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The Internet of Life
Chapter 1: Universal nonrandom network protocols govern
development and evolution of all bilaterians
Eric Werner *
Oxford Advanced Research Foundation
eric.werner@oarf.org
https://www.ericwerner.com
https://www.oarf.com
Abstract
All diploid sexual organisms have two distinct haploid genomes, one from each
parent. There is the male derived haploid genome and the female derived haploid
genome. Each genome contains a distinct developmental control network that di-
rects the development of the embryo to an adult. Run separately, independent of
the influence of the other network, the each haploid genome produces a morpho-
logically different organism. The interrelationship of the male and female haploid
genome networks is governed by an interaction protocol that determines which
parental network is in control in any given cell at any given point in development.
The protocol consists of two interacting half-protocols, one for each parental hap-
loid genome. The full interaction protocol is itself a higher-level, meta-network,
or internetwork between the two lower-level, parental developmental control net-
works. Computer simulations show that if the interaction protocol is random then
there is a loss of bilateral symmetry in the generated organism. Therefore, for all
bilaterally symmetric organisms, the interaction protocol between the two parental
genomes cannot be random. This implies that a nonrandom ur-protocol must have
evolved with the first diploid bilaterians in the Precambrian more than 570 mil-
lion years ago. Nonrandom protocols partition the embryo and adult into dy-
namic sections that are variably controlled by one or the other parental haploid
genome network. Developmental networks and their meta-network protocols pro-
vide fundamentally new insights into embryonic and post-embryonic development,
developmental pathologies, animal and plant hybrids, heterosis, and evolutionary
dynamics.
Key words:Urbilaterian, bilateria, Haploid genome interaction protocols, meta-networks, meta-network sig-
natures, evolution, species formation, evolution of species, cenes, cenome, developmental control networks,
embryo network partitioning, hybrid development, heterosis, hybrid vigor, 1st-order network, 2nd-order net-
work, network completeness, network consistency, super phyla, network-based classification system
*©Werner 2020. All rights reserved. Cite As: Werner, E., The Internet of Life, Chapter 1: Universal nonrandom
network protocols govern development and evolution of all bilaterians, Preprint 2020, DOI: *insert DOI, located
on the first page, here*
Eric Werner Internet of Life, Chapter 1: Universal protocols in bilaterians 1
Contents
1 Introduction 2
2 Methodology: Computational multicellular experiments 2
3 Background: What controls development? 3
3.1 Why networks not genes control development of embryos .......... 3
3.2 Meta-control: What happens when the genomes of parents interact? . . . . 3
3.3 Protocols as meta-networks between genome networks ............ 5
4 Types of meta-network interaction protocols 5
4.1 Nonrandom Turn-Taking protocols ....................... 5
4.1.1 Null-Interaction Protocol ........................ 6
4.1.2 Network dominance relations ..................... 6
4.1.3 Merge interaction protocols ...................... 6
4.2 Random Turn-Taking Protocols ......................... 6
5 Random Interaction Protocols destroy bilateral symmetry 7
5.1 Experiments on organims 1 ........................... 7
5.2 Experiments on organism 2 ........................... 8
5.3 How the experiments were done ......................... 9
6 Discussion 9
6.1 Implications for the embryology of bilaterians ................ 9
6.2 Implications for the evolution of bilaterians .................. 10
7 Conclusions and further implications 10
7.1 Partitioning of control in development ..................... 11
7.2 Network based pathologies ........................... 11
7.3 Gynandromorphs and hybrids .......................... 11
7.4 Genome organization, classification, and evolution .............. 12
8 Materials and Methods 12
9 Appendix: Multicellular genome semantics with genCAD 12
9.1 How the user does experiments with genCAD ................ 13
9.1.1 Loading, running and transforming genomes ............. 13
9.1.2 CAD - Computer Aided Design in biology .............. 14
9.1.3 CAD for understanding highly complex living systems ....... 14
9.2 An outline of genCAD experimental methodology and features ....... 14
9.3 Advantages of computational multicellular experiments ........... 15
9.3.1 Do experiments that you can only imagine .............. 15
9.3.2 Speed ................................... 16
9.3.3 Clarity and understanding ....................... 16
9.3.4 Exact repeatability ........................... 16
9.3.5 Reduces animal and human suffering ................. 16
9.4 Abstraction in systems biology ......................... 17
9.5 Multicellular modeling complements wet lab experimentation ........ 18
References 18
Cite As: Werner, E., The Internet of Life, Chapter I: Universal nonrandom protocols govern development and evolution
of all bilaterians, Preprint 2020, DOI: *insert DOI, located on the first page, here*
Eric Werner Internet of Life, Chapter 1: Universal protocols in bilaterians 2
1 Introduction
All diploid sexual organisms have two distinct haploid genomes, one from each parent. There
is the male derived haploid genome and the female derived haploid genome. Each genome
contains a distinct developmental control network that directs the development of the embryo
to an adult. Run separately, independent of the influence of the other network, the two haploid
genomes produce morphologically distinct organisms.
