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OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH EXPOSURE AND PERCEIVED EFFECTS OF PORTLAND
CEMENT DUST POLLUTION ON CEMENT FACTORY WORKERS
Gabriel C. C.
Ndinwa1+
Charity O.
Chukumah2
Solomon A.
Akpafun3
1,2Department of Industrial Safety & Environmental Management
Technology, School of Environmental Studies, Delta State School of Marine
Technology, Burutu, Nigeria.
3Department of Urban & Regional Planning, School of Environmental
Studies, Delta State School of Marine Technology, Burutu, Nigeria.
(+ Corresponding author)
ABSTRACT
Article History
Received: 27 November 2019
Revised: 30 December 2019
Accepted: 3 February 2020
Published: 25 February 2020
Keywords
Cement dust pollution
Factory workers
Community
Questionnaire
Bua
Edo State.
The perceived occupational and environmental health challenges arising from the
exposure of cement dust pollution on Bua cement factory workers were investigated in
this study to establish if there is any significance of cement dust exposure on workers’
health. The study was designed as a cross-sectional type of research that adopted a
purposive group based strategy for sampling. 110 cement factory workers with a
minimum of two years’ work experience were selected for the study. 90 respondents
were randomly selected from a community situated at about 21km away from the
factory and used as control. Structured questionnaire was used for data collection and
SPSS statistical package was used to analyze the data. Inferential statistics was used to
test the hypotheses at p <0.05, ascertain correlation of the variables and authenticate
the analysed results. The result revealed that 15 types of ailment were reported among
the sampled respondents with factory workers recording higher percentage occurrence
of ailments than respondents from the control. Factory workers were more susceptible
to the itemized ailments recorded when compared to respondents from control.
Significant difference in the prevalence of perceived health ailments between factory
workers and control was established. Workers from storage and transportation section
were revealed to have higher percentage (77.3%) compliance level on the use of safety
gadgets during work hours than workers from other sections. Also, a significant
relationship between the perceived health risks associated with cement dust exposure
and the health of factory workers was established. The researchers made reasonable
recommendations to forestall further health complications that might arise from
working on a cement production factory.
Contribution/Originality: This study contributes to the existing literature on occupational exposure and
perceived effects of cement dust pollution on factory workers. It also provides in depth findings of the associated
health effects arising from cement production on workers in Nigeria precisely.
1. INTRODUCTION
The cement industry has been recognized as one of the most inevitable giants to the development of
infrastructure of any nation. The industry has well been reported to be among the largest leading manufacturing
industries with a production process that consists of grinding, drying and mixing of limestone as well as additives
like bauxite ore and iron into a powder form called “raw meal” (Rampuri, 2017). Cement is a major component for
building infrastructure and construction works. It is an important construction material used for the development
of infrastructure, and key to economic growth of any developed and developing society (Nkhama, 2017). Several
Journal of Atmosphere
2020 Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 1-14
ISSN(e): 2414-2484
ISSN(p): 2518-2528
DOI: 10.18488/journal.94.2020.31.1.14
© 2020 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved.
Journal of Atmosphere, 2020, 3(1): 1-14
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© 2020 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved.
researchers in other parts of the world have reported that Portland cement is the third most widely used
commodity worldwide and next to electricity generation (energy) after water (Chipindu, 2009). The infrastructural
development of any sovereign since the beginning of the 20th and 21st centuries is driven by the demand for cement
production (Neghab., Abdullah, Kumar, & Sadeghi, 2010; Shiravan, 2014). The demand for cement is directly
proportional to the economic growth of any nation and the growing economies of many developed and developing
countries are striving for rapid infrastructural development, hence the resulting increase in cement production
(Nkhama, 2017; Shiravan, 2014). Available statistics has it that global cement production grew to approximately
4.18 billion metric tons (Bmt) in 2016 when compared to 4.08 (Bmt) in 2014 (Abdul-Wahab, 2006; Mwaiselage,
Bråtveit, Moen, & Mashalla, 2004; Nkhama, 2017).
