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A test of social learning and parent socialization perspectives on the development of perfectionism
Abstract
Theory and research indicate that perfectionism can be intergenerationally transmitted by, among other things, social learning (e.g., parental imitation) and controlling forms of parental socialization. The current study extends this literature by combining and testing these ideas in a mediation model whereby child reported self-oriented and socially prescribed is the result of both parent reported self-oriented and socially prescribed per-fectionism and child perceptions of parental conditional regard. One hundred and fifteen parent-child dyads (parent Mage = 46.93 years, SD = 5.41; child Mage = 14.11 years, SD = 1.87) completed a standardised questionnaire. Path analysis revealed that child self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism were positively predicted by parent self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism and that these relationships were accounted for, in part, by child perceptions of parental conditional regard. Our findings indicate that combining social learning and parent socialization perspectives provide a fuller understanding of the intergenerational transmission of perfectionism.
... Both ecological system theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) and family system theory (Cox & Paley, 2003) highlight the family as an important (micro)system factor consisting of parent-child interaction and marital interaction, contributing to shaping many aspects of children, including their social adjustment. Previous empirical researchers have well documented intergenerational learning and its allowance of the transmission of parents' own knowledge, beliefs, values, emotions and behaviors to children; the influence may be subtle without awareness, subsequently affecting children's academic, emotional, or socialized development (e.g., Bleys et al., 2016;Curran et al., 2020;Gadsden, 1995;Gniewosz & Noack, 2012;D. Li et al., 2019;Liu et al., 2021;Min et al., 2012). ...
... A line of research has demonstrated the intergenerational transmission of gender role attitudes (Copen & Silverstein, 2008;Min et al., 2012), anxiety and emotion regulation (D. Li et al., 2019;Liu et al., 2021), self-criticism (Bleys et al., 2016), perfectionism (Curran et al., 2020), and also academic-related values like achievement goals (Friedel et al., 2007;Gniewosz & Noack, 2012;Gonida et al., 2007;Jodl et al., 2001;Kahraman & Sungur-Vural, 2012). No matter what is learned, the learning process is always the same. ...
... Aligned with previous research on intergeneration learning (e.g., Bleys et al., 2016;Curran et al., 2020;D. Li et al., Fig. 3 Profile Differences in ASE and ASH Note. ...
Based on the theory of social comparison and intergenerational learning, parents’ social comparison, occurring frequently in families during the process of education, may play a critical role in determining their children’s academic adjustment. Few researchers have explored this issue, let alone the multiple types of parent social comparison and their interactive effects. The aim of this research was to identify profiles of parent social comparisons and their links with child social comparisons, academic self-efficacy, and academic self-handicapping, thus addressing the gap and presenting a simplified comprehensive picture of the collaborative effects of parents’ social comparison from a person-centered perspective. A total of 368 adolescents were surveyed. Latent profile analysis identified four distinct profiles in terms of perceived parent social comparisons: indifferent (low all), overwhelmed (high all), positive (high upward identification and downward contrast), and negative (high upward contrast and downward identification). A Bolck–Croon–Hagenaars analysis revealed that adolescents whose parents’ social comparison patterns were perceived as positive reported higher self-efficacy and less self-handicapping, whereas those whose perceptions of parent social comparison patterns were classified as negative reported the reverse. Moreover, adolescents tended to exhibit social comparison types similar to those of their parents. Findings serve as a reminder for parents and educators of the downsides and benefits of various types of social comparison and provide insight into how social comparison transmits via social interaction from an intergenerational perspective.
... Furthermore, perfectionism can be observed earlier in children and adolescents and it is a risk factor for poor psychological adjustment later in life (Flett et al. 2002). Therefore, it is important to provide more information about the role of individual and environmental determinants of perfectionism development (see : Curran 2018;Curran et al. 2020). This will for the design interventions for prevention and early treatment of the dysfunctional characteristics which links perfectionism to poorer mental health outcomes. ...
... Hamachek 1978). Although personality traits have been very effective in differentiating dimensions of perfectionism, parental influence is a well-established factor in theories regarding the development of perfectionism (Curran et al. 2020;Walton et al. 2018). ...
Multidimensional perfectionism is characterized by striving for flawlessness, the setting of high-performance standards and self-criticism. Both individual and environmental factors contribute to the development of this characteristic. So far, there was no data on perfectionism in Brazilians. This study aimed to gather evidence about the relationships between the dimensions of perfectionism (through the Almost Perfect Scale-Revised), personality traits (NEO-FFI Inventory) and parental bonds (parental bonding). Brazilians (n = 516) aged approximately 25.3 years (SD = 7.82) participated in this study. As a result, the discrepancy was predicted by the level of neuroticism and maternal overprotection. Perfectionistic standards were predicted by the levels of conscientiousness and openness. The order was predicted only by the levels of conscientiousness. These results are evidence of the difference between the dimensions of perfectionism and their developmental correlation as well as their adaptive and maladaptive aspects. Longitudinal studies should complement and confirm these findings. Other limitations are discussed.