The interaction of two male and female haploid genome networks is governed by an interaction
protocol that determines which parental network is in control in any given cell at any given
point in development. The interaction protocol is itself a meta-network, a network that connects
two different networks. Thus, the protocol meta-network is an inter-network between the two
parental developmental control networks.
Computer simulations show that if the interaction protocol between the two parental haploid
genome networks is random then there is a loss of bilateral symmetry in the developing organ-
ism. Therefore, for all bilaterally symmetric organisms, the interaction protocol between the
two parental genomes cannot be random. Moreover, it means that a nonrandom ur-protocol
must have evolved with the first diploid bilaterians more than 570 million years ago.
A further fundamental consequence of nonrandom interaction protocols is: For all bilaterians
the developing embryo and later adult forms are partitioned or sectioned into areas controlled
by either one or the other parental genome network. For example see Fig.1. This result has not
only computational but direct observational, experimental and clinical support. Sectioning of
embryos will be discussed in depth in Chapter 2 and 3 of this series.
As protocols and developmental networks diverge new species, genera, and families emerge.
It indicates the existence of a level of organization in genomes above genes, above transcrip-
tion factor-based gene regulatory networks, and even above developmental control networks.
Developmental control networks and their meta-network protocols provide fundamentally new
insights into embryonic and post-embryonic development, developmental pathologies, animal
and plant hybrids, heterosis, and evolutionary dynamics.
2 Methodology: Computational multicellular experiments
In this and the following chapters, we computationally explore the properties of both random
and nonrandom genome interaction protocols. These chapters describe the results of experi-
ments in silico done on growing embryos. They describe the resulting simulations of experi-
ments done on designed, bilateral multicellular organisms. Unlike wet-lab experiments, they
are experiments done on a computer using biological CAD (Computer Aided Design) software
that models and simulates the development of multicellular systems. Development starts from
a single founder cell and grows by cell division into a multicellular system. The basic experi-
mental method is to modify the genome and/or the founder cell of a given multicellular system,
then observe and compare the results as the embryo develops in continuous space and time. In
particular, for these experiments, we used the genCAD software suite both for the experimental
Cite As: Werner, E., The Internet of Life, Chapter I: Universal nonrandom protocols govern development and evolution
of all bilaterians, Preprint 2020, DOI: *insert DOI, located on the first page, here*
Eric Werner Internet of Life, Chapter 1: Universal protocols in bilaterians 3
design and then for doing the actual experiments. See the Appendix in Sec. 9for details on
how these experiments were performed and how to do these experiments yourself.
All the computational images of cells and genomes shown here are screenshots taken while
doing the experiments using the genCAD software suite.
3 Background: What controls development?
In my theoretical framework networks, not genes, control the development of global architec-
ture of embryos and organisms [962,960,958,956,955,954]. We share most of our genes
with chimpanzees, flies and worms. Most genes simply generate parts used universally by all
living organisms. These are much like the parts of a skyscraper or a house. The parts may be
used to build very different structures with very different architectures.