Despite the inevitable role of the industry towards infrastructural development; its resultant environmental and
health impacts beginning from the processing of raw materials to production stage cannot be compared. The
production of cement is an inherent dusty operation resulting in ambient air pollution that exposes factory workers
and residents of communities situated near the factory to various environmental and health issues (Abrons,
Petersen, Sanderson, Engelberg, & Harber, 1998). Research scholars around the world have asserted that cement
production contribute to total global particulate emissions (Abou-Taleb, Musaiger, & Abdelmoneim, 1995; Adak,
Adak, & Purohit, 2007; Neghab & Choobineh, 2007; Rampuri, 2017). Particulate materials released during cement
production otherwise known as cement dust is a mixture of Silicon, Calcium, Sodium and Potassium as well as
heavy metals like Zinc, Cadmium, Aluminium, Lead, Chromium and Iron which in excess are hazardous and
deleterious to human health and the environment (Baby et al., 2008; Gbadebo & Bankole, 2007; Kumar et al., 2008).
The pulverized materials when released into the atmosphere constitute a major source of air pollution and travels
significant distances downwind, crossing state lines and creating region-wide health challenges (Mirzaee, Kebriaei,
Hashemi, Sadeghi, & Shahrakipour, 2008). These effects have greater impacts on communities disproportionately
exposed to the health and environmental risks and most especially to the vulnerable populations, including children
(El Badri & Saeed, 2008).
Several research works on the potential adverse health effects from exposure to cement dust have been
published around the world. Studies are available on the functionality of human lung against cement dust, but
majority of these studies were carried out by researchers without considering long term duration-response effect
between years of exposure and respiratory function impairment (Sultan, Al-Drees, Al Masri, Al Rouq, & Azeem,
2013; Zeleke, Moen, & Bråtveit, 2010). Sultan et al. (2013) worked on lung function impairment resulting from
occupational respiratory problem like cement dust. The effects of cement dust exposure on lung and liver functions
in occupationally exposed individuals in Nigeria was documented from several studies by Alakija, Iyawe, Jarikre,
and Chiwuzie (1990); Gbadebo and Bankole (2007) and Ogunbileje, Akinosun, Arinola, and Akinduti (2010). Human
exposure to emitted particulates and particulate-bound metals dispersed into the atmosphere from cement factory
was reported by Al-Neaimi, Gomes, and Lloyd (2001). Kakooei et al. (2012) researched on occupational exposure to
cement dust in Iran using 2,700 cement factory workers. The deposition of cement dust in the respiratory tract of
cement factory workers was reported by Mwaiselage et al. (2004). They affirmed that cement dust leads to
increased pH values in workers which irritate the exposed mucous membranes and impair respiration.
In spite of the robust availability of literature on cement dust exposure to factory workers in other parts of the
world; there is paucity of published research on the environmental and health impacts of exposure to emissions from
cement factory on workers and communities residing close to these factories in Nigeria. Nigeria has been reported
to be rich in solid minerals with statistics affirming the nation as the highest producer of cement in West Africa
with over twelve cement factories sited across the country (Ogunbileje et al., 2010). There is an assumption that
cement workers are from the lower socio-economic class and are often hired without the pre-requisite and needed
trainings to work in cement factories and thereby deployed to work sites without proper protective gargets (Al-
Neaimi et al., 2001; Chukwu & Ubosi, 2016; Meo, 2004). Also assumed is that cement factory workers in Nigeria are
Journal of Atmosphere, 2020, 3(1): 1-14
3
© 2020 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved.
deficient in knowledge on the occupational hazards arising from working in highly dusty and polluted environment
which is of serious concern. Based on the above, this study intend to fill the gap by evaluating the occupational
exposure and perceived effects of Portland cement dust pollution on cement factory workers in Nigeria.
