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Migration from Moldova: Trajectories and Implications for the Country of Origin
Abstract
The present chapter examines international migration in the Republic of Moldova. The authors highlight a few stages in the evolution of migration: the period of ethnic minority migration, the period of increases of temporary labour migration and the last period of intensification in migration flows, diversification of the countries of emigration, and formation and growth of Moldovan stocks in the host countries. It is demonstrated that the national economy is highly dependent on remittances, which are predominantly used for consumption and have not been transformed into investments or production in the real economy. The mass emigration has led to a degradation of the demographic potential of the country, and has also increased the speed of population decline and demographic ageing. Some social effects are also mentioned, such as the development of “migration culture”, which increases and facilitates migration intentions, the negative impact on family stability and the phenomenon of children left without parental care. The impact of migration on political institutions, electoral behaviour, and civic activism of diaspora members is also noted. Also, the authors show the main directions of the migration policies promoted by the Government of Moldova.
... Among the generation of parents who left the country in the 1990s and 2000s, migration was mainly caused by unemployment, low wages and the wish to meet their family's daily needs (Cheianu-Andrei, 2013;Tabac and Gagauz, 2020). Their migration experience was affected by the varying strictness of migration policies and regulations of the destination countries. ...
... Until the mid-2010s, EU law offered few opportunities for Moldovan labour migrants to enter the EU legally. As a result, many women went undocumented and therefore had to stay abroad for long periods (Tabac and Gagauz, 2020). Usually, migrants of this generation relied on social networks that had been created between current migrants, former migrants and non-migrants in the countries of destination and origin, and were grounded on friendship, area of origin and kinship. ...
... In 2014, Moldova signed the Association Agreement with the EU, which included visa liberalisations for the Schengen countries. A few years earlier, Moldova and the main destinations in the EU (Italy, Spain, Portugal) had agreed on contracts regarding labour migrants which included amnesty for undocumented migrants (Tabac and Gagauz, 2020). These developments made migration easier for many. ...
For many years, thousands of children in Moldova had to stay behind while their parents migrated abroad for a better income. This article reflects on the impact of parental migration on young adults’ future aspirations and prospects. The research presented here is based on grounded theory research that includes interviews with former stay-behind children. The children’s plans for their future are not only shaped by the difficult conditions prevailing in the Moldovan labour market. In addition, they are influenced by their parents’ experience of strongly regulated migration and their hope to give their children a better life. Due to their parents’ support and their own educational performance, these young adults find easier conditions for migration and are able to shape their prospective family life in a way that avoids leaving their children behind.
... Economic push factors, such as a lack of job opportunities and a mismatch between education and labour market needs, along with higher living standards as pull factors, are supported by the high prevalence of corruption, increasing inequalities, and political instability. These factors have triggered several migration waves from 1991 up to the present (Tabac and Gagauz 2020). The most important destinations are the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) countries, predominantly Russia, and countries of the European Union (EU) (IOM 2023). ...
... Between 2007 and 2010, policies supporting family reunification in Italy led to a new wave of emigration. Since 2011, there has been a decrease in emigration to Southern and Central Europe, while the lifting of labour restrictions has increased the attractiveness of Western European countries (Tabac and Gagauz 2020). An important milestone was when Romania entered the EU in 2007. ...
... On 1 January 2022, the country officially had around 2.6 million residents (National Bureau of Statistics 2022). High levels of emigration over the past 25 years, together with a low birth rate, have triggered serious problems in Moldova's population dynamics (Tabac and Gagauz 2020). According to estimates by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration of the Republic of Moldova (MFAEI), around 1.25 million people lived abroad in 2020 (MFAEI 2021). ...
... From the end of the 1980s until the mid-1990s, migration flows from Moldova included mainly ethnic minorities of Jews, Russians, Ukrainians, etc., who were involved in the process of repatriation to the countries of their origin (Tabac & Gagauz, 2020;Dietz, 2000). However, a pronounced outmigration from Moldova was registered since the end of the 1990s, which was mainly driven by the economic crises of 1998, when, in most cases, the decision to migrate was a response to high poverty in Moldova and emerging opportunities in the receiving countries (CIVIS & IASCI, 2010). ...
... During the years of independence of Moldova, outmigration has become an integral part of the public and socio-economic spheres of the state, shaping the patterns of the population's economic, social, institutional, and political behaviour (Barsbai et al., 2017), at the same time contributing to economic development through remittances, transfer of knowhow and investment, and changes in the population's social values (Tabac & Gagauz, 2020). ...
... An estimation of the Moldovan migrant stock was made by Tabac, where the studies were based on population censuses and administrative sources in Moldova and receiving countries. According to the results presented, during the 2001 and 2011 census rounds in receiving countries, the Moldovan migrant stock was estimated at 338 thousand and 657 thousand, respectively (Tabac & Gagauz, 2020). On the other hand, based on data from population censuses, population registers, and national representative surveys, the United Nations Population Division estimates the 2020 migrant stock originated from Moldova at 1.1 million (United Nations, 2020). ...