3.1 Why networks not genes control development of embryos
A special class of genes, called Transcription Factors (TFs), control the activation of other
genes and other networks. For example, when the so-called eyeless gene which is a transcrip-
tion factor that if mutated, results in the failure of the eyes to develop. This is taken a proof that
the eyeless gene controls the development of the eye in humans. The problem is that this gene
is sequentially almost identical to the eyeless gene in flies. They are even interchangeable. If,
however, you replace the eyeless gene in the fly with the human version, a human eye does not
develop. Instead a fly eye develops. Since fly eyes are compound eyes that are very different
from human eyes, clearly is not the eyeless gene that controls the actual growth development
of the eye in humans or flies. Rather the eyeless gene merely activates the developmental net-
works that control the development of the eye in humans and flies. These eye networks must
be very different in humans and flies. Thus, while genes such as transcription factors can acti-
vate arbitrarily complex developmental networks, they do not themselves have the capacity to
control the minutia of complex development possessed by the networks they activate.
Perhaps more importantly, I have proven mathematically that transcription factors are not
combinatorially rich enough to support the complex development of either humans or
flies[968,969]. Instead, developmental control networks called DCNs or CENEs (Control
Genes) based on an RNA-DNA addressing architecture, control the details of animal and plant
development. These combinatorially rich developmental control networks (DCNs /CENEs)
are fundamentally different from the limited, combinatorially poor TF-networks.
3.2 Meta-control: What happens when the genomes of parents interact?
Each parental haploid genome contains its own complete rich developmental control network
with sufficient information to control the development of a single cell to an adult. Each on
its own develops a morphologically different organism. The problem I am describing here is
what happens when these two different but complete networks interact. Who controls what and
when?
Cite As: Werner, E., The Internet of Life, Chapter I: Universal nonrandom protocols govern development and evolution
of all bilaterians, Preprint 2020, DOI: *insert DOI, located on the first page, here*
Eric Werner Internet of Life, Chapter 1: Universal protocols in bilaterians 4
The answer is that there is a protocol that determines which network is in control in any given
cell at any given time. It is Turn-Taking Protocol which switches back and forth by saying:
Now it is your turn to take control of development. This is much like turn-taking in a game
of chess, except that instead of two players there are between one and billions of players, all
playing the game at the same time.
(a) Sectioned Embryo Stained (b) 1st and 2nd Order Networks (c) Sectioned Embryo
Fig. 1: A nonrandom meta-network protocol links two parental haploid genome networks
The designed organism in Fig.1a has six stained sections. The software enables the staining of the
network control state of the cell. Staining is used to differentiate between cells controlled by the Male
versus Female haploid genomes. Aquamarine indicates that the female parental haploid genome is in
control. Purple shows where the male parental haploid genome is in control. The non-stained view
in Fig.1c shows its 6 sections colored according to whether the cells are of Male (greens) or Female
parental genome origin. Fig.1b shows two views of the genome network generating this organism. The
top view (Fig.1b) shows the full network including both the 1st-order parental networks and 2nd-order
links between 1st-order networks. The Male haploid genome and its local 1st-order developmental
network is graphically represented by the top line with its network of local links. The Female haploid
genome and its local 1st-order developmental network is represented graphically by the 2nd line with
its network of local links. The bottom view (Fig.1b) shows just the 2nd-order or meta-links between
the two 1st-order haploid genomes. This meta-network links the 1st-order networks in two haploid
genomes with four non-stochastic trans-links. The pink and blue meta-links between the upper and lower
networks constitute the meta-network that defines the protocol of interaction (such as Turn-Taking)
between the Male and Female haploid genomes. The upward directed Female pink links together
constitute the female parent’s contribution to the meta-network protocol. The downward Male blue
links constitute the Male part of the meta-network protocol. Together the upward and downward links
constitute the full Male-Female interaction protocol between the parental haploid genomes. Each full
protocol has a unique network architecture called its signature. Given that 1st order networks are fixed,
the signature dynamically determines the partitioning of the developing organism.
The way the protocol is actually implemented in the address-based architecture of the
genome[968,969,963,960,959], [967] is as yet another network, but it is a network at a
higher level of organization. The protocol is implemented as a network between networks. For
this reason, I call it a meta-network (also called a trans-network or inter-network depending on
the viewpoint or context). Another way to see this is that the protocol is a 2nd-order network
between 1st-order networks. The meta-network consists of trans-links or meta-links that con-
nect nodes of 1st-order networks. The meta-network is the interface between the two 1st-order
Cite As: Werner, E., The Internet of Life, Chapter I: Universal nonrandom protocols govern development and evolution
of all bilaterians, Preprint 2020, DOI: *insert DOI, located on the first page, here*
Eric Werner Internet of Life, Chapter 1: Universal protocols in bilaterians 5
developmental control networks.
