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ACTA SCIENTIFIC NUTRITIONAL HEALTH (ISSN:2582-1423)
Volume 4 Issue 3 March 2020 Review Article
Abstract
Antioxidant Enzymes and their Role in Preventing Cell Damage
Amra Bratovcic*
Department of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, University of Tuzla,
Bosnia and Herzegovina
*Corresponding Author: Amra Bratovcic, Department of Physical Chemistry
and Electrochemistry, University of Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Abstract
Keywords: Reactive Oxygen Species; Antioxidant Enzymes; Cell Damage
Received: February 20, 2020
Published: February 29, 2020
© All rights are reserved by Amra
Bratovcic.
Oxidative stress (OS) is a cellular phenomenon or condition
which occurs as a result of physiological imbalance between the
levels of antioxidants and oxidants (free radicals or reactive spe-
cies) in favour of oxidants. In other words, oxidative/nitrosative
stress is the result of disequilibrium in oxidant/antioxidant which
reveals from continuous increase of reactive oxygen species (ROS)
and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) production [1].
ROS is a collective term used for a group of oxidants, which are
either free radicals or molecular species capable of generating free
radicals [2]. These free radicals, which can be found as oxygen de-
rived (ROS) or nitrogen derived (RNS) have rather high reactivity
and short life. Generally, ROS/RNS are generated as by-products
of cellular metabolism and ionizing radiation. Therefore, different
reactive species are involved in cellular oxidative stress and oxida-
tive damage. The common name for these reactive species is “free
-
ble of independent existence that contains one or more unpaired
electrons”.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as superoxide anion (O2
), nitric oxide (NO•) hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and hydroxyl radical
(HO•), consist of radical and non-radical oxygen species formed by the partial reduction of oxygen. The accumulation of ROS in
cells may cause damage of nucleic acids, proteins, lipids and may cause cell death and trigger oxidative stress which yield to the
development and progression of several diseases. Furthermore, ROS may promote tumour metastasis through gene activation. It is
important to emphasize that equilibrium between the production and elimination of toxic levels of ROS is sustained by enzymatic
and nonenzymatic antioxidants. When oxidative stress arises as a consequence of high level of ROS, a defence system promotes
the regulation and expression of several nonenzymatic and enzymatic antioxidant. To cope with potentially damaging ROS, aerobic
tissues contain endogenously produced antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx),
and catalase and several exogenously acquired radical-scavenging substances such as vitamins E and C, carotenoids and tocopherols.
Afterward, both zinc and selenium are intimately involved in protecting the body against oxidant stress. In addition, it was reveal
that supplementation with exogenous antioxidants or boosting of endogenous antioxidants is a promising method of countering the
undesirable effects of oxidative stress on the human body.
Introduction
Components that are present as free radicals in ROS are su-
peroxide, (O2-•), hydroxyl, (HO•), hydroperoxyl, (HO2), peroxyl,
(ROO•), and alkoxyl, (RO•), while those nonradicals refer to hydro-
gen peroxide, (H2O2), hypochlorous acid, (HClO), ozone (O3), and
singlet oxygen, (1O2). Meanwhile, nitric oxide (NO•), nitrogen diox-
ide (NO2), dinitrogen trioxide, (N2O3
are the free radicals derived from RNS [3,4].
The three primary species, i.e. the superoxide anion (O2-•), hy-
drogen peroxide (H2O2) and the hydroxyl radical (HO•) are called
ROS because they are oxygen-containing compounds with reactive
properties. O2-• and HO• are commonly referred to as “free radi-
cals”. They can react with organic substrates and lead to intermedi-
ate species able to further produce other ROS. Superoxide anion is
produced by the addition of a single electron to oxygen, and several
mechanisms exist by which superoxide can be produced in vivo. For
instance, H atom abstraction by HO• free radicals on a C-H bond
leads to a carbon-centered radical, that further reacts rapidly with
O2 to give a peroxyl radical RO2• [5].
The latter may react with another substrate to give a new car-
bon-centered radical and a hydroperoxide ROOH, which may de-
compose into alkoxyl radical RO• in a reaction catalyzed by redox
competent metal cations such as iron or copper, as occurring with
Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS); Superoxide Dismutase (SOD); Glu-
tathione Peroxidase (GPx); Reactive Nitrogen Species (RNS)
Abbreviations
Citation: Amra Bratovcic. “Antioxidant Enzymes and their Role in Preventing Cell Damage". 4.3 (2020): 01-07.