1.1. Study Area
This study was carried out to investigate the occupational exposure and perceived health effects of cement dust
pollution on workers of a cement factory located at Afookpella in Edo State, Nigeria. The factory is situated at the
outskirt of Afookpella along Abuja-Okene expressway in Edo State with a combined installed production capacity of
3.5 million MT. It is the major cement factory servicing the south-south geopolitical zone in Nigeria. The
community where the factory is located is bounded to Okugbe, Iddo, Kominio, Awuyemi, Imiegele, Imekuri and
Oku communities. The area consists of low land forest habitat, montane habitat and savannah habitat. Its footprint
straddles Etsako East and Akoko Edo Local Government Areas. Geographically, it lies at latitude 7016i N and
longitude 6020i E (see Figure 1). The area usually experiences two geographic seasons; from March to October
being the wet season with the area experiencing heavy precipitation at its climax from August to October whereas
the months of November to February covers the dry season. Within this period maximum temperature has been
reported to be at about 340C (Ebiagwai, 2016). The speed of wind in this area has been reported to range from 2-9
m/s during the harmattan season and up to 13 m/s during the rainy season. The factory was established as a State
Government Production Company in 1964 and later on, privatized to a private organization in 2008. A community
with the same socioeconomic profile similar to Afookpella as possible; situated at about 21km from the factory and
study area was selected as control for comparison.
Figure-1. Map of Okpella showing the cement factory.
Source: Ebiagwai (2016).
1.2. Research Methodology
This study is a cross-sectional type of research carried out to evaluate the perceived effects of cement dust
exposure on factory workers. 110 cement factory workers were selected in a purposive group based strategy for
exposed respondents. These selected workers cut across five sections of the production and packaging process es.
Namely; raw material crushing and processing, milling and packing of raw materials, storage and transportation,
clinker production, cement milling and blending sections. These categories of workers were selected because of the
various degree of exposure to cement particulates. Only workers with minimum of two years exposure were
selected. In the same manner, 90 respondents from the community used as control were randomly selected for the
study. The researchers made sure that their socioeconomic and age background matched those of cement workers.
Journal of Atmosphere, 2020, 3(1): 1-14
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© 2020 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved.
The instrument for data collection was structured in line with the American Thoracic Society’s Questionnaire on
Respiratory Symptoms. The socio-demographic data of the selected respondents were elicited by interview
administered structure questionnaire covering history of employment, socioeconomic status, level of education,
work experience, use and nonuse of personal protective gadgets. Information on respondents’ wellness and diseases
suffered in the past were also obtained as well as their life styles, using the British Medical Research Council
questionnaire guide. Database for the study was designed and statistical package for social sciences (version 21) was
used to analyze the field data. Inferential statistics such as analysis of variance (ANOVA), Pearson Product Moment
Correlation (PPMC) and t-test was used to test the hypotheses at p <0.05, ascertain the correlation of the variables
and authenticate the analysed results.
2. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The analysis of results in this section of the study, entails evaluating the occupational exposure and perceived
effects of cement dust pollution on factory workers in Bua Cement Factory, Edo State, Nigeria. Table 1 depicts the
demographic characteristics of the study respondents. Table 2 summarizes the perceived health challenges suffered
by the respondents as a result of exposure to cement dust. Furthermore, details of all the multivariate analyses
carried out in the study are shown in Figures 2, 3 and 4. Table 3 presents the paired t-test result for differences in
the prevalence of perceived health ailments between factory workers and control. Figure 5 is a representation on
percentage compliance of factory workers in the use of safety gadgets during work hours; whereas Tables 4 and 5
present the result for tests of the various statistical hypotheses in the study.
The instrument for data collection was used to obtain information from a total of 200 respondents for the
study; factory workers sampled were 110 whereas 90 respondents were sampled from the community used as
control for the study. The demographic data of the respondents were examined and analysed according to their age
range, gender, marital status, education, employment history and other socio-economic details. 22 respondents per
section and in total five sections from the cement factory were sampled and studied. The details from the
demographic data revealed that for age range, factory workers were in this order: 14(12.7%) were 18-30 years,
39(35.5%) were 31-40 years of age, 45(40.9%) were 41-50 years whereas 12(10.9%) of the respondents were within
the age range of 50 and above. More so, respondents from the control community were 22(24.4%) for 18 -30 years,
29(32.3%) were 31-40 years, 18(20%) were 41-50 years whereas the other 21(23.3%) were above 50 years. For
gender, 95(86.4%) of the sampled factory workers were male and 15(13.6%) were female. The control had 57(63.3%)
male and 33(36.7%) female. This implies that male gender had a higher percentage ratio in this study than the
female counterparts.