Estimating international migration is a challenging exercise despite the information technologies used, regular censuses conducted, and available advanced administrative systems in collecting data on vital events. Recent works estimated the stocks and flows of Moldovan migrants mainly by using national administrative sources on population counts and data from the population censuses in the destination countries. This study aims to assess the stock of Moldovan migrants of the 1980–1995 birth cohorts, for which a longitudinal method was applied. Thus, were compared de facto population of the corresponding generations to their initial size (number of births), adjusting by survival rate. The results of the study show the existing stock of Moldovan migrants of the 1980–1995 year of birth and the impact of outmigration on the changes in the size of the corresponding cohorts as of 2016 and its trend until 2022. During the analysed period was emphasised a plateau in the migrants’ stock of the generations born in the early 1980s with a moderate return migration in the 2020–2022 period. On the other hand, the cohorts of the late 1980s and 1990s registered a significant increase in the number of migrants, which corresponds with the period of the entrance in high migration mobility ages. The study covers the entire territory of Moldova, including the left bank of the Nistru River and Bender municipality. The methodological part provides a complete description of the method applied, which might be further considered for estimating the migrants’ flows and stocks by using vital statistics or population census data.
... This is the case of Moldova, but also of other ex-Soviet countries that have entered the process of population decline caused by mass migration and negative natural growth (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Georgia and ECONOMY AND SOCIOLOGY Armenia). National estimates have shown that Moldova's population has declined by about 17-20% in the last three decades due to long-term emigration (Gagauz et al., 2016;Tabac & Gagauz, 2020). However, migration has affected not only the population but also its demographic characteristics due to the high share of the working-age population involved in the migration process. ...
... Given increased emigration, it was difficult to measure the stocks of Moldovan emigrants abroad and to assess the demographic impact of migration. Along the way, there have been several attempts to estimate international migration (Poalelungi & Mazur, 2017;Tabac & Gagauz, 2020), but also the revision of the actual population of Moldova, which excludes the population that has left Moldova more than one year (Penina et al., 2015). Only in 2019, the national statistical organization implemented a new methodology for estimating annual migration flows according to international recommendations (United Nations, 1998) and the population with the usual residence. ...
... Most unfavorable is the negative net migration that, cumulated, for 2014-2019 represents -221,3 thousand in absolute values and 7,7% in relative values. Such proportions of migration from Moldova were only during 2007-2011 when emigration flows intensified under the influence of family reunification policies in European countries (Tabac & Gagauz, 2020). ...
Studiul își propune să analizeze evoluția costurilor generate de violență domestică, din spațiul românesc în pandemia de Covid 19. Costul generat de violență nu este bine evidențiat în bugetele României, dar există metode care pot fi folosite pentru a-l cuantifica. În țara noastră, studiile s-au concentrat pe analiza dimensiunii violenței domestice, și mai puțin pe analiza costurilor generate de
acest fenomen. Dar o analiză a acestor costuri a fost făcută în 2014 de Institutul European pentru Egalitatea de Gen, care a estimat costurile violenței bazate pe gen în Uniunea Europeană. Pentru
acest studiu voi folosi datele administrative la nivel național, care provin de la entitățile locale cu atribuții în prevenirea și combaterea violenței domestice. Studiul pe care îl propun va fi o analiză a
datelor secundare furnizate de autorități, dar va conține și metode comparative (față de 2020, anul pandemiei Covid 19). Rezultatele vor descrie evoluția costurilor generate de violența domestică în
timpul pandemiei, perioadă care a înrăutățit accesul la servicii de suport, al victimelor violențelor domestice. Sunt opinii care pun la îndoială adecvarea sistemului românesc în acordarea de sprijin
victimelor în timpul restricțiilor pandemiei sau care au avut dificultăți în a cere ajutor. Măsurile luate de autorități pentru limitarea răspândirii pandemiei de Covid-19, au fost cu aplicabilitate generală, ulterior fiind implementate unele specifice, dar și atunci individualizarea lor a fost dificilă, pentru că fiecare domeniu social a avut un răspuns diferit la acest nou context.
... Over the past two decades, Moldova has been experiencing an ongoing decline in population due to massive levels of emigration and natural decrease. This trend has, in turn, led to a number of economic, social and political shifts that have undermined the country's development opportunities and its security (Tabac and Gagauz, 2020). Population decline is occurring in 17 of 48 European countries, most of which are located in Eastern and Southern Europe (Newsham and Rowe, 2022). ...
... At the same time, the first stocks of migrants have been emerging. The levels of migration to the EU have been increasing due to the amnesties offered to Moldovan citizens who were living illegally in countries like Italy, Spain and Portugal, and to the family reunifications that followed (Tabac and Gagauz, 2020). The number of emigrants in the 2000-2010 period exceeded 400 thousand, about 60% of whom emigrated to Italy or to Russia. ...
