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Employment generation in the Egyptian aquaculture value chain: Sustainable Transformation of Egypt’s Aquaculture Market System (STREAMS) project
Abstract
Aquaculture is an important sector with high potential, not only to provide nutritious food but also to contribute to the national economy, and the aquaculture value chain provides substantial employment generation
opportunities, including jobs for females and youths. The Sustainable Transformation of Egypt’s Aquaculture Market System (STREAMS) project is being funded by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) for three years to support the Egyptian aquaculture sector. The project’s mid-term review and steering committee, which requested an assessment about job creation in the aquaculture value chain to review the existing estimates, reported 14 full-time equivalent (FTE) jobs per 100 t of fish produced (Macfadyen et al. 2011). This study assesses employment generation along the main stages of the aquaculture value chain—namely hatcheries, feed mills, fish farms, and fish trade and retail. It also discusses the potential of job generation across the sector to contribute to the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The study was conducted in April and May 2018 and included surveys in hatcheries (N=40), feed mills (N=14), fish farms (N=234), and fish trading and retailing (N=182) in the five governorates responsible for 80% of the national aquaculture output. We estimate that aquaculture generates 19.56 FTE jobs per 100 t of fish produced along the entire value chain. However, most of these are for males over 30 years old, with few jobs for females and younger people. Most jobs for females are currently generated at the retailing stage. Boosting employment generation across the entire value chain, especially for females and youths, could contribute to the attainment of multiple SDGs related to gender equality (SDG 5) and decent employment (SDG 8).
... This has led to increasing employment in retail markets [4][5][6][7]. According to a recent value chain study by Nasr-Allah et al. [8], aquaculture supply markets sustain 19 full-time employment opportunities (FTE) for every 100 tonnes of fish produced, while highest rates of employment are generated in retail sectors (9.7 FTE/100t). It is among retail markets where substantial numbers of women traders operate as informal and unlicensed retailers [9]. ...
Over the last decade, Egypt’s aquaculture sector has expanded rapidly, which has contributed substantially to per capita fish supply, and the growth of domestic fish markets and employment across the aquaculture value chain. Despite the growing importance of aquaculture sector in Egyptian labour force, only a few studies have explored the livelihoods of Egypt’s women and men fish retailers. Even fewer studies have examined gender-based market constraints experienced by these informal fish retailers. This study uses sex-disaggregated data collected in 2013 in three governorates of Lower Egypt to examine the economic and social constraints to scale of enterprises between women (n = 162) and men informal fish retailers (n = 183). Specifically, we employ linear regression method to determine the correlates of enterprise performance. We found that both women and men retailers in the informal fish market earn low profits and face livelihood insecurities. However, women’s enterprise performance is significantly lower than that of men even after controlling for individual socio-economic and retailing characteristics. Specifically, the burden of unpaid household work and lack of support therein impedes women’s ability to generate higher revenues. These findings strengthen the argument for investing in understanding how gender norms and attitudes affect livelihood options and outcomes. This leads to recommendations on gender-responsive interventions that engage with both men and women and enhance the bargaining power and collective voice of fish retailers.
Although, Lake Nasser fisheries is an important source of fish for residents of Aswan in Upper Egypt, limited information available about the value chain performance for those working in the chain . The current study aimed to improve understanding of fisheries value chain performance in Lake Nasser. Individual interviews and focus group discussions with fishers, traders, and processors used to collect quantitative and qualitative information about financial performance, employment creation and critical factors influencing performance of each node across the chain.
Tilapias account for 75%, while pebbly fish (Alestes spp.) and tigerfish (Hydrocynus spp.) account for 13% of capture. Fish processing is an important subsector. Some fish species (mainly tigerfish and pebbly fish) are only consumed after going through a salting process. Fishers obtained a relatively low percentage (49%) of the final consumer price. The average catch per fisher per day was 20 kg and the average total cost in the three fishing harbours was EGP 5210/t. One hundred tons of fish caught and sold provides an average 29.99 Full-Time equivalent jobs (FTE).
The current study suggests that the fishery is under pressure from overfishing. Critical factors facing the fisheries sector and influencing profitability are numerous. This value chain study improve our understanding of the performance of fisheries sector in Lake Nasser and identified limiting factors and action needed to support fisheries development in the Lake.
WorldFish initiated a selective breeding program in Abbassa—Egypt to develop and produce the genetically improved Nile tilapia strain known as “Genetically Improved Abbassa Nile tilapia (GIANT)”, adopting the same technology used for the Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia (GIFT), in Asia. WorldFish provided the Ninth Generation (G9) broodstock of the GIANT to 11 Broodstock Multiplication Centers (BMC’s) in five governorates; these centres then disseminated improved mixed‐sex fry to 160 tilapia hatcheries which supplied all‐male fry to 1,500 fish farms in 2017. We present results of an impact assessment of the G9 of GIANT in 83 of these fish farms in four Egyptian governorates (Kafr El‐Sheikh, Fayoum, Behera and Alexandria). Results indicate that the use of GIANT in all governorates achieved significantly higher (18.8%) fish yields (12.3%–26.4%) and 15.7% lower FCR (feed conversion ratio), reflecting a positive impact on their net profits compared with those who used commercial strains. Overall, fish farmers who stocked GIANT had significantly higher average fish sales (5,567 US/ha) in all governorates. However, when comparing within governorates, the difference was significant only in Fayoum and Alexandria noting a mixed performance of the GIANT strain. The mixed performance indicates that some hatcheries may have crossed the different strains, which lowered the performance differences. To get an objective analysis of the performance of the GIANT, it is recommended that similar assessment be undertaken with new generations of the strain supported by on‐farm performance trials.