The 1st-order developmental control networks (DCNs or CENEs) are the workhorses that direct
cell actions. Given that 1st-order networks are invariant, the 2nd-order network is the higher
level controlling protocol that tells which 1st-order network is allowed to be in control in a cell
at any given point in development.
Each full protocol has a unique network architecture called its signature. Given that 1st order
networks are fixed, the signature dynamically determines the partitioning of the developing
organism. Changes in the signature leads to changes in developmental partitioning.
However, 1st-order networks are not passive players in the game of control. There is a dynamic
interaction between the 1st-order networks and 2nd-order networks. A change in either of
the 1st-order networks can change the pathways that cells take through the global network
of 1st and 2nd-order links and thereby change the partitioning of control of the developing
embryo1.
As will be shown in later Chapters, this hierarchical arrangement of networks has deep conse-
quences for animal and plant development, for hybrids, for developmental pathologies and for
evolutionary dynamics.
3.3 Protocols as meta-networks between genome networks
An interaction protocol between two developmental control networks is a global inter-network,
ameta-network or higher level 2nd-order network, that links two local 1st-order lower level
developmental networks. If control alternates between the two 1st-order networks as deter-
mined by the architecture of the meta, 2nd-order network, then the protocol is a Turn Taking
Protocol (TTP). If each link in the meta-network results in a unique control state in the cell
then the protocol is deterministic. If there is a choice between two or more links where links
are chosen probabilistically then the Turn Taking Protocol is stochastic.
4 Types of meta-network interaction protocols
4.1 Nonrandom Turn-Taking protocols
In a nonrandom turn-taking meta-network protocol or simply Turn-Taking Protocol, control is
switched back and forth between the two parental developmental networks. Relative to a given
cell, if network πAof parent Ais given a turn by activating it, then network πAis in control of
that cell and its progeny until there is a meta-network jump to the opposite parental network
πBof parent B. At that point turns have switched and network πBis in control of development
of that cell and its progeny until there is another meta-networks jump in one or more of the
progeny. The protocol is distributed and runs in parallel, so that at any given point in time
1These seemingly difficult concepts are easier to understand by doing the experiments described here with the
CAD software described in the Appendix in Sec. 9.
Cite As: Werner, E., The Internet of Life, Chapter I: Universal nonrandom protocols govern development and evolution
of all bilaterians, Preprint 2020, DOI: *insert DOI, located on the first page, here*
Eric Werner Internet of Life, Chapter 1: Universal protocols in bilaterians 6
different cells may be executing different parental networks and at different nodes within those
networks.
4.1.1 Null-Interaction Protocol
A special case of a nonrandom interaction protocol is the Null-Interaction Protocol where there
is no interaction between parental genomes and either the male or the female parental genome
takes full control of development of the embryo.
4.1.2 Network dominance relations
One might object that just as genes may have dominance relations, so too networks may have
dominance relations. Such dominance relations would then generated an implicit Turn Taking
Protocol without the need of actual meta-network links from one parental genome to the other.
It is like a Turn Taking Interaction Protocol where either one of the other instruction is used
based on dominance. However, which parental network dominates at a given point in a cell
in development cannot be random without loss of bilateral symmetry (see below). Therefore,
if dominance controls which network is in control then that dominance relation cannot be
random. In effect the dominance relation generates an implicit network of dominance links
which is functionally equivalent to a Turn-Taking Protocol.
4.1.3 Merge interaction protocols
In a Merge Interaction Protocol at any given point the possibly conflicting control directives
to the cell from each parental networks are simply merged. If the two parental networks give
contradictory instructions to a cell, the instructions are merged into a single instruction. How
this merging function would be determined is an open question. While merging works for
some phenotypes caused by protein coding genes (such as skin color), merging does not work
very well for developmental control networks. Merge Interaction Protocols fail to account
for the parent-based, morphological partitioning observed in normal animals, nor can they
explain developmental pathologies or sectioning in hybrids (see the examples and discussion
in Chapters 2 and 3 of this series).