... Perfectionism is considered to be a personality trait in which one strives for high standards on task performance and is accompanied by a tendency toward critical selfassessment [5,6]. Because of perfectionists' high standards and motivation to excel, they may look for or compare flaws and deficiencies in products with excessive care when shopping, so they can make accurate decisions and superior choices [1]. ...
Perfectionism is an important personality trait that affects people’s behavior, especially consumption behavior. In our study, we aimed to investigate whether perfectionists show different preferences in their consumption choices compared with non-perfectionists and to explore the potential psychological mechanisms mediating this effect. Through four studies, we found that perfectionists are less likely to buy imperfect products, including those that are close to expiry and that have defective functioning, flawed appearance, and incomplete after-sales service than non-perfectionists, and are more likely to avoid choosing imperfect products. In addition, we found a mediating effect of dichotomous thinking and intolerance of uncertainty on this effect to explain the behavioral preferences of perfectionists in their purchasing choices. Manufacturers and marketers can benefit from the results of this study by implementing targeted production requirements and marketing strategies based on the consumer behavior preferences of perfectionists.
... Perfectionism has been proved may trigger academic burnout, but only the exceed standards on self would lead to such result (Ding, Zhong, & Guo, 2019;Luo et al., 2016). Perfectionism is a personality trait that an individual will strive to achieve flawlessness in everything not limited to work or study (Curran, Hill, Madigan, & Stornaes, 2020). It was examined in various studies that perfectionism has led to complex and diverse psychological functioning, but different perfectionism forms may lead to a contrasting outcome. ...
... Perfectionism has been proved may trigger academic burnout, but only the exceed standards on self would lead to such result [3], [4]. Perfectionism is a personality trait that an individual will strive to achieve flawlessness in everything not limited to work or study [5]. It was examined in various studies that perfectionism has led to complex and diverse psychological functioning, but different perfectionism forms may lead to a contrasting outcome. ...
... In addition to parent perfectionism, research also suggests that there are other important factors regarding how parents influence the development of perfectionism in their children, namely, attachment styles [18], parental expectations [19], parental control [20] and, especially, parenting styles [21]. ...
Perfectionism is a significant transdiagnostic process related to the development and maintenance of several psychological disorders. The main models of the development of perfectionism focus on early childhood experiences and postulate that parental relation is an important factor for understanding this construct in children. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between child and parental perfectionism, seeking to evaluate the empirical support of the Social Learning Model and the Social Expectations Model and children’s perception of parenting styles. The present study included 119 children (51.2% girls, Mage = 11.67 years) and their parents. Data were collected through administration of several self-report measures. The results show a relationship between the majority of the same parent and child perfectionism dimensions, thus providing supportive evidence for the Social Learning Model. Concerning the analysis of the role of gender in the transmission of perfectionism, observed fathers’ perfectionism only relates with the sons’ perfectionism, and mothers’ perfectionism relates with daughters’ perfectionism. Our findings allow for a deeper understanding of the role of the perception of an authoritarian parenting style in the development of maladaptive perfectionism. Mother and fathers’ perceived parenting styles contribute more to daughter than son perfectionism. The results contribute to expanding the understanding of the role of parental factors in the development of perfectionism.
... There is extensive empirical evidence for the role of parent factors in perfectionism development. For example, perceived parental conditional regard (Curran, Hill, Madigan, & Stornaes, 2020) and perceived parental control (Damian et al., 2021) are related to facets of perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. In addition, perfectionism develops partly through imitating parents' behavior (e.g., Appleton, Hall, & Hill, 2010). ...
Perfectionism is a multidimensional personality trait whose facets differentially relate to indicators of psychological functioning, such as global self-esteem. There has been some theoretical disagreement whether perfectionism affects global self-esteem, or vice versa. This question merits renewed attention due to increasing efforts to prevent the development of maladaptive perfectionism facets in adolescents. Additionally, recent research has indicated a role of self-esteem for predicting personality development. This study aimed to clarify the longitudinal relations of multidimensional perfectionism and global self-esteem. A sample of 707 early adolescents participated in two measurement points two years apart. Global self-esteem positively predicted personal standards, negatively predicted doubts about actions, and did not predict concern over mistakes beyond baseline. Perfectionism facets did not longitudinally predict global self-esteem. These findings provide the first evidence for a role of global self-esteem in perfectionism development. Addressing early adolescents’ self-esteem may aid in preventing the development of maladaptive perfectionism facets.