Although aquaculture is the fastest growing food producing sector in the world and generates significant employment opportunities at multiple scales, men and women are not necessarily able to participate in aquaculture value chains in the same way, and benefits may not be evenly distributed between them. This paper aims to elucidate current knowledge of gendered engagement in and returns from aquaculture value chains. It does so by presenting a review of existing evidence on gender issues in aquaculture value chains along five key dimensions: gender division of labor, distribution of benefits, access and control over assets and resources, gender and social norms, power relations and governance. Subsequently, the potential results for value chain performance and potential upgrading pathways are presented. The review shows that there is limited high quality sex-disaggregated data regarding aquaculture value chains, in particular related to the distribution of benefits in the chain. It also shows that evidence is limited regarding other aspects of the quality of women's participation in and returns from these chains. Existing evidence, however, indicates gendered imbalances in all five dimensions assessed, with formal and informal barriers, including gender norms, limiting women's equal engagement and returns. The specifics were found to vary by context and to be shaped in relation to factors such as class, needs, and social and religious norms. The impact of gender inequity on value chain performance was also found to be an area of literature for which evidence is still limited. While the upgrading pathways as described in the literature may result in economic upgrading, they may have limited effect on improving inequity or social conditions in the chain, if they do not take underlying inequities in institutions into account. Together the evidence indicates the need for research to elucidate practical ways to increase women's engagement in and returns from aquaculture value chains through addressing formal and informal barriers to women's control over assets, including shifting underlying gender norms and relations towards gender equality.
Bali Island is one of the mangrove reclaimed zone of Sunderban, West Bengal, inhabited mostly by tribal communities. Lack of employment opportunities and limited access to market as well as urban areas are characteristic features of livelihood of the people. The devastating cyclone “Aila” which hit the island during 2009, resulted in ingress of saline water, degradation of land and water resources, loss of biodiversity, destruction of animal and farm infrastructure which further led to major loss to the livelihood system. Aimed at restoring livelihood of these tribal people, aquaculture based interventions were initiated by the ICAR-Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture (ICAR-CIFA), Bhubaneswar, during the period 2013-14 among 51 tribal families in Bali Island. The interventions were effected by creation of alternative livelihood options through composite fish culture (single component), fish-cum-duck culture (multi-component) and hatchery production of fish seed (single component). Scientific management of the aquaculture ponds helped to achieve an average fish production of 4 - 6 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ from a benchmark of around 1 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. One lakh fingerlings of Labeo rohita and L. bata were also produced through FRP carp hatchery. In addition, fish-cum-duck farming trials also created nutritional security through egg, duck meat and fish production. The economic impact assessment revealed that investment of `11.05 lakhs by ICAR-CIFA, resulted in a net incremental wealth generation of `20.67 lakhs. For a typical tribal family of average 5 members, 67% alternative livelihood support was achieved through duck-cum-fish farming. © 2017, Indian Council of Agricultural Research. All rights reserved.
After decades of government and donor-run programs that sustained extensive aquaculture systems, Zambia has experienced market-led capital investments that have facilitated significant growth in production. The emerging commercial sector is characterized by investments in intensive cage and pond-based aquaculture of mostly non-native tilapia species, which today makes up the bulk of annual production. To better understand this transformation we used a Global Value Chain (GVC) analysis to examine evidence of upgrading trajectories and various forms of coordination that govern the chain. A quantitative survey of smallholder farmers in Northern Province (n = 223) was designed to surface insights on the productivity of small-scale farmers and evaluate their position of strength within the chain. The survey reveals the extensive nature of rural, small-scale fish farming and suggests that farmers produce mostly for subsistence purposes and in isolation from the commercializing value chain. We also provide data from 22 key informant interviews with lead firms and stakeholders in the aquaculture sector to provide insights on upgrading and the forms of coordination between nodes and firms. Our findings show that upgrading in value chains is taking place in all its forms, i.e. through investments in high value products, improvements in operations that produce more efficiently, adopting upstream or downstream chain functions, and utilizing competencies from different chains into aquaculture-related operations. Much of this is possible because of increasing vertical integration of operations and tighter contractual relationships between firms and nodes. The value chain and markets in Zambia are thus dichotomized, where on one side there is an extensive smallholder sector, supported by government-run services, and little access to inputs and markets; and on the other side, a burgeoning commercial sector with a few pioneering lead firms who have shaped the commercial value chain and who dominate total production. Finally, we combined various government statistics to reveal the growing fish supply per capita rate between 2004 and 2014. We also provide data on fish imports to locate the Zambian aquaculture value chain in the larger global picture and present some insights into what many key informants in the industry feel is an increasing obstacle facing the sector. Analyzing upgrading and coordination trends is critical in understanding the emerging aquaculture value chains in sub-Saharan Africa.