4.2 Random Turn-Taking Protocols
ARandom Turn-Taking Protocol is a type of Turn-Taking Protocol where some the turns are
assigned randomly with some probability. For example, given a random Turn-Taking protocol
for a game of Chess whether is White or Black’s turn might be decided by a coin toss.
If the game is between parental genomes, whose turn it is is determined by 2nd-order, trans-
links between those genomes. More formally, in a stochastic Turn-Taking Protocol, the next
parental genome (its 1st-order network state) to be activated is based on some probability
distribution.
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of all bilaterians, Preprint 2020, DOI: *insert DOI, located on the first page, here*
Eric Werner Internet of Life, Chapter 1: Universal protocols in bilaterians 7
5 Random Interaction Protocols destroy bilateral symmetry
Computer simulations show (such as the experiments in Fig.2and Fig.3), to maintain bilat-
eral symmetry and more generally completeness, consistency and congruence the Turn-Taking
Protocol cannot be random.
5.1 Experiments on organims 1
(a) RandomRun 1 (b) Executed Network of Run 1 (c) Random Run 1
(d) RandRun2 (e) Executed Network: Run 2 (f) Nonrandom Run of Net of RandRun2
(g) Random Run 3 (h) Random Run 4 (i) Random Run 5 (j) Random Run 6
Fig. 2: Random Turn-Taking protocols break bilateral symmetry.
Random Runs 1 to 6, in Fig.2a to Fig.2j, depict different stochastic developments of genetically and
genomically identical organisms. Each grows starting from a single cell that contains a genome iden-
tical to all the others. These network executions and the resulting developed organisms illustrate that
bilateral symmetry is broken if the interaction protocol between the male and female developmental
networks is stochastic. The networks in Fig.2b, and Fig.2e show the actual links executed by Run 1 and
Run 2. The dashed meta-links between the 1st-order networks of haploid genomes in Figs.2b,2e are
stochastic links. This means a cell executing such a link will with random probability either stay on and
keep executing the current haploid genome or cell execution jumps to the other haploid genome. The
active genome view of cells shows which haploid genome a cell is executing. Aquamarine indicates
that the female parental haploid genome is in control, while purple shows where the male parental
haploid genome is in control. Note how symmetry is broken compared to the organism growing with
a nonrandom protocol in Fig.1. However, symmetry is restored in Fig.2f when the random links in the
randomly generated net in Fig.2e are converted to deterministic links of probability 1.
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of all bilaterians, Preprint 2020, DOI: *insert DOI, located on the first page, here*
Eric Werner Internet of Life, Chapter 1: Universal protocols in bilaterians 8
Fig.2shows the results of several runs (executions) of two haploid genomes with developmen-
tally distinct control networks using a random interaction protocol. If the protocol links in the
meta-network in Fig.2are stochastic, then link execution by the cell is probabilistic. For any
given cell at a stochastic meta-link, execution randomly either stays on its current local haploid
network or execution jumps to the other local haploid network with some probability.
5.2 Experiments on organism 2
Fig. 3illustrates a further example of stochastic development of a diploid bilateral organism.
It shows a 2-dimensional slice of the organism as it develops:
(a) Female (b) Male
(c) Run 1 (d) Run 2 (e) Run 3 (f) Run 4
(g) Run 5 (h) Run 6 (i) Run 7 (j) Run 8 (k) Run 9
Fig. 3: Stochastic run combinations showing a slice of a diploid organism
Computationally modeled 3-sectioned multicellular organism grown from a single cell (zygote) contain-
ing both the male and female parents haploid genomes. The organism has three anterior to posterior
segments (head, midsection, tail). In the top line, the leftmost Fig.3a shows the result of execution of the
pure female parental haploid genome network under the deterministic Null Interaction Protocol (see
Sec.4.1). The top right most Fig.3b shows the result of execution of the pure male parental haploid
genome network with the deterministic Null Interaction Protocol. In the remaining examples, the active
genome view shows which haploid genome network is in control in which cells. The purple stain indi-
cates that the male parental haploid genome is in control, while the aquamarine stain shows where
the female parental haploid genome is in control. Run 1 (Fig.3c) to Run 9 (Fig.3k ) depict different
stochastic developments (runs) of the same organism in the active genome view. Note how symmetry is
broken.