In Moldova, there has been a long-term decline in the population, mainly due to high levels of emigration. The article presents an analysis of population dynamics in Moldova over the last three decades, and estimates the contributions of fertility, mortality and migration to this process. Using population censuses, data on the population with usual residence, vital statistics and data on Moldovan immigrants from the host countries’ statistical institutes,we estimate population changes between 1991–2021, and present demographic projections up to 2040. The results show that migration outflows account for more than 90% of the depopulation trend, with high levels of premature mortality accelerating the natural decline. The fall in births is associated with a decrease in the reproductive-age population. The total fertility rate has been decreasing gradually, while the cohort fertility rates have not fallen below 1.75 live births per woman. Past migration and low fertility are projected to result in long-term population decline. Demographic ageing is expected to increase. While population decline cannot be stopped, its scale can be limited through reductions in emigration and mortality. This study on population decline in Moldova helps to complete the demographic picture of Europe in the 20th century and into the 21st century.
... This is the case of Moldova, but also of other ex-Soviet countries that have entered the process of population decline caused by mass migration and negative natural growth (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Georgia and Theoretical and scientifical journal Armenia). National estimates have shown that Moldova's population has declined by about 17-20% in the last three decades due to long-term emigration (Gagauz et al., 2016;Tabac & Gagauz, 2020). However, migration has affected not only the population but also its demographic characteristics due to the high share of the working-age population involved in the migration process. ...
... Given increased emigration, it was difficult to measure the stocks of Moldovan emigrants abroad and to assess the demographic impact of migration. Along the way, there have been several attempts to estimate international migration (Poalelungi & Mazur, 2017;Tabac & Gagauz, 2020), but also the revision of the actual population of Moldova, which excludes the population that has left Moldova more than one year (Penina et al., 2015). Only in 2019, the national statistical organization implemented a new methodology for estimating annual migration flows according to international recommendations (United Nations, 1998) and the population with the usual residence. ...
The article focuses on analyzing the implications of international migration on changes in the number and structure of the population in Moldova in the 2014-2020 period. The paper is based on revised data on the population with habitual residence and international migration. The research methodology consists of estimating and analyzing specific indicators of migration and population: emigration and immigration rates, gross and net migration rates, age specific net migration rates by sex, population growth rate and others.
Results show that the emigration rate during this period increased from 43 to 58 emigrants per 1000 population. The cumulative negative net migration is -221.3 thousand people or -7.71% of the population of 2014. The level of mobility of Moldova's population is higher than that of the population of Moscow or Luxembourg. The share of women involved in the migration process is lower than that of men. Youth (aged 20-34) make up a third of the annual flow of emigrants, while return migration increases at pre-retirement ages. At the same time, there is an increase in the number of children involved in international migration, which indicates the increase in migration of families to establish residence abroad. The population of Moldova decreased by -225.3 thousand people in 2014-2020 or by 7.9%. The population decline rate varies between 0.9-1.8% annually. The article concludes that the most important contribution to population decline is negative international migration. Population decline remains the biggest demographic challenge for Moldova.
... Also, the analysis of demographic peculiarities on a local scale is the subject of studies such as those developed by Kazimierczak Problems deriving from service coverage as a result of internal migrations and the depopulation of some spaces were highlighted by Begu et al. (2022), who analyze the consequences of the phenomenon of migration in Romania; by O'Brien et al. (2022) on the impact of internal migrations on rural areas in the Romanian Banat; by Tabac and Gagauz (2020) regarding migration between Romania and the Republic of Moldova, or by Petrescu-Mag, Petrescu and Azadi (2022) regarding the social transformations in the Romanian rural space. A distinct problem is the analysis of rural-urban relations against the background of depopulation and migratory flows and, in particular, the evolution of peri-urban spaces (Grigorescu et al., 2022;Wiśniewski et al., 2024). ...
Depopulation is a characteristic phenomenon for the Central and Eastern European space that gained in amplitude especially after 1990 in the context of political-ideological changes that affected the states of this region and that also led to changes in demographic behavior. These consisted, on the one hand, in the abolition of pro-natalist policies from the communist period and, on the other hand, in the intensification of emigration flows in connection with the economic and social discrepancies and the free movement of persons. In this context, the paper analyzes the evolution of Romania’s population in a global and European context, the factors that determined its sharp population decline, as well as its economic and social consequences. Also, the demographic characteristics of Romania and future trends regarding the peculiarities and dynamics of the Romanian population are highlighted.
... The recent analysis of the population dynamics over the past three decades in Moldova shows that the country continues to experience a long-term population decline, primarily attributed to high levels of emigration. From 1991 to 2021, the country experienced high depopulation due to migration outflows, with premature mortality exacerbating the natural decline (Tabac & Gagauz, 2020). After the COVID-19 pandemic, a new intensification of emigration has been registered (Vaculovschi, 2023;NBS, 2022). ...