Aquaculture has been practiced in Egypt for millennia, but modern approaches have only recently been adopted to maximize its output. Today, aquaculture production in Egypt is the largest in Africa with about one million tonnes per annum. In this review, different freshwater and marine fish species that are cultured in Egypt are reviewed; the most important species are the tilapias, followed by mullets and carps. Current practices for aquaculture in Egypt are highlighted, which include extensive, semi-intensive and intensive aquaculture systems, integrated aquaculture systems, aquaponics and rice-field aquaculture, desert aquaculture and mariculture. This review focuses on the constraints that threaten fast growing and sustainable development of aquaculture industry, such as production costs, availability of feed and seed, lack of current technologies for feed production and domestic regulations. Also, the future perspectives with regard to overcoming of these obstacles are presented.
A link for the full text: http://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/jTugsvdrTgVDvj8E3FJN/full
Continuous increase of population in Egypt, limited fresh water, poor maintenance and low efficiency of irrigation systems lead to a real burden on the Egyptian natural water resources. Accordingly, for Egypt, land and water resources management is considered an absolutely strategic priority. In this study, a linear optimization model is developed to maximize the net annual return from the three old regions of Egypt. Data for 28 crops in five years from 2008 to 2012 are being analyzed. The spatial variations of crops, irrigation water needs, crop yields and food requirements are incorporated in the model. The results show that there is a significant reduction in the allocated areas for onion, garlic, barley, flax, fenugreek, chickpeas, lentil and lupine since they are considered as non-strategic crops. On the other side, the allocated areas for strategic crops such as wheat, maize, clover, rice, sugar products and cotton remained almost the same to satisfy their actual food requirements. However, crops with high net returns such as tomatoes have increased substantially. The trend for the gross net benefit is decreasing and is expected to reach a lower value in year 2017. Different approaches and scenarios are analyzed. The developed model proposes a change in the cropping pattern in the old lands of Egypt to increase the gross net return without adding further any other expenses.
The main objective of this article is to study the poverty, employment, investment, and education relationships in Egypt. The article presents a macro-level analysis and concentrates on promoting economic growth from below and restructuring economic activities in favor of deprived regions. The study starts with a general overview of poverty in Egypt that establishes the beginning for the macro exploration so as to recommend macro policies for fighting poverty. The results ascertain that the decrease in the earnings of individuals can describe the correlation between poverty and employment. Economic growth is believed to be the principal motivation for job creation and extension of social programs that aim at overcoming poverty.
Malnutrition is one of the biggest challenges of the 21st century, with one in three people in the world malnourished, combined with poor diets being the leading cause of the global burden of disease. Fish is an under-recognised and undervalued source of micronutrients, which could play a more significant role in addressing this global challenge. With rising pressures on capture fisheries, demand is increasingly being met from aquaculture. However, aquaculture systems are designed to maximise productivity, with little consideration for nutritional quality of fish produced. A global shift away from diverse capture species towards consumption of few farmed species, has implications for diet quality that are yet to be fully explored. Bangladesh provides a useful case study of this transition, as fish is the most important animal-source food in diets, and is increasingly supplied from aquaculture. We conducted a temporal analysis of fish consumption and nutrient intakes from fish in Bangladesh, using nationally representative household expenditure surveys from 1991, 2000 and 2010 (n = 25,425 households), combined with detailed species-level nutrient composition data. Fish consumption increased by 30% from 1991–2010. Consumption of non-farmed species declined by 33% over this period, compensated (in terms of quantity) by large increases in consumption of farmed species. Despite increased total fish consumption, there were significant decreases in iron and calcium intakes from fish (P<0.01); and no significant change in intakes of zinc, vitamin A and vitamin B12 from fish, reflecting lower overall nutritional quality of fish available for consumption over time. Our results challenge the conventional narrative that increases in food supply lead to improvements in diet and nutrition. As aquaculture becomes an increasingly important food source, it must embrace a nutrition-sensitive approach, moving beyond maximising productivity to also consider nutritional quality. Doing so will optimise the complementary role that aquaculture and capture fisheries play in improving nutrition and health.
Value-Chain Analysis of Egyptian Aquaculture
Graeme Macfadyen , Ahmed Mohamed Nasr Allah , Diaa Abdel Reheem Kenawy , Mohamed Fathi Mohamed Ahmed , Hussien Hebicha , Ahmed Diab , Samy Mohmed Hussein , Ramadan Mohamed Abouzied , and Gamal el Naggar .
Executive Summary
Egypt’s aquaculture production (705,490 tonnes in 2009) is by far the largest of any African country and places it 11th in terms of global production. The aquaculture sector makes a significant contribution to income, employment creation and food security in the country, all of which are national priority areas given low per capita income levels, rising population, worsening food security indicators, and official unemployment levels which have remained at around 10% for the last ten years.
Despite the fact that the aquaculture sector in Egypt is now a mature one, having developed over a period of more than 30 years, the economic performance of the sector is not well understood or documented. To help improve this understanding this report presents the outputs of a value-chain study for the sector. The study focused on four of the most important governorates in terms of aquaculture production: Kafr el Sheikh, Behera, Sharkia, and Fayoum. Individual interviews and focus group discussions with fish farmers, traders/wholesalers, and retailers, were used to collect quantitative and qualitative information about financial performance, employment creation, and the critical factors impacting on the performance of each sub-sector of the value-chain.