... As an individual personality characteristic, perfectionism, defined as "the tendency to hold and pursue unrealistically high goals," 13 is one promising construct for investigation in college students who live in an environment that supports and appreciates high-achieving tendencies. [14][15][16][17][18][19][20] A recent meta-analysis that examined college students in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom from 1989 to 2016 indicates that perfectionism has increased over the past three decades, citing "more competitive environments, more unrealistic expectations, and more anxious and controlling parents than generations before" as the main reasons. 14 Although the construct has been recognized as a significant predictor of mental health, [21][22][23][24][25] it has not received much attention in the college student mental health and substance use literature. ...
The study examined the relationship between perfectionism (categorized by adaptive, maladaptive, and non-perfectionist clusters), substance use (i.e., drinking and smoking), and mental health in a large sample of college student (N = 841; M = 19.6 years of age) in a time-lagged design. Students were classified using a two-step cluster analysis where subscales are used in hierarchical and k-means cluster analysis. Results revealed that adaptive perfectionists reported better mental health compared to non-perfectionists and maladaptive perfectionists. Additionally, adaptive perfectionists reported lower levels of alcohol use compared to non-perfectionists. Differences between mental health and alcohol use by cluster were found over time, but not for smoking behaviors. Across all participants, substance use did not mediate the relationship between perfectionism and mental health. Future research directions as well as practical implications are discussed.
The entry of students into middle school constitutes a life transition that involves adaptive challenges at the psychological, academic and social levels. The provision of autonomy support and avoidance of controlling tactics by parents can be effective resources to help the students through this transition. The purpose of the present study was twofold: (1) to identify distinct profiles of parenting support of autonomy and of control, and (2) to examine whether membership to these profiles relates to students’ school adjustment once in middle school. Latent profile analysis served to analyze data collected from a sample of 672 students in the spring of their sixth grade and one year later at middle school. Results revealed a three-class model of parenting: Autonomy Centered group (67%), Control Centered group (8.0%), Autonomy/Control Balanced group (25%). School adjustment was poorest for students whose parents belong to the Control Centered group and generally the highest for those whose parents belong to the Autonomy Centered group.
The social expectations model posits that children become perfectionistic in response to the contingent self-worth associated with parental expectations and parental criticism. Alternatively, the social learning model contends children emulate their parents’ perfectionistic tendencies through observation and imitation. However, inconsistent findings and underpowered studies have obscured understanding of these important models. We addressed this by conducting the first meta-analytic test of the social expectations and social learning models. Our search yielded 46 studies (N = 13,364). Results showed parental expectations had unique positive relationships with self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism. In contrast, parental criticism was only uniquely associated with socially prescribed perfectionism. Additionally, parents’ self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism displayed one-to-one correspondence with offspring’s self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism.
Perfectionism is a personality characteristic that has been explored for its implications in mental health; reviews and meta-analyses were conducted to synthesize research findings. This study systemically synthesizes the perfectionism literature using a text-mining approach. Co-word analysis and Dirichlet Multinomial Regression topic modeling were performed on a total of 1,529 perfectionism abstracts published from 1990 to 2019. Analysis revealed that perfectionism research is closely connected with “disorder,” with “symptom” being the most frequently addressed issue. Topic-modeling results found a total of 15 topics represented perfectionism research of the past three decades. Most articles were published in psychology journals, with social and clinical psychology subdisciplines publishing perfectionism articles most frequently. There were overlaps in research topics by journal subdisciplines, while differences were also observed. This study provides a panoramic view of perfectionism literature and highlights frequently and infrequently explored areas that could be considered in future research endeavors.
Perfectionism predicts cognitions, emotions, and behaviors in sport. Nonetheless, our understanding of the factors that influence its development is limited. We sought to address this issue by examining the role of coach and parental pressure in the development of perfectionism in sport. Using three samples of junior athletes (16-19 years; cross-sectional: N = 212; 3-month longitudinal: N = 101; 6-month longitudinal: N = 110), we examined relations between coach pressure to be perfect, parental pressure to be perfect, perfectionistic strivings, and perfectionistic concerns. Mini meta-analysis of the combined cross-sectional data (N = 423) showed that both coach pressure and parental pressure were positively correlated with perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. In contrast, longitudinal analyses showed that only coach pressure predicted increased perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns over time. Overall, our findings provide preliminary evidence that coaches may play a more important role in the development of junior athletes' perfectionism than parents.
In the current chapter we review research examining perfectionism in sport, dance, and exercise with a view to comparing the possibility that perfectionism is a hallmark feature of elite athletes versus the existence of a “perfectionism paradox.” That is, while sport, dance, and exercise may encourage a focus on perfection, those that exhibit perfectionism are vulnerable to motivation, wellbeing, and performance difficulties. We start by providing a brief historical overview of perfectionism and the hierarchical model of perfectionism. We then describe three different approaches to examining perfectionism; an independent effects approach, tripartite model, and 2 × 2 model. Research examining perfectionism using these three approaches is reviewed alongside their description. The review of the 2 × 2 model includes a new and extensive reanalysis of all existing published research examining perfectionism is sport, dance, and exercise. We close the chapter by summarising the likely consequences of perfectionism in sport, dance, and exercise, and advocating consideration of the perfectionism paradox to researchers and practitioners.