Analysis on marital status of the respondents revealed that 42(38.2%) of factory workers were single, 59(53.6%)
were married and 9(8.2%) were under the widow/divorced categories. Also revealed in Table 1 was that 23(25.6%)
of the sampled control respondents were single, 54(60%) of them were married, whereas 13(14.4%) were either
widow or had divorced marriage.
Distribution of factory workers on level of education revealed 8(7.3%) had no formal education, 20(18.2%) were
first leaving school certificate holders, 51(46.4%) had the Nigerian senior secondary school certificate; 16(14.5%)
affirmed to be NCE/ND (National Certificate of Education/ National Ordinary Diploma) holders and 15(13.6%)
had either a bachelor degree or HND certificates. Respondents from control revealed that 12(13.3%) had no form of
education, 25(27.8%) were first school leaving certificate holders, 33(36.7%) had SSCE; 11(12.2%) of them affirmed
to be NCE/ND certificate holders; whereas 9(10%) were B.Sc/HND degree holders. The implication of this finding
was that the respondents sampled for the study were knowledgeable enough to understand questions, and answer in
the affirmative issues relating to the subject matter studied.
Journal of Atmosphere, 2020, 3(1): 1-14
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© 2020 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved.
Table-1. Description of sampled respondents by demographic characteristics.
Factor
Factory worker
Community
p-value
Exposed
Unexposed
Total
N=110
N=90
N=200
F
(%)
F
(%)
F
(%)
Age range
18-30
14
12.7
22
24.4
36
18
31-40
39
35.5
29
32.3
68
34
0.085
41-50
45
40.9
18
20
63
31.5
50+
12
10.9
21
23.3
33
16.5
Gender
Male
95
86.4
57
63.3
152
76
0.046
Female
15
13.6
33
36.7
48
24
Marital status
Single
42
38.2
23
25.6
65
32.5
Married
59
53.6
54
60
113
56.5
0.079
Widow/divorced
9
8.2
13
14.4
22
11
Level of Education
No formal education
8
7.3
12
13.3
20
10
0.021
First leaving certificate
20
18.2
25
27.8
45
22.5
Senior secondary school
51
46.4
33
36.7
84
42
NCE/ND
16
14.5
11
12.2
27
13.5
B.Sc/HND
15
13.6
9
10
24
12
Employment status
Unemployment
0
0
48
53.3
48
24
0.013
Employed
110
100
42
46.7
152
76
Years of work experience
2-3 yrs
11
10
11
10
0.082
3-4 yrs
19
17.3
***
***
19
17.3
4-5 yrs
21
19.1
21
19.1
5-6 yrs
42
38.2
42
38.2
6-7 yrs
17
15.4
17
15.4
Years lived in community
2-5 yrs
14
15.6
14
15.6
6-10 yrs
**
**
26
28.8
26
28.8
10-15 yrs
32
35.6
32
35.6
0.063
16-20 yrs
18
20
18
20
Smoking habit
Never a smoker
77
70
49
54.4
126
63
0.352
Ever smoker
18
16.4
19
21.1
37
18.5
Currently a smoker
15
13.6
22
24.5
37
18.5
House ownership
Owned
32
29.1
51
56.7
83
41.5
0.027
Rented
53
48.2
33
36.6
86
43
Others
25
22.7
6
6.7
31
15.5
Age of building
1-5 yrs
18
16.4
9
10
27
13.5
6-10 yrs
29
26.4
16
17.8
45
22.5
0.098
10-15 yrs
23
20.9
13
14.4
36
18
16-20 yrs
26
23.6
37
41.1
63
31.5
20 & above
14
12.7
15
16.7
29
14.5
House material
Mud
23
20.9
36
40
59
29.5
0.022
Concrete
87
79.1
54
60
141
70.5
Roof material
Metal
69
62.7
49
54.4
118
59
0.034
Asbestos
18
16.4
16
17.8
34
17
Aluminum
23
20.9
25
27.8
48
24
Note: ** missing values for factory workers.