The farmed fish value-chain in Egypt is strongly based on the production of tilapia, with mullet a key second species, and with small quantities of carp and catfish also contributing to farm production. Some key features of the value-chain are that:
• There are virtually no exports of farmed fish, and so the value-chain is a short and simple one compared to aquaculture value-chains in some other countries;
• There is no processing at all of farmed fish i.e. all fish is sold in whole form, with no value-addition either through primary processing into fillets or into other secondary processed products (e.g. ready meals, etc);
• Most fish are sold either fresh on ice (in summer months or if sales are made far from farms) or fresh with no ice (in winter months and/or if sales are made close to farms). There is a growing trend however for the sale of live tilapia, motivated by the fact that fish prices have fallen in real terms over the last ten years and higher prices can be achieved for live product;
• There is a very short time-period from harvest to final consumption by the consumer (due to the live/fresh nature of all sales), and very low rates (<1%) of post-harvest losses (which is in contrast to many wild fisheries value-chains in developing countries); and
• Direct employment creation throughout the value-chain is significant, at around 14 full-time equivalents for every 100 tonnes of fish produced and sold. This employment is fairly evenly divided between those over and under 30 years of age, and is mostly accounted for by men, although some female employment is created in the retail sub-sector. Considerable additional indirect employment creation results from sector activity through jobs created through the production of inputs used by the value-chain i.e. jobs in feed mills, hatcheries, ice plants, suppliers of vehicles, water pumps and generators, building contractors, and manufacturers of boxes used during transport.
Constructing costs and earnings models for each link in the value chain, allows for a comparison across the various sub-sectors, and for performance to be assessed both individually in each governorate and across all governorates. Some key findings from the data analysis made possible by the fieldwork completed during the study are:
• Fish farmers obtain a high percentage (72%) of the final consumer price, due to the lack of any exports, the short-supply chain, and the lack of value-addition in the value-chain;
• The average total production cost across all fish-farms is LE 7,769/tonne. This represents the break-even weighted sales price i.e. the average price of all fish sold by a farm must be more than LE 7,769/tonne if the farm is to make a profit;
• Feed costs represent a very high percentage in all governorates of operational costs for the farming sub-sector (67% of operational costs);
• Operational costs represent a very high percentage of total costs for all sub-sectors in the value-chain i.e. fixed are relatively small;
• In the farming sub-sector operational profits are 29% of sales and net profits 22% of sales. Corresponding figures for the trader/wholesaler sub-sector are 4.1% and 3.9%, and for the retail sub-sector are 7.1% and 6.8%; and
• Operational profits generated throughout the value-chain are LE 4,460/tonne of fish produced/sold, net profits are LE 3,736/tonne, and value-added (net profits plus wage earnings) is LE 4,619/tonne, with the farming sub-sector contributing more than 60% of total profits/value-added for all of these indicators.
While the above figures confirm that the industry is sustainable and generates considerable profits and employment, this study suggests that the sector as a whole is under increasing financial pressure. Critical factors facing the sector and impacting on profitability, can be grouped into those related to inputs, those related to production, and those related to the marketing, transportation and sale of product.
With regards to inputs the price and quality of fish feed have had a critical impact on costs and profits. Prices have risen by 200-250% over the last 7 years. The poor quality of fish fry, lack of available land for expansion in many governorates and short lease periods, poor quality of water, lack of access to capital, and the lack of electricity and high fuel costs for generators and vehicles, are all additional problems of considerable importance.
At the production level, critical factors affecting value-chain performance are: poor practices with regards to feed management, farm design and construction, fish health management, and stocking densities; a growing season which is restricted to about 8 months due to the colder weather in the winter months; absence of improved strains of fish that been shown to have major impacts on production in other countries; and a widespread lack of effective representative organisations for any of the sub-sectors.
With regards to the marketing and distribution of fish, the study showed that critical factors are: declining fish prices in real terms; consumer preference for wild fish and a distrust of filleted/processed products; strongly fluctuating seasonal prices (with declines in prices towards the end of the year coinciding with the major harvesting period); poor fish hygiene and handling practices throughout the value-chain; the lack of any value-addition through processing; the lack of any exports; and in some cases poor road networks impacting on the ability to get fish to markets.
This report provides a large number of recommendations for support to the aquaculture sector in Egypt, which flow directly from these challenges and critical factors. Some of the necessary actions should be the responsibility of the sector itself, some the responsibility of government, and some the responsibility of donors and NGOs. What is clear is that for meaningful improvements in value-chain performance, substantial action and investments will be needed by many stakeholders.
Citation of this report is : Macfadyen, G et al. 2011. Value Chain Analysis of Egyptian Aquaculture. Project Report 2011- 54. The WorldFish Center. Penang, Malaysia. 84 pp.
Securing food for growing populations while minimizing environmental externalities is becoming a key topic in
the current sustainability debate. This is particularly true in the Mediterranean region, which is characterized by
scarce natural resources and increasing climate-related impacts.