This study explores the memory of the Soviet period in Moldova, focusing on how social trauma and contemporary politics influence perceptions of the past. Utilizing oral history methods, over 60 interviews were conducted in Moldova during the latter half of 2023, encompassing a diverse range of respondents aged from their 20s to 90s. The research spans various regions including northern Moldova, Chisinau, Gagauzia, and Transnistria. The findings reveal that memories of the Soviet era are often characterized by nostalgia, shaped significantly by the abrupt collapse of the USSR and the subsequent social and economic turmoil. This nostalgia is interpreted through the lens of cultural trauma theory, as proposed by Jeffrey Alexander and Piotr Sztompka, highlighting the profound societal changes that followed the Soviet disintegration. The study shows that the rhetoric of the USSR, playing a significant role in Moldovan politics and being instrumentalized by both proponents and opponents of Eurointegration, also greatly influences the image of the Soviet era among the Moldovan population. The ongoing economic and social crises, coupled with recent geopolitical tensions, have further intensified the nostalgic sentiments towards the Soviet era. In conclusion, the enduring social trauma and the continuous political invocation of Soviet rhetoric have a profound impact on the collective memory of the USSR in Moldova.
... The economic understanding of migration, specifically the push-pull models, has shaped the study of Moldovan migration (Cheianu-Andrei, 2013;Stöhr, 2013). This perspective focuses largely on the unilateral movement of individuals from poorer to wealthier nations and the circulation of money, goods, and services associated with migration (Tabac & Gagauz 2020). However, this model fails to explain why migration does not originate from all impoverished areas and why it is concentrated in certain affluent nations only (Portes & Böröcz, 1989;Massey et al.,1993, p. 428). ...
This article delves into the phenomenon of material goods circulation in the context of international migration, specifically looking at the exchange of parcels between Moldovan immigrants in the Paris region, France, and their kin, friends, and acquaintances in Moldova. The analysis uses field data collected during an ethnographic study conducted in 2017 within the Moldovan immigrant community in Paris. It moves beyond the limitations of push-pull theories that focus solely on one-way material circulation from immigrants to their home country families or only on the economic implications of remittances. Adopting a diverse methodological and epistemological stance, the author's inductive approach highlights the heuristic value of the field data. This data suggests that the parcel exchange between Moldovan immigrants and their compatriots carries significant social and symbolic meaning for all actors involved in this process. Over time, this exchange has evolved into a social institution, creating an ongoing link between the host country and the country of origin. The author scrutinizes the material and symbolic processes involved in the parcel transfer mechanism, whimsically referred to by the migrants as "Post Office of Moldova", the name of the national postal service in Moldova. The article explores both the commercial and non-commercial dynamics that shape this mechanism's operations and its integrative impact on the Moldovan immigrant community in the Paris region. The motivations that drive these material flows associated with migration are portrayed in terms of reciprocity, redistribution, and altruism, thereby emphasizing the reciprocal nature of these exchanges.
... Они оказались вне поля социальной и правовой поддержки стран приема. От пандемии экономически пострадало более 80% молдавских трудовых мигрантов, среди которых наиболее пострадавшими стали циркулярные мигранты [9]. ...
The following article offers a historiographic analysis of Moldovan labor migration and diaspora abroad. The article lists the primary stages of labor migration from the Republic of Moldova; its main destinations and volumes; the factors that influence the formation of communities and diaspora; the policies of exit and destination countries of Moldovan migrants; the measures taken for the return and reintegration of migrants home. The article draws attention to the aspects of migrants’ adaptation and integration into the host society. Attention is likewise given to specific problems in this regard, such as the migrants’ cohesion or division, their suspicion of governmental bodies, etc. Another touched upon aspect – the transformation of the migrants’ goals, status, and possibilities, the role and influence migrants have on the life of their exit country. The article also provides a chronological analysis of scientific interest and sources dedicated to the topic, both at home and abroad.
... Some specific new social effects were noted in reference to emigration from Moldova. The development of the "culture of migration", along with other push factors, influence the emigration intentions, especially in young people (Tabac & Gagauz 2020). Depending on the context of integration, the social memory retains the migration experiences as "fingerprints". ...
The article explores the features of the Moldovan migrant's children integration in Italy and the dynamics and particularities of the second-generation formation. The study is based on statistical data analysis on the Moldovan communities of immigrants in Italy and the integration of migrant children into educational institutions. The risk factors of social adaptation of children of Moldovan migrants based on the sociological quantitative and qualitative research conducted in 2015-2019 are analyzed. The study results show that the children of Moldovan migrants face difficulties integrating into Italian society, even though they have more opportunities than their parents. There are specific differences in children's integration depending on the age of arrival in Italy, the success in learning the Italian language, the type of family (full or single parent, mixed family), and the intensity of social contacts. Children of migrants born in Italy do not experience significant difficulties in social integration, primarily thanks to their knowledge of the Italian language. Children from mixed families where one of the parents is an Italian citizen also do not have a problem. The most significant difficulties are encountered by young people who arrived in Italy as teenagers and have lived in Moldova for a long time with other relatives since their parents moved abroad for work. The need to reunite with the family after 5-10 years of separation from parents, sometimes with a new mixt family, creates additional psychological and sociocultural barriers in the process of integrating children in Italy.