*** missing values for community (control).
Journal of Atmosphere, 2020, 3(1): 1-14
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© 2020 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved.
Employment details revealed that a higher percentage of 48(53.3%) of respondents from control were
unemployed as compared to factory workers whom are all engaged as staff of Bua Cement Factory. Years of work
experience were sought for factory workers in order for the researchers to ascertain, if the respondents meet the
criteria for participating in the study. The data revealed that 11(10%) of factory workers had 2-3 years work
experience, 19(17.3%) had 3-4 years, 21(19.1%) had 4-5 years, 42(38.2%) consented to have worked in that
particular factory for 5-6 years and 17(15.4%) confirmed to have worked for 6-7 years.
Statistical analysis of the results in Table 1 which sought to verify the history of smoking habits among the
respondents sampled revealed that higher percentage of factory workers were non-smokers as 77(70%) of them had
never in their life time indulge in smoking tobacco or any other types of cannabis; 18(16.4%) had been smokers for
very long time, whereas 15(13.6%) were recently introduced into smoking.
Data for respondents from control revealed contrary as only 49(54.4 %) of respondents had never for once
smoked tobacco; 19(21.1%) were smokers whereas 22(24.5%) were recently introduced into smoking. Overall,
126(63%) from the total respondents for the study were non-smokers. The result on the analysis of respondents’
house ownership revealed that 83(41.5%) from the total respondents reside in their personal building, 86(43%) were
residing in rented apartments whereas 31(15%) of the respondents affirmed that they reside in other types of house
ownerships. Questionnaire for age of the building resided by the respondents revealed that 18(16.4%) of factory
workers reside in 1-5 years old buildings; 29(26.4%) lives in 6-10 years old buildings, 27(20.9%) of the sampled
workers reside in buildings of 10-15 years old; 26(23.6%) confirmed to reside in buildings that were 16-20 years
whereas for buildings that were above 20 years, only 14(12.7%) of the sampled factory workers affirmed to reside in
such buildings. Respondents from the community used as control revealed that 9(10%) of the sample were living in
buildings that are of 1-5 years old; 16(17.8%) of the respondents from the control community confirmed to reside in
buildings that were built 6-10 years ago; 13(14.4%) of the respondents acknowledged that the buildings which they
reside were constructed 10-15 years back; 37(41.1%) of the sampled community respondents lives in buildings
constructed 16-20 years back whereas another 15(16.7%) of the respondents affirmed to reside in buildings that
were built above 20 years. The finding revealed that the respondents used as exposed and unexposed samples in the
study were of same social strata.
Figure-2. Box plot of percentage distribution of perceived ailments of factory workers (exposed) against control (unexposed).
Journal of Atmosphere, 2020, 3(1): 1-14
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© 2020 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved.