This paper focuses on the pressure Mediterranean people place on the Earth ecosystems because of their food
consumption and sourcing patterns and then explores ways in which such pressure can be reduced. To do so,
it uses an Ecological-Footprint-Extended Multi-Regional Input-Output (EF-MRIO) approach applied to 15 Mediterranean countries. Results indicate that food consumption is a substantial driver of the region's ecological deficit, whereby demand for renewable resources and ecosystems services outpaces the capacity of its ecosystems to provide them. Portugal,Malta and Greece are found to have the highest per capita food Footprints (1.50, 1.25 and 1.22 global hectares (gha), respectively), while Slovenia, Egypt and Israel have the lowest (0.63, 0.64 and 0.79 gha, respectively).With the exception of France, all Mediterranean countries rely on the biocapacity of foreign countries to satisfy their residents' demand for food.
By analyzing the effect of shifting to a calorie-adequate diet or changing dietary patterns,we finally point out that the region's Ecological Footprint – and therefore its ecological deficit – could be reduced by 8% to 10%.
This paper examines the impact of community based fish culture in seasonal floodplains on fish production, consumption, income, and food security of the participating households in Bangladesh. An analysis was performed using a randomly selected 46 % of the households from the three project and control floodplains; data were collected using longitudinal surveys on a seasonally, quarterly and monthly basis for the years 2007, 2008 and 2009. Fish production, income and food security of the participating households was improved due to the adoption of an equitable and inclusive multi-stakeholder approach introduced by the project. Average fish production increased from 124 kg/ha/yr. to 464 kg/ha/yr. The introduced community-based fish culture approach generated 3.74 times more fish income for households in the project sites in comparison to the control sites. Per capita monthly fish consumption increased from 1.26 kg to 2.31 kg in the project sites, which was 32 % higher than the control sites. Project implementation reduced the vulnerability of local beneficiaries, particularly of the landless and poor fishermen, by creating additional fishing opportunity for up to 6 months of the year. Promotion of the community based fish culture in seasonal floodplains may thus be useful in bringing about positive changes in the overall floodplain productivity and livelihood gains for the poor people of Bangladesh.
The Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC)-funded Improving Employment and Income through Development of Egypt’s Aquaculture Sector (IEIDEAS) project was implemented by WorldFish in partnership with CARE Egypt and the Egyptian Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation from 2011 to 2014 and later extended to November 2015.
The project focused on four governorates with significant aquaculture production—Kafr El Sheikh, Behera, Sharkia and Fayoum—and one governorate, El Mineya, where aquaculture was a new activity. The main objective was to increase aquaculture production by 10% and create 10,000 jobs. Other objectives included improving profitability for existing producers, securing employment for women fish retailers, expanding aquaculture in El Mineya and improving the policy environment for aquaculture.
The project provided best management practice training to around 2400 fish farmers and released a faster-growing strain of Nile tilapia, the Abbassa improved strain, to the sector through broodstock multiplication centers and hatcheries, reaching around 500 fish farms in 2014. Six women fish retailer organizations were formed under existing community development associations and were supported through training, small grants for equipment such as iceboxes, and self-help loan schemes (through village savings and loan associations), while in Fayoum a dedicated market space was established.
The project also provided support to existing and prospective fish farmers in El-Mineya and facilitated the establishment of an aquaculture innovation platform, resulting in six working groups focused on the main policy issues affecting the aquaculture industry, while the main aquaculture producer organization was given capacity-building support.
In 2015, the project team focused on assessing the quantitative impacts of the IEIDEAS project through three field-based surveys: a best management practice adoption survey to determine whether fish farmers had applied the recommended practices, a fish farm and farmer impact assessment survey, and a retailer survey to assess the degree to which project-assisted retailers had benefitted.
The project resulted in greatly increased profitability for fish farms (equivalent to around USD 16,000 in extra profit generated per farm, USD 27 million total value added by the project). Increased profitability was mainly achieved by cost savings through more efficient feed management rather than increased production. This will result in reduced environmental impacts (greenhouse gas emissions and nutrient discharges). However, the directly attributable increase in fish production was only 200 metric tons (t) per year. Earlier studies had established that 14 fulltime equivalent (FTE) jobs are created along the aquaculture value chain for each 100 t per year of production, suggesting that only 28 FTE had been added by the project by the end of 2014. Clearly, this fell well short of the target of 10,000 jobs. However, this target is likely to be met as a result of project interventions as the use of the Abbassa strain expands and farmers invest their profits from improved practices in intensification of production.
The work with women retailers has increased understanding of this vulnerable group and led to the development of a toolkit of approaches that could be scaled out to other communities. The main benefit achieved appears to have been the empowerment that they gained from being able to work together in a group and advocate for their rights with local authorities and other value chain actors, such as wholesalers.
6
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Different types of fish farms were tested in El Mineya and could serve as models for other non-aquaculture governorates and for integrated aquaculture-agriculture systems, while the innovation platform was an effective vehicle for policy progress in a difficult political environment.
