervalandcreatinga
timedscheduleformowingtoallowforthefloweringofbroadleafherbaceousspeciessuchasclover,
wouldincreasethediversityofplantsinthelawnandpollinationandgrazingopportunitiesfor
wildlife.
Inthesouthernhemisphere,especiallyinAustraliaandNewZealand,theaimofmaintenance
ofdomesticandpubliclawnsistoachieveahomogenousgreencarpet‐likeappearance(Figure10).
(a)(b)(c)
Figure10.Ecologicalhomogenizationofurbanenvironmentina)Australia(Perth),b)Singapore
(SingaporeBotanicGarden)andc)NewZealand(LincolnUniversityCampus).Photos:M.Ignatieva.
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ComparedtoEuropeanandUSAtemperatezones,AustralianandNewZealandlawnsconsist
offarfewernativeplants,whichareunabletogrowamongstthedenseexoticgrassesduetotheir
verydifferentlifestrategies.Sincenativeplantcommunitiesareeitherdestroyedorreplacedby
irrigatedlawns,nativefaunahastoadaptanduselawngrassesasafoodsource.Forexample,the
nativebird,littlecorella(Cacatuasanguinea)isregularlyseenbrowsingonirrigatedlawns(inparks
andsportsfields)inCanberra,SydneyandBrisbane.TheAustralianmagpie,ibisandwagtailbirds
arealsoaverycommonforagerofAustralianurbanlawns[44].Amongnon‐aviantaxonwhoprefers
urbanlawnsinthePacificcoastofAustraliaisthecantoad(Rhinellamarinus)introducedfromSouth
Americaandbecomingaproblem.CanToad’stoxinkillhouseholdpetsandanynativespeciesthat
willattempttopreyonthem[37].Manyinvasiveurbanbirdspeciesalsofeedonurbanturfgrasses.
InAustralia’sincreasinglydryenvironment,especiallyoverthelastdecade,irrigatedurbanlawns
havebecomedesirablefoodsourcesforlargemarsupialssuchaskangaroos(Figure11)[113].The
EasternandWesterngreykangaroooftenforagesongolfcourseturfsandurbanlawns.Forlocalturf
producersandgolfcoursesgreenskeepers,kangaroosareseenasanuisance.Theycanalsoruin
fencesandcausehazardsontheroads.InCanberra,urbanlawnsareoneofthemainhabitatsforthe
rabbit‐anintroducedanimalthatisnowconsideredapestinAustralia.Inthesecases,thepositive
ecosystemserviceof“providingwildlifehabitat”hasturnedtoadisservice.
Figure11.UrbanlawnshavebecomeadesirablefoodsourceforKangaroosinWesternAustralia.
Photos:M.Ignatieva.
Australianlawnsalsoprovidehabitatforotherharmfulpestssuchasthestingingnematode
(Ibiporalolii).Infestationsofthisaccidentallyintroducedparasiticnematode(possiblyoriginatingin
SouthAmericaortheCaribbean)haveresultedingrasswithshallowrootsystems,sparseturfcover
andbarepatchesinmanysportsfieldsandrecreationalareas[43].
Overthelastdecade,themostnoticeableandwidelydiscussedecosystemdisserviceoflawnsis
aestheticuniformityresultingintheecologicalhomogenisationofurbanareas,withlawnplant
communitiesbecomingsimilarincompositionandstructureacrossnumerousbiogeographicalzones
[1].Thedemandforthesemonotonousgreensurfacescanonlybemetbyusingmonoculturesofone
ortwospecies.Intemperateclimates,fourEuropeanspecies,Poapratensis,Festucarubra,Lolium
perenneandAgrostisspp.arewidelygrowninturfgrassnurseries.Inwarmclimatecountries,the
mostcommonareCyonodondactylon(nativetoAfrica),Stenotaphrumsecundatum(originallyfrom
CentralandSouthAmerica),Paspalumvaginatum(fromtheAmericas),Pennisetumclandestinum(East
Africa)andZoysiajaponica(fromsoutheastAsiaandIndonesia).Themainmethodformaintaining
thehomogeneouscompositionisestablishinglawnsbyseedingorbyvegetativeplantingand
eliminatinganyotherspecies(weeds)byapplyingherbicidesandfrequentmowing.
Anotherecosystemdisserviceoflawns,especiallyinnon‐Europeancountries,istheinvasive
capabilityofsomelawngrassspecies,withmanyspreadingintonativebiomes.Oneclassicexample
isthemostfamouslawnspecies,Cyonodondactylon.ThisspecieswaslistedbytheGlobal
CompendiumofWeedsasoneofthetop12citedinvasiveweedsintheworld[114].Increasingthe
biodiversityoflawnscanbeachievedbyleavingsomenativeorspontaneouslyappearingbroadleaf
floweringplantstoattractpollinatinginsects.However,thisiscontroversialinlightoftheattitudes
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totheconventionallawn—thatitshouldbeahighlymanicuredandcontrolledplantcommunity
whereotherplantsareundesirable.