Objective:
Over 50 years of research implicates perfectionism in suicide. Yet the role of perfectionism in suicide needs clarification due to notable between-study inconsistencies in findings, underpowered studies, and uncertainty about whether perfectionism confers risk for suicide. We addressed this by meta-analyzing perfectionism's relationship with suicide ideation and attempts. We also tested whether self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism predicted increased suicide ideation, beyond baseline ideation.
Method:
Our literature search yielded 45 studies (N = 11,747) composed of undergraduates, medical students, community adults, and psychiatric patients.
Results:
Meta-analysis using random effects models revealed perfectionistic concerns (socially prescribed perfectionism, concern over mistakes, doubts about actions, discrepancy, perfectionistic attitudes), perfectionistic strivings (self-oriented perfectionism, personal standards), parental criticism, and parental expectations displayed small-to-moderate positive associations with suicide ideation. Socially prescribed perfectionism also predicted longitudinal increases in suicide ideation. Additionally, perfectionistic concerns, parental criticism, and parental expectations displayed small, positive associations with suicide attempts.
Conclusions:
Results lend credence to theoretical accounts suggesting self-generated and socially based pressures to be perfect are part of the premorbid personality of people prone to suicide ideation and attempts. Perfectionistic strivings' association with suicide ideation also draws into question the notion that such strivings are healthy, adaptive, or advisable.
Objective:
The clinical significance of 2 main dimensions of perfectionism (perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns) was examined via a meta-analysis of studies investigating perfectionism in the psychopathology literature.
Method:
We investigated relationships between psychopathology outcomes (clinical diagnoses of depression, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and eating disorders; symptoms of these disorders; and outcomes related to psychopathology, such as deliberate self-harm, suicidal ideation, and general distress) and each perfectionism dimension. The relationships were examined by evaluating (a) differences in the magnitude of association of the 2 perfectionism dimensions with psychopathology outcomes and (b) subscales of 2 common measures of perfectionism.
Results:
A systematic literature search retrieved 284 relevant studies, resulting in 2,047 effect sizes that were analysed with meta-analysis and meta-regression while accounting for data dependencies.
Conclusion:
Findings support the notion of perfectionism as a transdiagnostic factor by demonstrating that both dimensions are associated with various forms of psychopathology.
Goodness-of-fit (GOF) indexes provide "rules of thumb"—recommended cutoff values for assessing fit in structural equation modeling. Hu and Bentler (1999) proposed a more rigorous approach to evaluating decision rules based on GOF indexes and, on this basis, proposed new and more stringent cutoff values for many indexes. This article discusses potential problems underlying the hypothesis-testing rationale of their research, which is more appropriate to testing statistical significance than evaluating GOF. Many of their misspecified models resulted in a fit that should have been deemed acceptable according to even their new, more demanding criteria. Hence, rejection of these acceptable-misspecified models should have constituted a Type 1 error (incorrect rejection of an "acceptable" model), leading to the seemingly paradoxical results whereby the probability of correctly rejecting misspecified models decreased substantially with increasing N. In contrast to the application of cutoff values to evaluate each solution in isolation, all the GOF indexes were more effective at identifying differences in misspecification based on nested models. Whereas Hu and Bentler (1999) offered cautions about the use of GOF indexes, current practice seems to have incorporated their new guidelines without sufficient attention to the limitations noted by Hu and Bentler (1999).
This paper reviews theory and research on the developmental origins of several widely studied personality vulnerabilities to psychopathology that represent the self-definitional (self-criticism, autonomy, and perfectionism) or relatedness (dependency and sociotropy) domains identified in Blatt's (2008), Blatt and Shichman's (1983), and Beck's (Beck et al., 1983) 2-polarities models of personality. We examine the evidence for the effects of both parenting and peer relationships. We conclude that there is a robust relationship between negative parenting behaviors and the 5 personality vulnerabilities reviewed here which pertain to both self-definition and relatedness, with recent evidence suggesting a possible effect of peer relationships over and above parents. The available evidence suggests that all of the negative developmental experiences studied to date contribute to the development of all the personality vulnerabilities reviewed here. In light of this, we suggest possible mechanisms through which adverse developmental experiences may affect personality factors pertaining to self-definition and relatedness. We also suggest that there may be commonalities across the developmental experiences, such that they result in similar developmental consequences. Although there is now much research on the development of these personality factors, there is still relatively little research examining the roles of factors other than parents and peers, including siblings, romantic partners, environmental changes, and genetics, and we conclude by proposing a revised model of the development of self-definition and relatedness in order to outline future directions for this research field.