Cite As: Werner, E., The Internet of Life, Chapter I: Universal nonrandom protocols govern development and evolution
of all bilaterians, Preprint 2020, DOI: *insert DOI, located on the first page, here*
Eric Werner Internet of Life, Chapter 1: Universal protocols in bilaterians 9
Each stochastic run leads to many possible variations depending on how many meta-network
links exist between the local networks in the parental genomes.
For example, in a Random Turn-Taking Protocol, if the probability is 0.5 then half the time
a cell’s control state will stay in its present 1st-order network and half the time it jumps to
the other parental network. Thus, for such a stochastic trans-link, for two sister cells in the
same control state but residing on opposite halves of a bilateral embryo, there is a good chance
(50%) that these two sister cells will inhabit (be controlled by) different, opposite-sex parental
genomes. Hence, these two cells could develop non-equivalent morphologies. The more mor-
phologically distinct the parents and grandparents are in the given developing partition, the
more askew the embryo asymmetry will appear.
5.3 How the experiments were done
These experiments were done with genCAD using Random Turn-Taking Protocols were per-
formed on a pre-designed multicellular system that is bilaterally symmetric when the Turn-
Taking Protocol is deterministic (see Fig.1). Each experiment starts with a single cell and
grows it into a multicellular system2.
6 Discussion
Together, these simulations show that if the protocol is random then different parental haploid
networks can be in control in corresponding bilateral body halves at the same time-point in
development. Such asymmetries of control lead to possible asymmetric development in parts
that would normally be symmetric.
While the morphologies of the two parents in Figs. 3a and 3b are quite similar, the larger
differences in morphology of the parents in Fig. 2, can generate greater possible distortions
and pathologies. Thus random elements in the network interaction protocol provide an entirely
new explanation of pathologies of human and animal development that are difficult to explain
in the standard, gene-centered paradigm of development (more on this topic in Chapters 2 and
3 of this series).
6.1 Implications for the embryology of bilaterians
For random network interaction protocols the fundamental discovery reported here is:
Proposition 1. If the interaction protocol between parental haploid genomes is random then
there is a loss of bilateral symmetry.
Furthermore:
Proposition 2. The greater the differences in morphology of the grandparents, the greater the
distortions of bilaterality and the more severe the possible pathologies resulting from random
elements in the network interaction protocol.
2For details on how the experiment is done see Appendix 9
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of all bilaterians, Preprint 2020, DOI: *insert DOI, located on the first page, here*
Eric Werner Internet of Life, Chapter 1: Universal protocols in bilaterians 10
Therefore, for true bilaterally symmetric organisms we have:
Proposition 3. For any bilaterian there exists a non-random meta-network protocol that gov-
erns the interaction between its parental haploid genomes.
For all diploid bilaterally symmetric organisms, the meta-network architecture or Turn Tak-
ing Protocol between the local control networks in parental haploid genomes cannot be ran-
dom.
If meta-network control is stochastic at any point in development then possible asymmetries of
structure and function can result. The results, illustrated in Figure 2, imply there must exist a
universal non-stochastic protocol that is control symmetric and at any given time determines
which allelic male or female derived parent network is simultaneously active in both bilateral
body halves as the organism develops. The male or female parent network active at any given
time must be the same in both body halves. Otherwise, we get a failure of bilateral symme-
try.
Proposition 4. For any bilaterally symmetric organism there must exist a non-stochastic pro-
tocol that is control symmetric and at any given time determines which allelic male or female
derived parent network is simultaneously active in both bilateral body halves as the organism
develops.
6.2 Implications for the evolution of bilaterians
Such a nonrandom proto-protocol or Ur-Protocol must have evolved more than 570 million
years ago with the first sexually diploid bilaterally symmetric organisms.
Proposition 5. A nonrandom Ur-Protocol evolved more than 570 million years ago with the
first sexually diploid bilaterally symmetric organisms.