Table-2. Percentage distribution of perceived health challenges suffered by the respondents
Factory worker
Community
Total
Exposed
Unexposed
N=110
N=90
N=200
Raw material
crushing &
processing
Milling &
packing of
raw materials
Storage &
transportation
Clinker
production
Cement
milling &
blending
Cough
Yes
17
77.3
19
86.4
13
59.1
9
40.9
18
81.8
62
68.9
138
69
No
5
22.7
3
13.6
9
40.9
13
59.1
4
18.2
28
31.1
62
31
Chest pain
Yes
13
59.1
12
54.5
8
36.4
14
63.6
15
68.2
38
42.2
100
50
No
9
40.9
10
45.5
14
63.6
8
36.4
7
31.8
52
57.8
100
50
Skin allergy
Yes
16
72.7
14
63.6
8
36.4
15
68.2
17
77.3
20
22.2
90
45
No
6
27.3
8
36.4
14
63.6
7
31.8
5
22.7
70
77.8
110
55
Eye irritation
Yes
11
50
15
68.2
13
59.1
12
54.5
13
59.1
43
47.8
107
53.5
No
11
50
7
31.8
9
40.9
10
45.5
9
40.9
47
52.2
93
46.5
Nose irritation
Yes
19
86.4
15
68.2
14
63.6
16
72.7
15
68.2
55
61.1
134
67
No
3
13.6
7
31.8
8
36.4
6
27.3
7
31.8
35
38.9
66
33
Throat irritation
Yes
8
36.4
13
59.1
11
50
15
68.2
16
72.7
44
48.9
107
53.5
No
14
63.6
9
40.9
11
50
7
31.8
6
27.3
46
51.1
93
46.5
Choking & difficulty in breathing
Yes
10
45.5
12
54.5
18
81.8
7
31.8
13
59.1
18
20
78
39
No
12
54.5
10
45.5
4
18.2
15
68.2
9
40.9
72
80
122
61
Pneumoconiosis
Yes
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
9.1
3
3.3
5
2.5
No
22
100
22
100
22
100
22
100
20
90.9
87
96.7
195
97.5
Carcinoma of stomach
Yes
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
No
22
100
22
100
22
100
22
100
22
100
90
100
200
100
Carcinoma of colon
Yes
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
2.2
2
1
No
22
100
22
100
22
100
22
100
22
100
88
97.8
198
99
Chronic obstructive
Journal of Atmosphere, 2020, 3(1): 1-14
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© 2020 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved.
lung diseas
Yes
2
9.1
0
0
0
0
1
4.5
2
9.1
0
0
5
2.5
No
20
90.9
22
100
22
100
21
95.5
20
90.9
90
100
195
97.5
Restrictive lung disease
Yes
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
4.5
0
0
5
5.6
6
3
No
22
100
22
100
22
100
21
95.5
22
100
85
94.4
194
97
Back pain
Yes
8
36.4
10
45.5
13
59.1
12
54.5
13
59.1
39
43.3
95
47.5
No
14
63.6
12
54.5
9
40.9
10
45.5
9
40.9
51
56.7
105
52.5
High blood pressure
Yes
5
22.7
3
13.6
1
4.5
0
0
1
4.5
19
21.1
29
14.5
No
17
77.3
19
86.4
21
95.5
22
100
21
95.5
71
78.9
171
85.5
Diabetes
Yes
1
4.5
1
4.5
2
9.1
0
0
0
0
8
8.9
11
5.5
No
21
95.5
22
95.5
20
90.9
22
100
22
100
82
91.1
189
94.5
Stress
Yes
20
90.9
16
72.7
15
68.2
14
63.6
19
86.4
39
43.3
123
61.5
No
2
9.1
6
27.3
7
31.8
8
36.4
3
13.6
51
56.7
77
35.5
Journal of Atmosphere, 2020, 3(1): 1-14
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© 2020 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved.
Figure-3. Normal quantile plot to compare means of factory workers against control.
A critical review of the data and study of the statistical analysis in Table 2 as well as Figures 2 and 3 to
ascertain the prevalence of perceived health challenges of the respondents arising from cement dust pollution
revealed that 15 type of ailments were reported among the 200 respondents sampled for the study (see Figure 2).
Among the reported types of ailments, it was observed that factory workers recorded higher percentage when
compared with the percentage of ailments reported by respondents from the community used as control except in
cases like pneumoconiosis, carcinoma of the colon, restrictive lung disease, high blood pressure and diabetes were it
was recorded that respondents from control had higher percentage than those recorded for factory workers. Figure
3 showed a normal quantile plot of compared mean of ailments between factory workers against control. It gave a
clearer picture on the prevalence of the reported perceived ailments between factory workers and control at a
glance. As depicted in Figure 2, it was revealed that factory workers had similar geometry in percentage ratio of
reported cases of ailments with that reported by respondents from control but with noticeable increase except in
ailments such as pneumoconiosis, carcinoma of the colon, restrictive lung disease, high blood pressure and diabetes.