02
Antioxidant Enzymes and their Role in Preventing Cell Damage
Some people confuse antioxidants with antioxidant enzymes.
Antioxidants help repair damage done by free radicals in the body
and the resulting oxidation. Enzymes, however, attempt to stop
damage before it occurs by triggering chemical reactions that rid
the body of free radicals and dangerous oxygen in the form of ox-
ides.
-
-
dant enzymes, as well as vitamines, carotenoides and tocopherols
and food antioxidants. The aim of this paper is to highlight the im-
portance of the antioxidant enzymes in prevention of cell damage.
heme proteins [6]. These “secondary” species are all ROS and share
a similarity in structure and reactivity with the three primary spe-
cies O2•-, H2O2 and HO•. Among them, H2O2 (and hydroperoxides)
is a molecular species and is supposed to be less reactive than the
other radical short-lived species that are able to react with a range
of targets (an exception may apply for O2•-). However, its toxicity
can be exerted via Fenton reaction in the presence of redox metal
ions such as iron or copper, or via Haber–Weiss reaction in the
presence of O2•- [7].
Transition metals like iron and copper play a key role in the
production of hydroxyl radicals in vivo. Hydrogen peroxide reacts
with iron II (or copper I) to generate the hydroxyl radical, a reac-
Fe2+ + H2O23+ + OH• + OH-
This reaction occur in vivo, but the situation is complexed by the
fact that superoxide anion (the main source of hydrogen peroxide
in vivo) normally also be present [8].
Superoxide anion and hydrogen peroxide react together direct-
ly to produce the hydroxyl radical, but the rate constant for this
reaction in aqueous solution is actually zero. However, if transition
metal ions are present a reaction sequence is established that can
proceed at a rapid rate:
Fe3+ + O22+ + O2
Fe2+ + H2O23+ + OH• + OH-
net result
O2- + H2O2- + OH• + O2
The net result of the reaction series illustrated above is known
as the Haber-Weiss reaction.
Most of the oxygen taken up by the cells is converted to water
by the action of cellular enzymes. However, some of these enzymes
leak electron into oxygen molecules and lead to the formation of
free radicals. They are also formed during normal biochemical re-
actions involving oxygen. ROS are produced from molecular oxy-
gen, during the successive 4 steps of 1-electron reduction. Free
radicals are claimed to be harmful to humans because its unpaired
electron(s) extracts electron(s) from other molecules in the body
to gain stability, hence damaging DNA, proteins, and lipids [9].
The other biologically important free radicals exist such as
lipid hydroperoxide (ROOH), lipid peroxyl radical (ROO), and lipid
alkoxyl radical (RO), which are associated with membrane lipids,
then nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and peroxynitrite
(ONOO-), which are reactive nitrogen species and thiol radical
(RS), which has an unpaired electron on the sulfur atom [10,11].
Superoxide anion (O2-) is produced by the addition of a single
electron to oxygen, and several mechanisms exist by which super-
oxide can be produced in vivo [12]. Any biological system gener-
ating superoxide anion also forms hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as a
result of a spontaneous dismutation reaction. In addition, some
enzymatic reactions may produce hydrogen peroxide directly [13]
which itself is not a free radical as it does not contain any unpaired
electrons. However, it is a precursor to certain radical species such
as peroxyl radical, hydroxyl radical, and superoxide.
Oxidative stress appears to be the foundation for the induction
of multiple cellular pathways associated with damage of important
biomolecules and subcellular structures in cells.
most free radical induced tissue damage [14]. All of the ROS de-
scribed above exert most of their pathological effects by giving
rise to hydroxyl radical formation. The reason for this is that the
hydroxyl radical reacts, with extremely high rate constants, with
almost every type of molecule found in living cells such as lipids
and nucleotides. Although hydroxyl radical formation can occur in
several ways, by far the most important mechanism in vivo is likely
to be the transition metal catalysed decomposition of superoxide
anion and hydrogen peroxide [15].
species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) and their impact
on human health.
Figure 1:
of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen
species (RNS) on human health.
Citation: Amra Bratovcic. “Antioxidant Enzymes and their Role in Preventing Cell Damage". 4.3 (2020): 01-07.