Structural equation modeling (SEM) is a vast field and widely used by many applied researchers in the social and behavioral sciences. Over the years, many software pack-ages for structural equation modeling have been developed, both free and commercial. However, perhaps the best state-of-the-art software packages in this field are still closed-source and/or commercial. The R package lavaan has been developed to provide applied researchers, teachers, and statisticians, a free, fully open-source, but commercial-quality package for latent variable modeling. This paper explains the aims behind the develop-ment of the package, gives an overview of its most important features, and provides some examples to illustrate how lavaan works in practice.
This article attempted to demonstrate that the perfectionism construct is multidimensional, comprising both personal and social components, and that these components contribute to severe levels of psychopathology. We describe three dimensions of perfectionism: self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism. Four studies confirm the multidimensionality of the construct and show that these dimensions can be assessed in a reliable and valid manner. Finally, a study with 77 psychiatric patients shows that self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism relate differentially to indices of personality disorders and other psychological maladjustment. A multidimensional approach to the study of perfectionism is warranted, particularly in terms of the association between perfectionism and maladjustment.
We tested whether perfectionism dimensions interact with specific stressors to predict depression. A depressed patient sample (N = 51) and a general psychiatric sample (N = 94) completed measures of perfectionism, hassles, and depression. Subjects in Sample 2 also completed other personality measures to assess the amount of unique variance in depression. Partial support was obtained in that in both samples self-oriented perfectionism interacted only with achievement stressors to predict depression. Socially prescribed perfectionism interacted with interpersonal stress in Sample 1 and with achievement stress in Sample 2 to predict depression. Several personality variables, including socially prescribed perfectionism, accounted for unique variance in depression. The results suggest that perfectionism dimensions are associated with depression and may constitute specific vulnerability factors.
The authors tested whether perfectionism dimensions interact with specific stress to predict depression over time. A sample of 103 current and former patients completed measures of perfectionism and depression at Time 1 and measures of stress and depression 4 months later. After controlling Time 1 depression, self-oriented perfectionism interacted only with achievement stress to predict Time 2 depression. Socially prescribed perfectionism did not interact with achievement or social stress to predict Time 2 depression, but it did predict Time 2 depression as a main effect. The results provide support for the contention that perfectionism dimensions are involved in vulnerability to depression over time.
We examined patterns of perfectionism among college students and their biological parents in a sample of 188 undergraduates from intact families. Ratings (self vs. other) showed the greatest degree of convergence when daughters were either the target or the rater. Levels of self-oriented perfectionism in students were positively associated with the levels characterizing the same-sex parent, but unrelated (father-daughter) or negatively related (mother-son) to the levels characterizing the opposite-sex parent. Finally, parents' other-oriented perfectionism was not significantly related to students' socially prescribed perfectionism.
The present study investigated the role of parental (adaptive and maladaptive) intrapersonal perfectionism as a predictor of parental psychological control and the role of parents' psychological control in the intergenerational transmission of perfectionism in a sample of female late adolescents and their parents. First, parental maladaptive perfectionism, but not parental adaptive perfectionism, significantly predicted parents' psychological control even when controlling for parents' neuroticism. This relationship was found to be stronger for fathers than for mothers. Second, a significant direct relationship was found between mothers' and daughters' maladaptive perfectionism but not between fathers' and daughters' maladaptive perfectionism. Third, process analyses showed that, for both mothers and fathers, psychological control is an intervening variable in the relationship between parents' and daughters' maladaptive perfectionism.
Maladaptive perfectionism has been postulated as an intervening variable between psychologically controlling parenting and adolescent internalizing problems. Although this hypothesis has been confirmed in a number of cross-sectional studies, it has not yet been examined from a longitudinal perspective. Findings from this 3-wave longitudinal study show that parental psychological control (as indexed by parent and adolescent reports) at age 15 years predicted increased levels of maladaptive perfectionism 1 year later. Maladaptive perfectionism, in turn, predicted increased levels of adolescent depressive symptoms again 1 year later and acted as a significant intervening variable between parental psychological control at Time 1 and depressive symptoms at Time 3. Multigroup analyses show that the model tested was consistent across gender for paternal psychological control but not for maternal psychological control. Suggestions for future research are outlined.
Perfectionism purportedly bestows vulnerability to distress via an interaction with achievement and interpersonal stress. We test this by assessing athletes’ perfectionism and subsequent self-conscious emotion following repeated competitive failure. Sixty college athletes undertook three 4-minute competitive sprint trials on a cycle ergometer and were instructed that they had performed the worst of all competitors on each occasion. Measures of perfectionism (self-oriented and socially prescribed) were taken at baseline and measures of pride, guilt, and shame were taken at baseline and three times following each successive failure. Across the successive failures, self-oriented perfectionism predicted within-person trajectories of decreasing pride and increasing guilt. Socially prescribed perfectionism predicted within-person trajectories of increasing shame and guilt. Furthermore, a combination of high self-oriented and high socially prescribed perfectionism predicted the steepest within-person increases in shame and guilt. Findings support an achievement specific vulnerability hypothesis whereby those higher in perfectionism experience pronounced distress following competitive failure.