This report is similar with the findings by Baby et al. (2008); Neghab. et al. (2010) and Nkhama (2017).
It was further revealed from Table 2 that factory workers were of more susceptible to the itemized ailments
recorded when compared to respondents from control. However, paired t-test was statistically conducted to
authenticate the result as displayed in Table 2. The analysed t-test as shown in Table 3, revealed that the computed
two tailed t values for the listed ailments recorded for the respondents were greater than 0.05 level. To this end, the
null hypothesis as stated in Ho1, which states that there is no significant difference in the prevalence of perceived
health ailments between factory workers and control was therefore rejected. This means that there is a significance
difference in the prevalence of perceived health ailments between factory workers and control (see Figure 4). This
implies that the prevalence of perceived health ailments arising from cement dust were more felt on factory workers
than the control. This report has substantiated the findings by Gbadebo and Bankole (2007) whom established a
higher proportion of respondents from cement factory suffered from wheeze, allergic reactions that interfere with
breathing, asthma and cough when compared to respondents from the control community. It also corroborated the
finding by Kakooei et al. (2012).
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© 2020 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved.
Table-3. Paired t-test for the differences in the prevalence of perceived health ailments between factory workers and control.
Aliment
Sum
Mean
t
df
Significance
(two tailed)
Cough
Factory workers
100
5.60
2.43
135
0.586
Control
90
4.13
Chest pain
Factory workers
100
3.25
1.75
135
0.388
Control
90
2.17
Skin allergy
Factory workers
100
4.37
1.94
135
0.929
Control
90
2.05
Eye irritation
Factory workers
100
3.11
1.19
135
0.698
Control
90
2.63
Nose irritation
Factory workers
100
3.88
1.79
135
0. 922
Control
90
2.02
Throat irritation
Factory workers
100
3.81
1.45
135
0.829
Control
90
2.69
Choking & difficulty in breathing
Factory workers
100
3.19
1.25
135
0.173
Control
90
2.44
Pneumoconiosis
Factory workers
100
0.36
0.23
135
0.165
Control
90
1.47
Carcinoma of colon
Factory workers
100
0.01
0.70
135
0.106
Control
90
1.63
Chronic obstructive lung disease
Factory workers
100
2.31
1.94
135
0.130
Control
90
0.97
Restrictive lung disease
Factory workers
100
0.62
0.54
135
0.123
Control
90
1.04
Back pain
Factory workers
100
3.42
2.43
135
0.217
Control
90
2.02
High blood pressure
Factory workers
100
0.86
0.59
135
0.149
Control
90
1.14
Diabetes
Factory workers
100
0.68
0.50
135
0.192
Control
90
1.06
Stress
Factory workers
100
4.41
2.94
135
0.356
Control
90
2.16
Figure-4. Hodges-Lehmann shift’s diplot of hypothesized difference between factory workers and control.
The variable used in ascertaining the percentage compliance of factory workers in the use of personal
protective gadgets (PPE) during work hours is shown in Figure 5. Critical examination of Figure 5 revealed that
Journal of Atmosphere, 2020, 3(1): 1-14
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© 2020 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved.
respondents who worked in the storage and transportation section of the factory had the highest percentage (77.3%)
in the use of PPE against respondents from cement milling and blending section with the least percentage ratio of
(54.5%). This finding disagreed with earlier submission by Chukwu and Ubosi (2016) that reported higher
percentage compliance level on the use of safety gadgets by cement factory workers in Lafarge Cement Factory,
Ogun State.
**RMCP= Raw material crushing & processing; MPRM = Milling & packing of raw
materials; ST = Storage & transportation; CP= Clinker production; CMP= Cement
milling & blending.
Figure-5. Percentage compliance in the use of safety gadgets.