... In the absence of reliable intercensal or postcensal population estimates, this approach let us avoid a systematic bias induced by migration flows. In Moldova, the recent period of migration intensified in comparison with the years immediately after independence was proclaimed (20). In addition, the NBS has not estimated postcensal population figures in a regional context at the time of the study. ...
Introduction. Life expectancy in Moldova after independence either fluctuated in the 1990s or stagnated in the early millennium, followed by moderate improvements since 2010. The objective of the study is to investigate the evolution of regional variations in life expectancy since independence in Moldova and to identify the main demographic components (causes of death and age groups) responsible for interregional mortality inequalities. Material and methods. Five-year average mortality rates by age and cause in the territorial profile were used for three periods: 1991-1995, 2002-2006 and 2012-2016. Abridged life tables and confidence intervals were computed. The difference in life expectancy between the two subpopulations was decomposed, according to Andreev’s method. Results. The gap in life expectancy between the best-performing and the worst-performing groups constitutes 6.0 years. Important progress has been made in the municipality of Chisinau and the northern districts of Briceni and Edinet concerning cardiovascular mortality. In 11 districts located mainly in the centre, the decline in infant mortality due to respiratory diseases was offset by the growth in adult mortality due to external causes and neoplasms. Conclusions. Regional disparities can be reduced through preventive measures targeting the key risk factors for cardiovascular disease, liver cirrhosis and external causes of death within the backward geographical area.
In the context of demographic decline, which has significantly reduced the number and proportion of young people in the general population, this study aims to estimate the migration intentions of Moldovan students enrolled in secondary and postsecondary vocational schools, as well as higher educational institutions. The research explores the influence of key factors on intentions to emigrate for study, work, or permanent residence abroad. To assess these emigration intentions, data from the sociological study ”Youth Transition to Adulthood in the Context of Prolonged Crises”, conducted between January and February 2023, were used. A sub-sample of 450 young individuals enrolled in vocational and higher education institutions at the time of the study was analyzed. Findings reveal that labor migration is predominant among students, particularly those in secondary technical vocational education. Furthermore, a significant link was found between migration intentions and perceptions of limited future prospects in the country. Notably, students with family members already abroad and those sceptical of Moldova’s economic stability exhibit a stronger inclination to emigrate, viewing migration as a path to improved career opportunities. These findings underscore the need for comprehensive national policies focused on youth retention by aligning educational offerings with labor market demands, fostering an optimistic economic environment, and enhancing intersectoral collaboration across education, labor, and social support systems.
This paper explores Moldovas unique context within migration studies, highlighting its potential to enhance theoretical frameworks on migration. Despite its small size, Moldova has a significant portion of its population working abroad, offering insights into both migration and immobility. The study examines Moldova's dual migratory flows toward the European Union (EU) and Russia, influenced by cultural, historical, and economic ties. Contrary to conventional views, the context of Moldova reveals that financial accessibility and robust social networks do not always result in increased migration aspirations in migration decisions. It also addresses the interconnected issues of human trafficking and migration, emphasizing often-overlooked social dimensions. Positioning Moldova as a valuable “migration laboratory,” this study aims to generate academic interest and propose new research directions to refine migration theories.
The aim of this chapter is to analyse the main characteristics of the migration flows (temporary or definitive) from Moldova to the European Union countries during the 1990s and the New Millennium. Resorting to statistical data published by the Republic of Moldova and international organisations (Eurostat, World Bank, OECD and IMF), this chapter shows what has happened since the end of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the related independence of the former Soviet Socialist Republic of Moldova. In particular, attention is paid to the origin of migrants (rural or urban areas) and the level of education as well as the reasons pushing them to leave their native country.
This research examines two major phenomena that have driven the transformation of cities in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) following the fall of communism: intensive urban sprawl and population decline. Using a quantitative methodology to examine the patterns and dynamics of built-up areas and population in 93 cities from CEE, the article assesses their transformation between 1990 and 2018. The findings show that, while there are overall similarities in the dynamics of built-up area and population changes in CEE cities, there are also notable differences that vary by country, city size, proximity to Western Europe and economic attractiveness.
To develop effective social policies and social services for children left behind by migration in the communities, it is necessary to know the specific needs of children affected by migration and deprived of their family members’ care. The article offers the opinion of children left behind from the Republic of Moldova about their parents’ migration and, indirectly, how international migration influences modern families. Also, the article presents the impact of parents’ migration on children and children’s opinions on how to mitigate negative consequences. To do this, the author used the primary data collected from children left behind migration in the European Union project CASTLE (Children left behind as a result of labour migration: supporting Moldovan and Ukrainian transnational families in the European Union), coordinated by the Babeș-Bolyai University and the Terre des hommes Romania Foundation in collaboration with Terre des hommes Moldova and the Academy of Economic Studies of Moldova. The data were collected through individual in-depth interviews (4 interviews conducted by child researchers and two by adult researchers) and focus group discussions (2 discussions moderated by adult researchers). The research results highlight children’s perception of migration, including their attitude towards parents’ migration, the communication with their absent parents, the psychosocial effects, and the migration impact on children’s physical and mental health, suggestions of children left behind by migration to peers in a similar situation, including authorities of the Republic of Moldova. The research reveals that peers and sometimes teachers do not understand children left behind. A support network for these children is less developed, proving the necessity to undertake new measures within the educational institution to reduce the negative impact.