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Antioxidant Enzymes and their Role in Preventing Cell Damage
The human body has several mechanisms to counteract oxi-
dative/nitrosative stress by producing antioxidants. Haida and
Hakiman [16] have reported a comprehensive review related to
antioxidants which may be grouped into enzymatic and nonen-
zymatic antioxidants. Antioxidants have gained attention at the
[2] and cardiovascular
diseases. They have reported that most studies had looked into
nonenzymatic antioxidants due to lack of references on enzymatic
antioxidant assays. Therefore, that review article depicts on seven
assays of enzymatic antioxidants (superoxide dismutase, catalase,
peroxidase, ascorbate peroxidase, ascorbate oxidase, guaiacol per-
-
zymatic antioxidants (total polyphenol, total phenolic acids, total
-
enging activity, FRAP assay, hydrogen peroxide scavenging activity,
nitric oxide scavenging activity, superoxide radical scavenging ac-
tivity, hydroxyl radical scavenging activity, phosphomolybdate as-
which are described in detail to ease further investigations on an-
tioxidants in future.
dietary intake or even more likely, due to increased demand in
situations of overwhelming ROS production by activated immune
effector cells like macrophages.
pathways are activated such as tryptophan breakdown by the en-
zyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) in monocyte-derived
-
terin, a marker of oxidative stress and immune activation is pro-
duced by GTP-cyclohydrolase I in macrophages and dendritic cells.
Nitric oxide synthase (NOS) is induced in several cell types to gen-
erate nitric oxide (NO). NO, despite its low reactivity, is a potent
antioxidant involved in the regulation of the vasomotor tone and of
immunomodulatory signalling pathways. NO inhibits the expres-
sion and function of IDO. Function of NOS requires the cofactor
tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4), which is produced in humans primar-
(ONOO-) is formed solely in the presence of superoxide anion (O2-
). Neopterin and kynurenine to tryptophan ratio (Kyn/Trp), as an
estimate of IDO enzyme activity, are robust markers of immune ac-
tivation in vitro and in vivo. Both these diagnostic parameters are
able to predict cardiovascular and overall mortality in patients at
neopterin concentrations and Kyn/Trp ratio values and the lower-
usually accompanied by increased plasma homocysteine [17].
In 2018, Ighodaro and Akinloye [18] reported that antioxi-
dants such as polyphenols, ascorbic acid, vitamin A, alpha-lipoic
acid, thioredoxin, glutathione, melatonin, coenzyme Q, beta carot-
Antioxidant enzymes enoids, alpha-tocopherols as well as antioxidant enzymes including
superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidases, glutathi-
one reductases and glutathione transferases have been widely in-
vestigated for the prevention and treatment of diseases resulting
from oxidative damage. They highlight that the role and effective-
ness of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathi-
one peroxidase (GPx) is important and indispensable in the entire
defence strategy of antioxidants, especially in reference to super
oxide anion radical (•O2) which is perpetually generated in normal
body metabolism, particularly through the mitochondrial energy
production pathway (MEPP).
Superoxide dismutase (SOD)
Superoxide dismutases (SODs) are a group of metalloenzymes
that are found in all kingdoms of life. Superoxide dismutases (SODs)
constitute a very important antioxidant defense against oxidative
stress in the body. The enzyme acts as a good therapeutic agent
against reactive oxygen species-mediated diseases. However, the
enzyme has certain limitations in clinical applications. Therefore,
SOD conjugates and mimetics have been developed to increase its
[19].
also prevent precancerous cell changes [20]. Natural SOD levels in
the body drop as the body ages [21] and hence as one age, one be-
comes more prone to oxidative stress-related diseases. SOD mimet-
ics are synthetic compounds that mimic the native SOD by effective-
ly converting O2- into H2O2, which is further converted into water
by catalase. They are of prime interest in therapeutic treatment of
oxidative stress because of their smaller size, longer half-life, and
similarity in function to the native enzyme.
Glutathione peroxidase (GPx)
Glutathione peroxidase is an antioxidant enzyme class with the
capacity to scavenge free radicals. This is in turn helps to prevent
lipid peroxidation and maintain intracellular homeostasis as well
as redox balances [22].
Catalase is an antioxidant enzyme present in all aerobic organ-
isms. It is known to catalyse H2O2 into water and oxygen in an en-
[23].