H02: There is no significant relationship between the perceived health risk associated with cement dust exposure and factory
workers’ health
Examination of data as displayed in Table 4 revealed a significant relationship between the perceived health
risk associated with cement dust exposure and the health of factory workers at 0.05 level. This implies that a
significant relationship exist between the perceived health risks associated with cement dust exposure and the
health of factory workers. Further indicated in the result is a negative relationship which implies that as the level of
health risks exposure increases resulting from the increase in number of years working in the factory and hours of
work per day, the percentage likelihood of factory workers to develop ailment increases. It is therefore inferred in
this study that health risks associated with cement dust pollution affects workers’ health adversely. Hence, increase
to exposure of high concentration of particulate matters from cement dust can adversely deteriorate factory
workers’ health. This data is in accordance with the findings by Chukwu and Ubosi (2016) and Nkhama (2017).
Other studies in the reviewed literature also established that particulate materials from cement dust contribute to
the deterioration of cement workers’ health (Abrons et al., 1998; Rampuri, 2017; Zeleke et al., 2010).
Table-4. Relationship between perceived health risks associated with cement dust exposure and health of factory workers.
Workers’ health
Variables
r
p-value
Decision
Workers’ perception on health risk associated with cement dust pollution
-0.83
0.017
S
Note: r = Correlation Coefficient; p = Level of signifi cance; S = Significant; NS= Not significant.
Ho3: There is no significant difference between factory work sections and workers health risk exposure to cement dust pollution
Result displayed in Table 5 showed the analysed variables in ascertaining whether or not if significant
difference exists between factory work sections and workers’ health risk arising from exposure to cement dust
pollution. Proper examination of Table 5 revealed that the calculated significant value was higher at 0.05 level;
hence rejecting the null hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference between factory work sections
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© 2020 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved.
and workers’ health risk exposure to cement dust pollution. This finding earlier upheld the finding as captured in
Table 2; where it was revealed that workers from cement milling and blending section were found to have higher
percentage of ailments recorded and majorly reported cases of health challenges when compared with other
sections.
Table-5. Significant difference between factory work sections and workers’ health risk exposure to cement dust pollution
Source
SS
df
MS
f
p-value
Factory workers
27148.0
25
1085.9
7.49
0.0315
Error
580.0
4
145.0
Total
27728.0
29
956.1
3. CONCLUSION
This study investigated the occupational exposure and perceived effects of cement dust pollution on factory
workers in Bua Cement Factory, Edo State, Nigeria. Data for the study was collected from 200 respondents;
comprising of 110 factory workers and 90 respondents from a community with similar socio-economic profile to
that of the factory workers situated at about 21 km farther away from the factory which was used as control. The
findings revealed variation in the perceived occupational and health effects of cement dust exposure on factory
workers. 15 types of ailment were reported among the sampled respondents and factory workers were observed to
have higher percentage of reported ailments when compared with respondents from control. Significant difference
in the prevalence of perceived health ailments between factory workers and control was established. Furthermore, it
was revealed that workers from cement milling and blending section were found to have higher percentage of
ailments recorded with majorly reported cases of health challenges when compared with other sections. Also
established was significant difference between factory work sections and workers’ health risk exposure to cement
dust pollution. Further indicated in the result is that respondents who worked in the storage and transportation
section of the factory had the highest percentage of compliance (77.3%) in the use of safety gadgets during work
hours against respondents from cement milling and blending section with the least percentage ratio of (54.5%).
Worthy of note, is the consideration of the study’s limitations when interpreting the findings. A major limitation of
this study was that the reported ailments were strictly provided for the study by the sampled respondents through
questionnaire administration without medical proofs. Therefore, further research involving chemical
characterization of the exposure and sources of cement dust pollution on the health of factory workers is required to
significantly determine if they impact on occupational health of workers. However, based on the findings of the
study, the following recommendations were made:
Proper need for factory workers enlightenment programs on the associated dangers of cement dust pollution is
required.
Occupational health and safety legislation is needed to be enacted in Nigeria in order to checkmate the excesses
from the negligence of employers.
Pep talk in the form of health education should be routinely carried out on daily base especially on the use of
personal protection equipments; and technical measures to enforce its compliance.
Funding: This study received no specific financial support.
Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Acknowledgement: All authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study.
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