In this study, the relationship between the family language practice and the level of linguistic (in)security of adolescent Gagauz speakers is examined in the context of an endangered language. To this end, a language-use questionnaire and linguistic insecurity scale were administered to 674 participants. The questionnaire included questions exploring demographic information, self-reported language skills, language acquired at home, parents’ speaking proficiency and the language of interaction. The linguistic insecurity scale comprised (self)-evaluations of language practices, linguistic status and linguistic quality. Using a quantitative methodology, ten interviews were conducted. The findings show that the participants felt more secure while using Russian and there was a strong correlation between family language practice and linguistic insecurity perceived by the adolescent speakers. Moreover, language choice in interactions was found to be speaker-specific. In other words, as a part of the family language policy, the participants spoke Gagauz with their parents, siblings and grandparents. In some cases, however, the language choice was based on the ethnicity of the interlocutor and the language which friends and neighbours were speaking. It was found that although speakers felt secure and motivated to speak the Gagauz language, the use of Gagauz seemed to be limited to family contexts.
Specific ethnocentric international migration processes can be observed in Hungary: a significant proportion of immigrants are of Hungarian ethnic background and come from neighboring countries. Similar processes can be observed between other kin-states and co-ethnic communities of Central and Eastern Europe, but this type of migration has not been studied intensively yet. The focus of the research is on the effects of this immigration on Hungarian society and the economy. Population projections were also carried out according to two research questions: “what would have happened if the immigrants had not arrived according to the processes that were experienced?” and “what will happen if the immigration process changes?” The research is based on the 2011 census data sets; the target group is the population born in neighboring countries that moved to Hungary after 1985. Results show that the ethnic Hungarian immigrant population has been a crucial human resource in Hungary. Without these immigrants, Hungary's demographic trends would also be less favorable. Moreover, in contrast to the situation typical of European immigrants, the socio-economic situation of the former is more favorable than of the host society. Potential decline of this immigration population could indeed be challenging.
T he paper focuses on assessing the situation of older persons in the Republic of Moldova, in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. The social diagnosis of the structural, institutional, community and intergenerational openness to the needs of this category of population highlights the pandemic challenges it faces. The methodology of the study is based on the results of the qualitative study conducted in August−September 2020 and April−May 2021 with the older people, local public administration and social workers. Through empirically reasoned findings, the paper updates the main difficulties encountered in the context of the pandemic and the depth of the social impact on the older people at community level. In addition to the direct risk to physical health, the exclusion and discrimination of the older people increased during the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been an increased risk of violence and neglect, and cases of stigma at community level. The individual/family resources of the older people, especially in the case of COVID-19 infection and treatment, have played an important role in overcoming the crisis. The consequences of COVID-19 are associated with a worsening of the health of the elderly and an increase in the need for medical services. “Ageist” attitudes also occurred in the post-quarantine period, undermining the rights of older people to quality services. Thus, the need for continuous monitoring of the situation and combating "ageist" attitudes in the post-pandemic period is emphasized.