Vitamins, carotenoids and tocopherols
Today, most people are constantly exposed to stress, and as a
result, various health problems with frequent cancer diagnoses are
reported and as a result they are increasingly turning to the use
of natural remedies since ancient times. In fact, many plants con-
tain the necessary nutritional properties, minerals and vitamines
necessary for the normal growth and development of healthy cells
within the body and have a positive health effect [24]. Vitamins,
minerals, amino acids, fatty acids and some carbohydrates that pro-
vide energy are essential nutrients [25].
-
Citation: Amra Bratovcic. “Antioxidant Enzymes and their Role in Preventing Cell Damage". 4.3 (2020): 01-07.
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Antioxidant Enzymes and their Role in Preventing Cell Damage
form. Most plant-derived foods, especially fruits and vegetables,
contain low-to-moderate levels of vitamin E activity; however, due
to the abundance of plant-derived foods in our diets, they provide
[26]. Vitamin E
scavenging hydroperoxyl radicals in lipid milieu. Vitamin E, a po-
tent peroxyl radical scavenger, is a chain-breaking antioxidant
that prevents the propagation of free radicals in membranes and
in plasma lipoproteins [27]. When peroxyl radicals (ROO•) are
formed, these react 1000-times faster with vitamin E (Vit E-OH)
than with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) [28]. The hydroxyl
group of tocopherol reacts with the peroxyl radical to form the
corresponding lipid hydroperoxide and the tocopheryl radical (Vit
E-O•). The tocopheryl radical (Vit E-O•) reacts with vitamin C (or
other hydrogen donors, AH), thereby oxidizing the latter and re-
turning vitamin E to its reduced state [29]. The interaction of vita-
mins E and C has led to the idea of “vitamin E recycling”, where the
antioxidant function of oxidized vitamin E is continuously restored
by other antioxidants.
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is an essential cofactor for
effects of vitamin C can be attributed to its biological functions as
a co-factor for a number of enzymes, most notably hydroxylases
involved in collagen synthesis, and as a water-soluble antioxidant.
Examples are prolyl hydroxylases, which play a role in the biosyn-
thesis of collagen and in down-regulation of the hypoxia-inducible
factor (HIF) a transcription factor that regulates many genes re-
sponsible for tumour growth, energy metabolism, and neutrophil
function and apoptosis.
As an antioxidant, vitamin C provides protection against oxida-
tive stress-induced cellular damage by scavenging of reactive oxy-
gen species [30].
Carotenoids and tocopherols
Carotenoids and tocopherols are powerful antioxidants syn-
thesized in plants from a common precursor. Carotenoids are ter-
penoid-based compounds produced by most plants and a variety
of bacteria and fungi. Carotenoids are mostly recognized for their
vitamin A activity, as some can be cleaved in vivo via beta-carotene
oxygenase 1 (BCO1) into vitamin A active compounds. In addition,
carotenoids have shown to act, at least in vitro, as antioxidants,
with a high potential to quench liposoluble radicals, as well as sin-
glet oxygen [31].
Food antioxidants
Antioxidants, natural or synthetic food preservatives, are addi-
tives that preserve food from “farm to plate” and militate against
oxidative deterioration on storage and processing. Due to their
high stability and low volatility, the antioxidants help to maintain
the level of nutrients, the texture, colour, taste, freshness, function-
ality, aroma, and appeal to consumers such as the older person,
ceteris paribus. Antioxidants [32] are not only in food additives
but are also to be found in food supplements and levels should be
[33]. Lesser known
sources of antioxidants to that cited in reference [30] abound, for
example, black chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa) found in juices,
purees, jams, and so forth which, containing high levels of polyphe-
chronic diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases [34].
Fresh orange juice is considered as one of the healthiest beverages
-
ity to boost immunity, reduce signs of aging, prevent cancer, boost
cellular repair and metabolism, detoxify the body, improve circu-
-
terol levels [35]. Fermented grain food supplements also contain
antioxidants, e.g., antioxidant biofactor, reducing lipid oxidation
by scavenging upon the peroxyl radical [36]. Food antioxidants
are scavengers of “free” (an unnecessary term) radicals, which is
a chemical structure that has at least one unpaired electron which
can cause cellular and genetic changes due to their highly reactive
state that can act to produce damage over the nm range, e.g., the
hydroxyl (HO•) radical; other oxygen radicals include the hydro-
peroxyl (HOO•), alkyloxyl (ROO•), and superoxide anion (O2-•); an
important nitrogen containing radical is nitric oxide (NO•); sul-
phur containing radicals include thiols (RS•) and disulphide anions
(RSSR-•) and carbon containing radicals include the carbonate
(CO3-•) group [37].