Introduction:
Trait emotional intelligence (trait EI) is a relevant construct that could promote positive development in adolescents and may predict a number of affect-related outcomes. However, studies focused on its antecedents are still scarce. The main aim of this study is to examine the intergenerational transmission of trait EI from parents to adolescents and the mediating role of parental autonomy support and psychological control.
Methods:
Our sample was comprised of 152 cohabiting families, with adolescents (75 males and 77 females) between 16 and 17 years old (M = 16.45; SD = 0.50).
Results:
Results suggested that paternal and maternal trait EI positively predicted paternal and maternal autonomy support and psychological control, and adolescent trait EI was predicted by maternal trait EI, adolescent perception of parental autonomy support and adolescent perception of parental psychological control. Adolescent perception of parental autonomy support and adolescent perception of parental psychological control were shown to act as mediators between adolescents' trait EI and paternal and maternal trait EI.
Conclusions:
The results extend the literature on the role of parents in the development of trait EI and confirm the relevance of trait EI for affect-related outcomes.
Despite evidence highlighting the debilitating nature of perfectionism in sport, few studies have examined how it develops. In explaining the development of perfectionism, theorists emphasize controlling parental practices in family contexts replete with conditional regard. This study, then, tested the role of parental conditional regard in the development of perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns among adolescent athletes. It also tested the mediating role of competence contingent self-worth in these associations. One hundred and forty-eight (Mage = 15.12 years, SD = 1.64) adolescent athletes competing at the regional level or above in their primary sport completed measures of multidimensional perfectionism, competence contingent self-worth, and parental conditional regard. In line with hypotheses, structural equation modeling showed that perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns were positively predicted by parental conditional regard. As expected, competence contingent self-worth mediated both relationships. The findings are the first to suggest that conditional regard from parents is important in the development of perfectionism among adolescent athletes because these behaviors contribute to contingencies of self-worth that are based on competence.
From the 1980’s onwards, neoliberal governance in the US, Canada, and the UK has emphasized competitive individualism and people have seemingly responded, in kind, by agitating to perfect themselves and their lifestyles. In this study, we examine whether cultural changes have coincided with an increase in multidimensional perfectionism in college students over the last 27 years. Our analyses are based on 164 samples and 41,641 American, Canadian, and British college students, who completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Hewitt & Flett, 1991) between 1989 and 2016 (70.92% female, Mage = 20.66). Cross-temporal meta-analysis revealed that levels of self-oriented perfectionism, socially prescribed perfectionism, and other-oriented perfectionism have linearly increased. These trends remained when controlling for gender and between-country differences in perfectionism scores. Overall, in order of magnitude of the observed increase, our findings indicate that recent generations of young people perceive that others are more demanding of them, are more demanding of others, and are more demanding of themselves.
Studies show that the development of perfectionism in adolescence is associated with psychologically controlling parenting. The current study extends research in this area by examining the relationship between a specific aspect of psychologically controlling parenting, parental conditional regard, and two dimensions of perfectionism, self-critical perfectionism and narcissistic perfectionism. Three hundred and sixteen adolescents (M age = 15.69 years, s = 1.23) completed a standardised questionnaire. Structural equation modelling revealed that both self-critical perfectionism and narcissistic perfectionism were positively predicted by parental conditional regard. Our findings are the first to suggest that parent socialization characterised by guilt inducement and love withdrawal may be common to the development of these two distinct dimensions of perfectionism.
Parents often try to promote internalization of valued behaviors by making their regard contingent on children's enactment of those behaviors. We present findings suggesting that while parental conditional regard (PCR) might lead to enactment of expected behaviors, this practice has the following costs: (1) stressful internalization of parental expectations, (2) rigid and low-quality performance (3) self-esteem fluctuations and poor well-being, and (4) negative affect towards parents. Importantly, our research suggests that positive PCR (i.e., giving more regard when children comply) is quite harmful despite its seemingly benign nature. Several studies suggest that: (1) there is an inter-generational transmission of PCR (2) parents' contingent self-esteem and a competitive world view enhance parents' inclination to use PCR, and (3) parents use of PCR increases when they have infants who are easily frustrated. Overall, the findings suggest that PCR is a harmful practice originating, at least partly, from stressful parental experiences. © 2014 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. All rights are reserved.