The IEIDEAS project has resulted in a follow-up project, also supported by SDC and managed by WorldFish in collaboration with CARE and the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation. The 3-year Sustainable Transformation of Egypt’s Aquaculture Market System (STREAMS) started in December 2015 and has three main activity areas:
• continued support for best management practice training and dissemination of the Abbassa strain, with more responsibility taken by strengthened regulatory authorities and producer organizations • the creation of opportunities for small-scale aquaculture and integrated aquaculture-agriculture through pilot-testing and policy change • improved market prospects for aquaculture products through support of retailers and provision of market information.
Most research on gender difference or inequities in capture fisheries and aquaculture in Africa and the Asia-Pacific focuses on the gender division of labour. Emerging research on globalization, market changes, poverty and trends in gendered employment within this sector reveals the need to move beyond this narrow perspective. If gleaning and post-harvesting activities were enumerated, the fisheries and aquaculture sector might well turn out to be female sphere. A livelihoods approach better enables an understanding of how employment in this sector is embedded in other social, cultural, economic, political and ecological structures and processes that shape gender inequities and how these might be reduced. We focus on four thematic areas – markets and migration, capabilities and well-being, networks and identities, governance and rights – as analytical entry points. These also provide a framework to identify research gaps and generate a comparative understanding of the impact of development processes and socioecological changes, including issues of climate change, adaptation and resilience, on gendered employment. Without an adequate analysis of gender, fisheries management and development policies may have negative effects on people’s livelihoods, well-being and the environment they depend on, or fail altogether to achieve intended outcomes.
A review of women’s access to fish in small-scale fisheries, by Angela Lentisco and Robert U., Lee.
Fisheries and Aquaculture Circular No. 1098. Rome, Italy.
ABSTRACT
Women play a critical role in every link of the value chain in small-scale fisheries, although their
best-known roles are in processing and marketing of fish and other fishery products. This
perception of the highly gender-segregated division of labour (men fishing / women processing)
has shaped the generalized approach in supporting development initiatives for small-scale fisheries.
More often than not, this approach targets men as fishers, and women as processors and marketers
of fishery products. However, this generalization has also made fisheries governance blind to
women’s other valuable inputs to the sector. In fact, their roles can and should go beyond postharvest
and marketing. However, the lack of utilization of their additional contribution has deterred,
for example, women’s participation in fisheries resource management and policy decision-making.
The present review aims to move policy attention beyond the generalized, and perhaps limited,
perception of women as fish processors and marketers and in this way enhance their participation in
fisheries resource management and decision-making. The study describes the different ways
women have access to fish in small-scale fisheries: as primary users (when they fish by themselves
or they finance fishery operations), secondary users (when they access fish through kinship or other
close relationships), and tertiary users (when they use capital to buy fish directly from fishers or
traders). The review provides case studies to illustrate some of the issues that tend to keep women
in marginalized positions along the value chain. Factors and processes that can contribute to
improve women’s participation and decision-making in small-scale fisheries, such as those that
challenge conventional approaches based on traditional or “typical” gender roles and obsolete
institutional arrangements, are also given. The document also discusses how participation can be
improved by raising awareness on gender equality issues along the value chain through applying a
gender lens, by providing appropriate support to women’s organizations, including formal
recognition of their professional activities, by understanding the socioeconomic context and the
particular needs of small-scale fisheries, by giving due attention to power and power relationships,
and by taking greater account of the contribution of women in fisheries. As neither women nor men
form homogenous groups, the challenge is even greater for women to have access to productive
tools and services, which if secured can give them a greater say and control over fisheries
resources, thereby increasing their social capital and financial capital. These reflections can be
introduced in existing resource management arrangements such as co-management or communitybased
management, and can probably empower women and improve their participation in fishery
resource management decision-making.
The reflections in this review can and should be used as guidance and discussion material to
develop interventions under the Global Assistance Programme in support of the implementation of
the Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the Context of Food
Security and Poverty Eradication.
Traditionally, most fisheries development projects have focused on technical aspects, lacking consideration of gender issues during the identification, implementation and monitoring stages. This paper highlights the importance of undertaking gender mainstreaming as part of fisheries interventions and summarizes, as an example, the gender strategy of the Spanish-funded FAO Regional Fisheries Livelihoods Programme for South and Southeast Asia (RFLP). As part of this strategy, RFLP developed a handbook for gender mainstreaming in fisheries project cycle management and organized a workshop to discuss and validate the tools contained in the handbook as well as to come up with best practices for gender mainstreaming in fisheries project management and policy making. Participants agreed on factors that should be in place for effective gender mainstreaming in the fisheries sector, like improvement of social networks, promotion of women's leadership and business skills, improved access and control over resources and social capital, among others. The need for in-depth research during project design and flexibility during implementation were also highlighted as important for successful interventions. At the macro-level, of note is that amongst the participating RFLP countries, only Cambodia has a specific gender policy for the fisheries sector.
This paper introduces the 2012 round of the Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey (ELMPS), a publicly-available nationally representative longitudinal household survey. We describe the key characteristics of the ELMPS, including the samples and questionnaires for each round. Additionally, we examine the attrition processes observed in the panel and discuss the creation of weights to correct for attrition. We compare our data to other statistical sources for Egypt to evaluate the sample’s representativeness. To demonstrate how the ELMPS allows for an improved understanding of the labor market, we compare unemployment trends using the ELMPS and other data on unemployment in Egypt.