Supplementation with exogenous antioxidants
It is believed that two-thirds of the world's plant species have
medicinal importance, and almost all of these have excellent anti-
oxidant potential. The interest in the exogenous plant antioxidants
ascorbic acid from plants. Nowadays, it is commonly accepted that
diets that are high in fruits and vegetables protect against several
human diseases, some of which are especially serious such as car-
diovascular diseases and cancer. Several existing studies indicate
that protective effects may result from intake of the antioxidants
that are present in fruit and vegetables. Many natural compounds
have been considered, either singularly or in combination, for
supplementation therapies. Among them, particular attention was
E, resveratrol, curcumin, hydroxytyrosol and coenzyme Q10 [38].
Ascorbic acid is the main form of vitamin C in the human body
and acts as the co-substrate for several enzymes. Its antioxidant
activity relies on the ability to be reversibly oxidized to ascorbyl
radical and then to dehydroascorbate (DHA) [39].
tocotrienols, which differ for the methylation pattern. These mol-
ecules are hydrophobic fat-soluble compounds found in a variety
of food sources such as corn oil, peanuts, vegetable oils, fruits and
vegetables [40].
Citation: Amra Bratovcic. “Antioxidant Enzymes and their Role in Preventing Cell Damage". 4.3 (2020): 01-07.
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Antioxidant Enzymes and their Role in Preventing Cell Damage
belongs to the stilbene class of compounds, abundant in many
plants, such as peanuts, blueberries, pine nuts and grapes where it
mainly accumulates in a glycosylated form, and that is synthesized
in response to fungal infection and to some environmental stresses
like climate, ozone and ultraviolet irradiation [41].
Curcumin is a lipophilic bioactive phenol derived from the rhi-
zome of Curcuma longa, which shows low solubility and stability
in aqueous solution. It is contained in culinary curry and used as
a colouring agent in food. Extensive research during the last few
decades has suggested a strong therapeutic and pharmacological
potential of this molecule as antioxidant, antimutagenic, antipro-
tozoal and antibacterial agent [42].
Curcumin strong medicinal properties are also associated with
reported anti-cancer and neuroprotective effect such as in Al-
zheimer disease [43].
Hydroxytyrosol is an ortho-diphenol (a catechol) abundant in
olive, fruits and extra virgin olive oil. This compound, due to its
catecholic structure, shows a marked antioxidant activity and is
able to scavenge oxygen and nitrogen free radicals, inhibit LDL
oxidation, platelet aggregation and endothelial cell activation, and
protects DNA from oxidative damage [44,45].
Hydroxytyrosol is also a metal chelator and is able to scavenge
the peroxyl radicals and break peroxidative chain reactions pro-
ducing very stable resonance structures [46].
Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10), referred to as ubiquinol in its most
active (95%) and reduced form (Q10H2), is a lipophilic molecule
present in the membranes of almost all human tissues, and essen-
tial for the respiratory transport chain. CoQ10 is also capable of re-
[47].
The quinol prevents lipid peroxidation by inhibiting the initial
formation and propagation of lipid peroxy radicals, and in the pro-
cess it is oxidized to the quinone and H2O2 is produced. In addition,
it has been shown to protect proteins from oxidation by a similar
mechanism [48], and to prevent oxidative DNA damage such as
strand breakages. CoQ is also believed to function in the blood to
protect lipoproteins such as very low density (VLDL), low density
(LDL) and high density (HDL) lipoproteins from oxidation [49].
Conclusions
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species
(RNS) are generated as by-products of cellular metabolism and
ionizing radiation. This paper explains the mechanism of ROS
and RNS formation and their detrimental effect on human health
if present in greater quantities than antioxidants. In addition, the
difference between antioxidants and antioxidant enzymes is clear-
enzymes include glutathione peroxidase, catalase, and superox-
ide dismutase. The four remaining antioxidant enzymes are glu-
tathione reductase, thioredoxin reductase, heme oxygenase, and
biliverdin reductase. People often get antioxidant enzymes from
supplements or foods containing live enzymes. Foods containing
live antioxidant enzymes include algae, yeast, and sprouts. Also,
raw vegetables, barley grass, and wheatgrass contain high levels of
antioxidant enzymes.
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Citation: Amra Bratovcic. “Antioxidant Enzymes and their Role in Preventing Cell Damage". 4.3 (2020): 01-07.