This study is part of a larger research investigation of perfectionism in gifted college students. Employing a qualitative interview design, this study examined factors contributing to the development of two dimensions of perfectionism, socially prescribed and self-oriented, in gifted college students. Findings indicated that exposure to parental perfectionism and an authoritarian parenting style led to the perception of stringent expectations, self-worth tied to achievement, and a fear of disappointing others, which collectively influenced the development of socially prescribed perfectionism. Factors contributing to the development of self-oriented perfection included mastery of early academic experiences without effort, no previous experience with academic failure, and modeling of parental perfectionism. Implications for future research and recommendations for parents and educators of gifted children are suggested.
Perfectionism is a multidimensional construct that has only recently received greater attention in parents and their children. Perfectionism is often shared among family members, and one developmental model indicates that anxious parents may help predispose perfectionism in youths. This study examined relationships between parent and youth perfectionism and between parent perfectionism and youth internalizing psychopathology among adolescents aged 11–17 years. Both relationships were examined for mediation by parent internalizing psychopathology. Maternal perfectionism was found related to sons’ self-oriented perfectionism and internalizing psychopathology. Maternal self-oriented perfectionism was most closely related to sons’ self-oriented perfectionism, but maternal socially prescribed perfectionism was most closely (and inversely) related to sons’ internalizing psychopathology. Maternal obsessive compulsive symptoms also mediated the relationship between mothers’ and sons’ self-oriented perfectionism. Several possible pathways between parent and child perfectionism are discussed, including information transfer, modeling, and excessive control.
Understanding communication processes is the goal of most communication researchers. Rarely are we satisfied merely ascertaining whether messages have an effect on some outcome of focus in a specific context. Instead, we seek to understand how such effects come to be. What kinds of causal sequences does exposure to a message initiate? What are the causal pathways through which a message exerts its effect? And what role does communication play in the transmission of the effects of other variables over time and space? Numerous communication models attempt to describe the mechanism through which messages or other communication-related variables transmit their effects or intervene between two other variables in a causal model. The communication literature is replete with tests of such models. Over the years, methods used to test such process models have grown in sophistication. An example includes the rise of structural equation modeling (SEM), which allows investigators to examine how well a process model that links some focal variable X to some outcome Y through one or more intervening pathways fits the observed data. Yet frequently, the analytical choices communication researchers make when testing intervening variables models are out of step with advances made in the statistical methods literature. My goal here is to update the field on some of these new advances. While at it, I challenge some conventional wisdom and nudge the field toward a more modern way of thinking about the analysis of intervening variable effects.
Discusses the characteristics, antecedents, and behavioral symptoms of normal and neurotic perfectionism. Normal perfectionists set realistic standards for themselves, derive pleasure from their painstaking labors, and are capable of choosing to be less precise in certain situations. Neurotic perfectionists, on the other hand, demand of themselves a usually unattainable level of performance, experience their efforts as unsatisfactory, and are unable to relax their standards. The development of neurotic perfectionism tends to occur in 1 of 2 kinds of emotive environments: (a) nonapproval or inconsistent approval in which parents fail to establish explicit performance standards for the child, or (b) parental expressions of conditional positive approval far exceed those of unconditional positive approval. Normal perfectionism tends to develop through either positive modeling (the close identification of the child with an emotionally important person) or negative modeling (the child rejects the behavior of an emotionally important person). Some symptoms describe both normal and neurotic perfectionists, but neurotic perfectionists experience them with greater intensity and for a longer duration. Four specific goals are stated which have proven useful in helping clients to change their neurotic perfectionism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
ObjectivesThe purpose of the present study was to investigate the origins of self-oriented, socially prescribed, and other-oriented perfectionism in elite junior athletes. This was achieved by examining the relationships between parents’ and athletes’ multidimensional perfectionistic tendencies and testing two models of perfectionism development: the social learning and social expectations models.MethodsTwo samples of junior athletes and their parents (Sample 1, n = 302; Sample 2, n = 259) completed a self-report version of Hewitt and Flett’s (2004) Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale. Athletes also completed a second version of this scale, which captured their perceptions of parents’ perfectionism.ResultsRegression analyses revealed that athletes’ self-oriented perfectionism was predicted by parents’ self-oriented perfectionism, athletes’ other-oriented perfectionism was predicted by parents’ other-oriented perfectionism, and athletes’ socially prescribed perfectionism was predicted by parents’ socially prescribed and other-oriented perfectionism. Regression analyses also revealed that athletes’ perceptions of their parents’ perfectionism, but not parents’ self-reported perfectionism, emerged as a significant predictor of athletes’ own perfectionism. Finally, moderation analyses revealed that the intergenerational transmission of perfectionism between parents and their athletic child was not limited to same-sex, parent–child dyads.ConclusionsBased on the results, it appears the development of perfectionism dimensions in athletes can be explained by social learning and social expectations pathways, depending on what dimension of perfectionism is being examined. The findings highlight the complex nature of perfectionism development in elite junior sport.