4.TwoNatures
Lawnscapesdominateurbanlandscapesandpeopleperceiveurban“nature”throughtheprism
oflawns[22,59,64,66,78,84].Whenapersonstepsonthegrassbesideofaroadoroutsideabuilding,
itisoftentheironlydailycontactwithnature.Incitieswithnoorverylimitedaccesstowild
vegetationorotherpristinenature,urbandwellershaveanevenstrongerconnectionandassociation
withturfgrassasnature.Turfgrassestogetherwithother“naturalfeatures”consistingofliving
organismssuchastrees,flowerbeds,shrubberiesandwaterbodiesformthisvisionofnature[57].
Historically,Europeanpreferencesforgrassysurfacesweretransferredandadoptedinother
countriesandcommunities.Formanycenturies,Europeangreenareasconsistedofnativespecies
andincludednaturalorsemi‐naturalvegetation.Bythe19thcentury,theEnglishvisionofurban
greenspacesdominatedtheUSA,Australia,NewZealandandEuropeancolonies[81].European
settlersliterallytransferredtheirvaluesofturfgrassestotheircoloniesandcreatedanewversionof
urbannature.Itwasanew“civilised”Europeannaturebasedonexoticspeciesthatwereopposedto
wildnature.Mowedlawnwasoftenusedasademarcatedlinebetweenthesetwonatures.Weargue
thatinEuropethereisonlyoneurbannatureandinAustraliaandNewZealandtherearetwourban
natures.
4.1.EuropeanUrbanNature
Europeanresearchersintheirpost‐WorldWarIIstudiesofurbanecosystemssawurbannature
asaheterogeneousandcomplexphenomenon.Theirvisionofurbannatureincludedalltypesof
urbanbiotopes‐remnantsof“pristine”forest,semi‐naturalmodifiedgroves,designedurbanparks,
smallcommunitygardens,abandonedwastelandsorditchesorcracksinwallsorpavements
[31,81,82].MostWesternandCentralEuropeanlandscapesweremodifiedduringthelonghistoryof
humansettlements[68].Someintroduceddecorativeandcropspeciesthathadescapedfrom
cultivationand,withtime,becameintegralpartsofurbanecosystems.StudiesofEuropeanurban
ecologyconsiderthenaturalisationstagesofurbanfloraandvegetation[31].Thedegreeof
naturalisationandinvasivenessinNorthern,Central,EasternandWesternEuropeisstillnotas
severeasurbanenvironmentsintheNewWorld.Forexample,inCentralEuropetheoriginalflora
consistedof2,400vascularplants.Since4000BC.Morethan12,000taxahavebeenintroducedand
only279(2.3%)havenaturalisedinnaturalplantcommunities[51].InNewZealand,floracomprises
about2500indigenousplants(80%ofthemareendemic).However,sinceEuropeanarrivedinthe
1840s,over25,000exoticplantshavebeenintroducedandonetenthofthemhavealreadybecome
naturalised,withfourmoreenteringthewildeachyear[81,115].
InEurope,urbannatureisstilldominatedbynativefloraincludingurbanlawns.Duetothe
ecologyofEuropeannativebiomeswhichhaveundergonenumerousdisturbances,thereare
effectiverecoverymechanismsfordisturbedecosystems.Alargenumberofnativepioneerspecies
inthesoilseedbankallowsurbanbiotopestoquicklyregenerate.ThetypologyofEuropeanlawns
andtheircompositionandstructureisregulatedbymanagementand,firstofall,bythefrequencyof
mowing.Forexample,inSwedenthereareconventionallawnsthatarefrequentlymownand
meadow‐likelawns(highgrassandmeadows),thatarecutonetotwotimesperyear.Highgrass
areashaveagreaterpotentialforbiodiversitywhenproperlymaintained(collectingclippingsafter
cuttingtorestrictsoilfertility)andwithapropermowingschedule(attherighttimeoftheseason)
[22].
ThemajorityofurbanecologyresearchinNorthAmericaisbasedontemperatecitiesandalso
regard“urbannature”asanentitythatisnotseparatedfromwildnatureandmanmade(designed)
nature.IntheUS,theurban‐ruralgradientapproachisthemostpopularmethodofstudyingurban
ecosystems.Americancitieshavethedominanturbanplanningmodel:central‐business,district‐
sprawlandsuburbia‐ruralecosystems[116].NorthAmericanurbanecologistshavealsofocused
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moreonremnantindigenousvegetationforexampleurbanforest[117].However,theUSAhasquite
substantialinputonsocio‐culturalresearchofurbanlawns[64,118].