This study was carried out to evaluate the value chain performance of the aquaculture feed sector in Egypt, in terms of value addition, employment and profitability. The strengths and weaknesses of each link of the value chain were assessed and appropriate upgrading, management and development strategies were suggested. Quantitative data were collected for each link in the value-chain through structured questionnaires that were drafted and distributed to the key players in the sector; 25 fish feed mills and 34 fish farms covering different geographical and production regions.
Expansion of Egypt's aquaculture industry has been matched by the development of a large number of tilapia hatcheries all producing sex-reversed all-male fry and fingerlings. In order to map the fish seed value chain in Egypt, operators of fifty tilapia hatcheries in four governorates (Kafr el-Sheikh, Behera, Sharkia and Fayoum) were interviewed. Tilapia hatcheries use a range of technologies, from simple hapa-based systems in open ponds to heated, greenhouse-covered, tanks systems to advance and lengthen the spawning season. Most of the tilapia seed production (>95%) is sold as fry rather than fingerlings and sold directly to production farms 88%, while only 12% of seeds sold through fry/fingerling traders. Some of the hatcheries are part of an integrated fish farm with both hatchery and production systems. The average size of hatchery was 4.1feddans. Almost half of the
Egypt's aquaculture production (921,585 tonnes in 2010) is by far the largest of any African country and places it 11 th in terms of global production. Despite the fact that the aquaculture sector in Egypt is now a mature one having developed over a period of more than 30 years, the economic performance of the sector is not well understood or documented. To help improve this understanding WorldFish Centre conducted a value-chain study for the sector in September 2011. The study completed individual interviews and focus group discussions with fish farmers, traders/wholesalers, and retailers in four of the most important governorates in terms of aquaculture production: Kafr el Sheikh, Behera, Sharkia, and Fayoum. The study mapped the value-chain, and generated a wide range of quantitative data for each link in the value-chain on operational and financial performance (e.g. gross output values, variable and fixed costs, operational and net profit margins, value-added generation), and on employment creation (by gender, age and full-time/part-time). Qualitative information on the critical factors impacting on the performance of each sub-sector of the value-chain was also collected, and this enabled recommendations to be made about necessary actions both by those within the value-chain and by those outside of it (i.e. government), to improve value-chain performance. The study showed how value-chain analysis can be a useful tool to describe sector performance and to make evidence-based recommendations for improvements. INTRODUCTION Egyptian fish production is sourced from capture fisheries (inland and marine) and aquaculture. Total fish production increased from 724,300 tonnes in 2000 to 1,304,794 tonnes in 2010. These increases were primarily obtained from significant increases in aquaculture which represented 70% of total production in 2010 compared to 47% in 2000 [1]. Total aquaculture production in Egypt reached 919,585 tonnes in 2010 with a total market value of USD 1,546 million. Egyptian aquaculture is the largest of any African country, and ranked 11 th in terms of global aquaculture production [2]. Eighty-five percent of aquaculture production comes from earthen ponds, with the rest produced in fish cages, rice fields and intensive farms [1]. Aquaculture production is strongly concentrated in low lying land around the northern lakes (Manzala, Brulous, Edko and Maryout). According to official statistics, tilapia accounted for 55.5% by volume of aquaculture production in 2010, mullets 29.9%, carp 10.5%, African catfish 2.5%, and European seabass and gilthead seabream 1.5% [1]. Although the aquaculture sector in Egypt is now mature, having developed over several decades, the financial and social performance of the sector is not well understood or documented. Value-chain analysis is potentially a useful tool to address this gap. It has become increasing prominent as a form of analysis in the fisheries and aquaculture sectors [3, 4]. The increasing interest in value-chain analysis is due to the fact that it provides an excellent means to: assess the relative importance of factors affecting competitiveness, and the costs and earnings of those involved in the value chain;
Small-scale mud crab aquaculture was introduced in East Africa in late 1990s as a mangrove friendly aquaculture to improve the livelihood of coastal communities through organised community groups (OCGs). The OCGs approach was a strategy aimed at ensuring benefits to the village and regulating access to the open access resource (land in mangrove forests). A social and economic assessment was conducted at Majaoni, Ma-kongeni, Ihaleni and Dabaso along the Kenyan coast. The paper looks at the social and economic characteristics of the groups, their management systems, contribution of mud crab aquaculture to the livelihoods of local communities and policy issues related to the interventions. There is wider involvement of the mijikenda community in mud crab farming; however, the level of women participation is low. A strong market link exists between the groups and the different market outlets, where hotels and exporters offer the highest prices. Regional price variations existed and may need networking between the groups. The paper concludes that national policies may need to be redirected to support small-scale aquaculture development and ensuring capacity building for women, operation and management of groups, provision of extension services, data management and pro-vision of user rights for communities working in the mangrove environment.