We examined the idea that adolescents' perceptions of their mothers as using parental conditional positive regard (PCPR) to promote academic achievement are associated with maladaptive self feelings and coping. A study of 153 adolescents supported the hypothesis that PCPR predicts self-aggrandizement following success and self devaluation and shame following failure, which then predict compulsive over-investment. PCPR functioned as a unique predictor of maladaptive self feelings and coping also when the effects of perceived parental conditional negative regard or psychological control were controlled for. The findings suggest that the experience of one's mother as using conditional positive regard to promote achievement leads to a non-optimal self-esteem dynamics, in which people vacillate between feelings of grandiosity following success and self-derogation and shame following failure, which in turn promote a rigid and stressful mode of coping. Thus, the practice of PCPR, although seemingly benign, appears to carry significant emotional and coping costs for adolescents.
The present article presents an integrative theoretical framework to explain and to predict psychological changes achieved by different modes of treatment. This theory states that psychological procedures, whatever their form, alter the level and strength of self-efficacy. It is hypothesized that expectations of per- sonal efficacy determine whether coping behavior will be initiated, how much effort will be expended, and how long it will be sustained in the face of ob- stacles and aversive experiences. Persistence in activities that are subjectively threatening but in fact relatively safe produces, through experiences of mastery, further enhancement of self-efficacy and corresponding reductions in defensive behavior. In the proposed model, expectations of personal efficacy are derived from four principal sources of information: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. The more de- pendable the experiential sources, the greater are the changes in perceived self- efficacy. A number of factors are identified as influencing the cognitive processing of efficacy information arising from enactive, vicarious, exhortative, and emotive sources. The differential power of diverse therapeutic procedures is analyzed in terms of the postulated cognitive mechanism of operation. Findings are reported from microanalyses of enactive, vicarious, and emotive modes of treatment that support the hypothesized relationship between perceived self-efficacy and be- havioral changes. Possible directions for further research are discussed.
This article argues for the value in socialization research of focusing explicitly on the construct of parental psychological control of children--control that constrains, invalidates, and manipulates children's psychological and emotional experience and expression. The article traces the history of the construct and distinguishes psychological control theoretically and empirically from more behaviorally oriented control. 2 new measures of psychological control are developed. Data from 3 separate studies are presented which indicate that psychological control can be adequately measured across demographically varied samples and mode of measurement. In both cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses, psychological control, particularly as perceived by preadolescents and adolescents, is consistently predictive of youth internalized problems (depression) and, in some cases, externalized problems (delinquency). In contrast, behavioral control is related primarily to externalized problems.
Confirmatory factor analysis was used to evaluate 2 multidimensional measures of perfectionism (R. O. Frost, P. Marten, C. Lahart, & R. Rosenblate, 1990; P. L. Hewitt & G. L. Flett, 1991). On a first-order level, support was found for Hewitt and Flett's (1991) original 3-factor conceptualization of perfectionism, although only for an empirically derived 15-item subset. Support was also obtained for 5 of the 6 dimensions proposed by R. O. Frost et al. (1990), but the model only displayed good fit when a refined scale containing 22 of the original 35 items was used. A second-order analysis found evidence for 2 higher-order factors of adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism. Perfectionism dimensions correlated in expected directions with personality domains, symptom distress, and academic achievement. The brief measures of perfectionism also retained the construct-related validity displayed by the full-item versions.
Parents' use of conditional regard as a socializing practice was hypothesized to predict their children's introjected internalization (indexed by a sense of internal compulsion), resentment toward parents, and ill-being. In Study 1, involving three generations, mothers' reports of their parents' having used conditional regard to promote academic achievement predicted (a) the mothers' poor well-being and controlling parenting attitudes, and (b) their college-aged daughters' viewing them as having used conditional regard, thus showing both negative affective consequences from and intergenerational transmission of conditional regard. Study 2 expanded on the first by using four domains, including both genders, and examining mediating processes. College students' perceptions of their mothers' and fathers' having used conditional regard in four domains (emotion control, prosocial, academic, sport) were found to relate to introjected internalization, behavioral enactment, fluctuations in self-esteem, perceived parental disapproval, and resentment of parents. Introjection mediated the link from conditional regard to behavioral enactment. The results suggest that use of conditional regard as a socializing practice can promote enactment of the desired behaviors but does so with significant affective costs.
Perfectionism: A relational approach to conceptualization, assessment, and treatment
- P L Hewitt
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- S F Mikail
Hewitt, P. L., Flett, G. L., & Mikail, S. F. (2017). Perfectionism: A relational approach to
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Your inner child of the past
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Client-centered therapy: Its current practice, implications and theory
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Best practices in data cleaning: A complete guide to everything you need to do before and after collecting your data. Thousand Oaks
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