4.2.AustralianUrbanNature
InAustraliaandNewZealand,“nature”typicallyreferstonaturalindigenousecosystems.
WhileEuropehasalongtraditionfromthe19thcenturyofstudyingurbanfloraandvegetationwith
themostadvancedclassificationofplantnaturalisation,urbanvegetationandurbanbiotope
mapping,Australianurbanecologyismuchyounger.Urbanisationpatternsweredifferentfrom
Europeandurbandevelopmenttookplaceinrelativelyintactnativevegetation.Manyhigh‐quality
remnantsofnativewoodlands,scrublands,grasslandsorwetlandssurvivedandcouldbefound
scatteredthroughcitiesanditssuburbs[27].Someofthesevaluablepatcheswereseverely
transformedduringurbanisation,butsomestillcontainalargeproportionoftheiroriginal
vegetation.Thatiswhyresearchoffloraandwildlifeinurbanremnantsofindigenousvegetation
(forests,woodlands,grasslands,rivers,creeksandwetlands)andprinciplesoftheirprotectionand
restorationorstudyofnativewildlifespeciesinurbanareasareprioritizedamongAustralianurban
ecologists[27,28,32].ForAustralians,“nature”equatesto“thebush”.ThisisaveryAustralianword
forwildernessusedbythegeneralpublicandbygovernmentalandpublicorganisations
(https://www.bushlandperth.org.au/bush‐forever/).
EuropeanandNorthAmericanecologistsintroducedandwidelyusedtermssuchas“urban
ecosystems”,“urbanplantcommunities”,“urbanbiotopes”,“urbanhabitats”.Thesetermsall
includeurbanplantsandtheirassemblageswithoutdivisionssuchas“cultivated”,“spontaneously
natural”or“natural”.Incomparison,Australianecologistsusetheconceptof“novelecosystems”,
meaningecosystemsthatdifferincompositionand/orfunctionfrompresentandpasthistorical
(meaningoriginalnative)systems[96].Originally,theterm“novelecosystems“wasintroducedby
USAecologistsChapinandStarfield[119]torecognise“theresponseoftheborealforesttocurrent
andanticipatedclimaticchanges”.
TheprimarygoalofacceptingandreinterpretingtheconceptofnovelecosystemsbyAustralian
ecologistsistounderstandinvasivespeciesbehaviourinnativeremnantsandprovidemechanisms
forsavingandrestoringnativevegetation.Australia’srapidurbanisationanduseofEuropean
landscapemodelshasresultedinadramaticlossofuniqueandfragilenativeecosystems,which
existedforthousandsofyearsinisolationwithrelativelyminorhumandisturbance.Invasivenessin
Australianecosystemsissevere,withmanyintroduceddecorativeandcropspeciesandassociated
weedsescapingfromcultivationintothewildenvironment[28].
Recentlythenewterm“designedorengineeredecosystems”hascomplemented“novel
ecosystems”.Designedecosystemsaredescribedas“requiringintensiveinterventionstocreatethem
andongoingmanagementtosustainthem”[95].Novelecosystemasatermisnowrecognisedby
EuropeanandUSAurbanecologists[97,120]andusedtoexplainthecharacterofbiodiversity,its
levelof“naturalness”andcapacityforurbanbiodiversityconservationandprotection[121].Ingo
Kowarik[97]hasevensuggestedtheconceptof“fournatures”:1nature‐pristine(forest,wetlands);
2nature‐agricultural(grasslands,fields);3nature‐horticultural(parks,gardens);and4nature‐urban‐
industrial,vacantlots,industrialsitesandtransportcorridors.Thistypologyofurbannatureisalso
reflectedintheEuropeanunderstandingofurbanlandscapes.
StudyandpracticalapplicationofAustralianurbanecologyinlandscapedesigntypicallydeal
withhumanmodificationof“wild”or“natural”systemswithinurbanandagriculturallandsand
usesthisknowledgeasatoolfortheconservationof“native”nature.Asfortheother“nature”that
dominatesurbanareas,therearestillquiteafewgapsinurbanecologicalresearchespeciallyatthe
urbanbiotopelevel,suchasresearchoflawns(exceptsomehistoricalhistoryliterature),publicparks
orwastelandsandabandonedindustrialareas.Wesuggestthisurbanman‐madenaturebecalled
“designedandmanaged”nature(Table2).Dominatedbyintroducedexotictropicalandsubtropical
species,lawnsandgardensinthehotanddryAustralianclimatearecompletelydependenton
irrigation,supplementarynutrients,andmanagement.“Designedandmanaged”naturein
Australiancitiesisbasedongloballandscapedesignpatternsandsimilarexoticplantmaterial
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availableinnurseries.Thereisasharpboundarybetween“wild”natureandthe“designed”urban
natureundertotalhumancontrol.
ResidentsofAustraliancitiessharesimilarattitudestothe