Egypt's aquaculture production (705,490 tonnes in 2009) is by far the largest of any African country and places it 11th in terms of global aquaculture production. The aquaculture sector in Egypt is now a mature one having developed over a period of more than 30 years, but the financial performance of the sector is not well understood or documented, even though value-chain analysis provides a methodological tool to do so. To provide a better understanding of the sector, a WorldFish Center study completed in September 2011 and funded by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, conducted a value-chain analysis of the pond fish farming sector. The sector concentrates on the production of tilapia with additional production of mullet, catfish and carp from earthen ponds. The study mapped the value-chain and showed that there is no processing and virtually no export of farmed fish, a short time-period from harvest to final consumption by the consumer (typically around one day) due to the live/fresh nature of all sales, and very low rates (< 1%) of post-harvest losses. Quantitative data were collected for each link in the value-chain on operational and financial performance (e.g. gross output values, variable and fixed costs, operational and net profit margins, value-added generation), and on employment creation (by gender, age and full-time/part-time). The results showed that the industry generates a combined LE 4619 ($775) of value-added (i.e. profits plus wages/earnings) for farmers, traders and retailers for each tonne of fish produced. Employment generation is also significant with around 14 full-time equivalent jobs generated for every 100 tonnes of fish produced. However, the sector as a whole is under increasing financial pressure. Critical factors impacting on the performance of the value-chain relate to inputs (most importantly to rising feed costs and the poor quality of fry), to production (most importantly to poor practices with regard to feed management, farm design and construction, fish health management, and stocking densities), and to the marketing, transportation and sale of product (most importantly to declining fish prices in real terms, consumer preference for wild fish and a distrust of filleted/processed products, fluctuating seasonal prices, poor hygiene and handling practices, the lack of value-addition through processing, and the lack of exports). This paper highlights the benefits of value-chain analysis as a useful tool to understand sector performance and argues for its wider use in identifying critical factors and actions to support aquaculture sector improvements.
In the grow-out phase, twelve (12) 500m2 ponds were used in the study to determine the growth, yield and survival of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus L.) in ponds. The treatments consisted of the following: I- direct stocking at size #22; II- stocking at size #14; and III- stocking at size #10. The various treatments and replicates were assigned randomly in the ponds following a completely randomized design. Treatment III gave the highest extrapolated fish yield (3,799 kg ha-1) followed by Treatment II (3,065 kg ha-1) then Treatment I (2,738 kg ha-1). Analysis of variance on fish yield showed significant difference between Treatments I and III (P
This study evaluated the socioeconomic benefits generated by the small-scale fisheries sector based on a socioeconomic modeling approach using the value chain plugin in the Ecopath with Ecosim (EwE) software system. Based on an EwE ecosystem model for the Baía Formosa area in Rio Grande do Norte State (Northeast Brazil), a value chain with 14 components was described, including four producers (divided by vessel size categories: sailboat, small, medium, and large engine boat), four processors and distributors, two retailers (in two categories , street markets and restaurants), and three different final consumers (local consumers, subsistence, and tourism). The data was obtained through face-to-face interviews (n = 154) performed between February and November 2014 using the snowball method and tracking the fish around nearby cities. The total revenue from the primary producers (i.e. fishers) was estimated to be US 44.5 million per year, contributing around US$ 16 million to the GDP. Overall, the price per ton increased three times from it was landed, while employment generation on land was twice that found at sea. Local consumers obtained roughly 66% of production, while subsistence fishers consumed 28% of what was caught. The lowest portion went to tourist consumption (6%). Fish production flowed to local markets and fishers' tables, revealing a clear bias toward the consumption of seafood by local dwellers and the subsistence of local fishers. Few studies have quantified the role of small-scale fishing in providing household income, job creation, and contribution to the GDP. By neglecting such economic and social reliance on natural resource conservation and under the current lack of conservation policies, not only may overfishing become a threat to fishers, but policy makers, managers, and users may inadvertently compromise the continuation of the activity.
Aquaculture is the fastest-growing animal food production sector worldwide and is becoming the main source of aquatic animal food in human consumption. Depletion of wild fishery stocks, rising global populations, continuing demand for food fish, and international trade has driven aquaculture's tremendous expansion during the last decades - in terms of production volume and value. Farmed aquatic products are among the most widely traded commodities in the world food economy. Aquaculture has mainly been developed in valuable fertile coastal environments and caused large-scale land use changes, destruction and loss of coastal wetlands and pollution of waters and soils. This article presents an overview of the relevance, current status and distribution of aquaculture in global and regional scales and depicts its key environmental impacts. Quantitative assessment of the spatial extent, distribution, and dynamics of aquaculture is of utmost importance for a sustainable management of our planet's land and water resources ensuring human and environmental health. The article points to the potential of remote sensing to detect, map and monitor large-scale aquaculture areas and gives a complementary review of satellite remote sensing studies addressing the observation of aquaculture including site selection, site detection and monitoring of related impacts on the environment.
The substantial role of women in fisheries is overlooked in management and policy. Fortunately, it is gaining recognition despite a lack of quantitative data describing the scale of participation and contribution. This work summarizes existing knowledge on women's participation in marine fisheries globally, and estimates their contribution in the Pacific. While women's role varies between geographic regions, in the Pacific, women account for 56% of annual small-scale catches, and resulting in an economic impact of 363 million USD (total revenue: 110 million USD). Recognizing and quantifying the role of women in fisheries has profound implications for management, poverty alleviation and development policy.
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