ARE THEY HIGHLY SKILLED? LABOUR MIGRATION AND EDUCATION OF MOLDOVAN EMIGRANTS: THE CASE OF SLOVAKIA Globalisation is one of the most significant processes shaping the world, impacting the movement of people as well. Moldovans have long been dependent on financial resources coming from foreign countries-remittances. The germane part tends to migrate to CIS countries, mostly because of pursuit of better living standard and securing their families. There is often talk about emigration of tertiary-educated Moldovans, thus this research seeks to answer whether there is inflow of highly educated Moldovans into Slovakia. Drawing from the database concerning immigrants living in Slovakia we examined educational and occupational structure. The findings show the vast majority of Moldovans did not attain tertiary education, but the germane part is secondary educated. This is reflected in the occupational structure, as most of them work as assemblers, operators, or execute other types of professions, which do not require high education or skills. JEL Classification: F22, J61 РЕЗЮМЕ: ОНИ ВЫСОКОКВАЛИФИЦИРОВАННЫЕ? ТРУДОВАЯ МИГРАЦИЯ И ОБРАЗОВАНИЕ МОЛДАВСКИХ ЭМИГРАНТОВ: ПРИМЕР СЛОВАКИИ Глобализация-один из самых важных процессов, формирующих мир, и влияющих на перемещение людей. Молдаване долгое время зависели от финансовых ресурсов, поступающих из зарубежных стран-денежных переводов. Немецкая часть имеет тенденцию мигрировать в страны СНГ, в основном из-* KINER Andrej-Doctorand, Facultatea de Relații Internaționale Universitatea de Economie din Bratislava (Bratislava, Republica Slovacă). / KINER Andrej-Postgraduate Student, Faculty of International Relations University of Economics in Bratislava (Bratislava, The Slovak Republic). / КИНЕР Андрей-Аспирант, факультет международных отношений, Экономический университет в Братиславе (Братислава, Словацкая Республика). 165 за стремления к повышению уровня жизни и обеспечению безопасности своих семей. Часто говорят об эмиграции молдаван с высшим образованием, поэтому это исследование пытается ответить, есть ли приток высокообразованных молдаван в Словакию. На основе базы данных иммигрантов, проживающих в Словакии, мы изучили образовательную и профессиональную структуру. Полученные данные показывают, что подавляющее большинство молдаван не имеют высшего образования, но основная часть имеет среднее образование. Это отражено в профессиональной структуре, поскольку большинство из них работают монтажниками, операторами или выполняют другие виды профессий, не требующих высшего образования или навыков. Ключевые слова: Молдова, мигранты, Словакия, образование, трудовая миграция. JEL Classification: K37, F22, J61 УДК: 314.17 REZUMAT: SUNT ÎNALT CALIFICATI? MIGRAȚIA MUNCII ȘI EDUCAȚIA EMIGRANȚILOR MOLDOVEI: CAZUL SLOVACIEI Globalizarea este unul dintre cele mai semnificative procese care modelează lumea, afectând și mișcarea oamenilor. Moldovenii depind de mult de resursele financiare provenite din țări străine-remitențe. Partea germană tinde să migreze către țările CSI, în principal datorită urmăririi unui nivel de trai mai bun și asigurării familiilor lor. Se vorbește adesea despre emigrația moldovenilor cu studii superioare, astfel această cercetare urmărește să răspundă dacă există aflux de moldoveni cu studii superioare în Slovacia. Din baza de date privind imigranții care trăiesc în Slovacia, am examinat structura educațională și ocupațională. Descoperirile arată că marea majoritate a moldovenilor nu au urmat educația terțiară, dar partea germană este educația secundară. Acest lucru se reflectă în structura ocupațională, deoarece majoritatea lucrează ca asamblori, operatori sau execută alte tipuri de profesii care nu necesită studii superioare sau abilități. Cuvinte cheie: Moldova, migranții, Slovacia, educație, migrația forței de muncă. JEL Classification: K37, F22, J61 CZU: 314.17
The number of return migrants in the Republic of Moldova is small and those who have returned face different socio‐economic reintegration problems, which leads to their re‐inclusion in migration. In this regard, ensuring a sustainable reintegration of return migrants becomes of a great importance. The article aims to analyse the process of socio‐economic reintegration of return migrants in Moldova. To achieve this goal, the following methods were used: qualitative sociological research, policy and SWOT analysis. Conducted research showed that there is a developed legislative framework, which is not fully functional. Even if the Government takes measures to facilitate reintegration of return migrants, some of these are still not easily accessible and sustainable. The study reveals that return migrants often face same problems as local people. A general socio‐economic growth will ensure economic development, creation of opportunities for citizens to work in the country and not to (re)emigrate.
This article surveys contemporary theories of international migration in order to illuminate their leading propositions, assumptions, and hypotheses. It hopes to pave the way for a systematic empirical evaluation of their guiding tenets. The authors divide the theories conceptually into those advanced to explain the initiation of international migration and those put forth to account for the persistence of migration across space and time. Because they are specified at such different levels of analysis, the theories are not inherently logically inconsistent. The task of selecting between theories and propositions thus becomes an empirical exercise, one that must occur before a truly integrated theoretical framework can be fully realized. -Authors
The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of international migration in Europe over the past decade from the perspective of 'old' versus 'new' receiving countries in western Europe (EU15 countries plus Norway and Switzerland). Spe-cial attention is placed on the migration flows originating in Central and Eastern Europe, highlighting the weight taken on by east-south and east-north flows, which often occur within the borders of the EU. In this framework, the receiving countries of southern (Italy, Spain, Greece and Portugal) and northern Europe (namely the UK and Ireland) are the main focus of the analysis, since in the past few years they have been the main centres of attraction for migration flows originating in Central and Eastern Europe as well as in the least developed countries in the rest of the world. A detailed analysis of the statistics available made it possible to draw a real-istic picture of recent trends, highlighting the elements of continuity and disconti-nuity with international migration in the past.
Both the developed and developing countries are experiencing substantial changes in their age structures with potentially important implications for economic growth. The timing of the changes varies, but essentially every country in the world has experienced or will experience a substantial rise in the share of their population concentrated in the working ages. On its face, this development has a direct, favourable effect on per capita income. Given fixed output per worker, labour force participation rates, and unemployment rates, a rise in the share of the working-age population will lead, as a matter of simple algebra, to an increase in output per capita - the first demographic dividend. The first demographic dividend typically lasts for decades, but it is inherently transitory in nature. As population ageing begins to dominate demographic trends, the share of the population in the working ages will decline. The first dividend will turn negative as population growth outstrips growth in the labour force. Eventually, the share of the population in the working ages may be no greater than before the dividend period began. The same demographic forces that produce an end to the first dividend, however, may lead to a second demographic dividend (Mason and Lee, forthcoming). A key economic challenge for ageing populations is to provide for old-age consumption for older persons who typically have substantially reduced labour income. Some societies are trying to meet this challenge by relying on transfer systems - either public programmes or familial support systems. Other societies are responding by increasing their saving rates and accumulating greater physical wealth or capital. It is in this latter response that prospects for more rapid economic growth are enhanced.1 Moreover, the second dividend is not transitory in nature. Population ageing may produce a "permanent" increase in capital and thus on per capita income
Migration contributes to the circulation of goods, knowledge, and ideas. Using community and individual-level data from Moldova, we show that the emigration episode that started in the late 1990s strongly affected political preferences and electoral outcomes in Moldova during the following decade and was eventually instrumental in bringing down the last ruling Communist government in Europe. Our results are suggestive of information transmission and cultural diffusion channels. Identification relies on the quasi-experimental context studied and on the differential effects arising from the fact that emigration was directed both to more democratic Western Europe and to less democratic Russia.
El concepto de migración abarca una serie de fadores sobre lugar de origen y de destino, obstaculos intervinientes y caracteristicas
personales.
Este simple marco de trabajo es empleado con el fin de formular una serie de hipótesis acerca del volumen de la migración
bajo diversas condiciones, el desarrollo de corrientes y contracorrientes migratorias y las caracteristicas de los migrantes.
Siempre que ha sido posible, las hipótesis se presentan en forma tal que puedan comprobarse con datos anexos. Para otras hipótesis
los datos no son disponibles actualmente; otras pueden requerir reestructuración en términos de datos disponibles.
Las variaciones en el volumen de migración están relacionadas con la diversidad de las regiones y la población que la habita,
con el grado de dificultad de los obstáculos intervinientes y con las fiuctuaciones de la economía.
La relación entre corrientes y contracorrientes migratorias es analizada en base a la similaridad o discimilaridad de origen
y destino, al tipo de obstáculos intervinientes y a las condiciones economicas. La migración es considerada selectiva y el
grado de selectividad depende de un número de factores los cuales a menudo dan como resultado una selección bimodal.
The demographic transition—a change from high to low rates of mortality and fertility—has been more dramatic in East Asia
during the twentieth century than in any other region or historical period. By introducing demographic variables into an empirical
model of economic growth, this article shows that this transition has contributed substantially to East Asia's so-called economic
miracle. The miracle occurred in part because East Asia's demographic transition resulted in its working-age population growing
at a much faster rate than its dependent population during 1965–90, thereby expanding the per capita productive capacity of
East Asian economies. This effect was not inevitable; rather, it occurred because East Asian countries had social, economic,
and political institutions and policies that allowed them to realize the growth potential created by the transition. The empirical
analyses indicate that population growth has a purely transitional effect on economic growth; this effect operates only when
the dependent and working-age populations are growing at different rates. These results imply that future demographic change
will tend to depress growth rates in East Asia, while it will promote more rapid economic growth in Southeast and South Asia.
Statisticheskiy analiz alii i emigratsii yevreyev iz Rossii [Statistical Analysis of Aliyah and Jews emigration from Russia
- M Tolts
Trudovaya migratsiya i stabil’nost’ sem’i
- O Gagauz
The impact of international labour migration on the Republic of Moldova
- V Ganta
Emigratsiya iz Respubliki Moldova v postsovetskiy period [Emigration from The Republic of Moldova in post-soviet period
- T Tabac
- World Bank
Uchet migratsii v Rossii: Prichiny i posledstviya krizisa [Accounting migration in Russia: Causes and consequences of the crisis
- O Chudinovskikh
Dolgosrochnaya migratsiya mezhdu stranami SNG. [Long-term migration between CIS countries
- M B Denisenko
- O S Chudinovskikh
United Nations expert group meeting on social and economic implications of changing population age structure
- A Mason
Population Situation Analysis in the Republic of Moldova
- Cdr Unfpa
- Nier
Driving innovation in circular migration
- N De Zwager
- R Sintov
- N Zwager de
The historical evolution of world-systems
- C Chase-Dunn
- T D Hall
Rozhdayemost’ v Respublike Moldova: Yevropeyskiye tendentsii i natsional’naya spetsifika
- O Gagauz
Long-term migration from Republic of Moldova and Romania
- T Tabac
The Jewish revival in Moldova (A survey of Jewish Life in Moldova in the
- D Sheveliov
Public opinion barometer
- IPP