7 Conclusions and further implications
For all diploid, sexually reproducing organisms, each male and female parent donates half its
genome (haploid genome) encased in either sperm or egg. Each haploid male or female genome
contains a different developmental control network. We assume that developmental networks
and not genes alone control the development of embryos and that each haploid genome con-
tains a complete developmental network that can generate a complete and consistent organism.
Given these assumptions, then the results of computational experiments on diploid bilater-
ally symmetric multicellular organisms show that if the interaction protocol between the two
parental genomes is random, then there is a loss of bilateral symmetry in the generated embryo
and adult form.
Therefore, for any diploid bilaterally symmetric organism the interaction protocol cannot be
random. Hence, the protocol is deterministic given the same maternal and external environment
for both bilateral body halves.
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of all bilaterians, Preprint 2020, DOI: *insert DOI, located on the first page, here*
Eric Werner Internet of Life, Chapter 1: Universal protocols in bilaterians 11
This implies that with the evolution of the first bilaterians that evolved over 570 million years
ago, there must also have evolved a nonrandom protocol that specified the interactions between
their haploid parental genomes.
7.1 Partitioning of control in development
A further consequence, to be discussed in the next chapters, is that any bilateral symmetric
organism with a nonrandom Turn-Taking protocol generates an organism that is partitioned
into sections or modules3. At any point in embryogenisis, the development of any given cell is
under control of either the male haploid genome or the female haploid genome.
Proposition 6. All nonrandom interaction protocols between haploid parental genomes, gen-
erate a dynamically changing partitioning of the organism into sections or modules controlled
by either the male or the female haploid 1st-order genome network.
Hence, the first diploid bilaterians were governed by a nonrandom ur-protocol and must have
been sectioned into areas separately controlled by one or the other parental haploid, 1st-order
genome network.
Proposition 7. The first diploid bilaterians, over 570 million years ago, were partitioned into
sections or modules that were separately controlled by one or the other parental haploid 1st-
order genome network.
Sectioning of organisms is a natural consequence of meta-network protocols between haploid
genomes of bilateral organisms.
Note, this is different form an organism having repeated, identical sections along the length of
its body. Such sections can be generated by a single haploid 1st-order network. That being
said, it is possible for the sections in such a multi-sectioned animal to be under varied parental
network control.
7.2 Network based pathologies
This dynamic partitioning of the embryo to adult has implications for understanding both nor-
mal and pathological development. Indeed we will see that one can have perfect genes but
imperfect networks or perfect networks but imperfect genes or any combination thereof. Each
type imperfection leads to different classes of pathologies.
7.3 Gynandromorphs and hybrids
Interestingly, network interaction protocols of bilaterians also explain not only gynandromorph
development[964] but also hybrid phenotypes. This, as will be shown, has applications to
understanding and designing heterosis in plants and animals.
3As illustrated in Fig.1and Fig. 2f.
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7.4 Genome organization, classification, and evolution
Random variations and transformations of nonrandom bilaterian interaction protocols also may
be sources of rapid evolution of bilaterian species where changes in protocol signatures and
other network transformations can result in discontinuous evolutionary saltations.
Meta-network protocols indicate the existence of a level of organization in genomes above
genes, above transcription factor-based gene regulatory networks, and even above develop-
mental control networks. As protocols and developmental networks diverge, new super phyla
down to species emerge -where the classification system is not based just on genes but primar-
ily on developmental control networks.
In summary, developmental control networks and their meta-network protocols provide fun-
damentally new insights into embryonic and post-embryonic development, developmental
pathologies, animal and plant hybrids, heterosis, and evolutionary dynamics.
8 Materials and Methods
All the experiments described here were designed and performed using genCAD multicellular
modeling and simulation software. The software suite genCAD allows the user to run genomes
of designed multicellular organism. Each run starts with a single cell which, once activated by
the user, develops into a 3-dimensional multicellular organism. Cell signaling, cell-cell physics
can be modeled in both discrete and continuous space-time. In concert with the developing
cells, a window shows the user graphically how genome network states change in a highly
dynamic way. At any point in development, growth can be stopped, continued or rebooted.
Any particular cell state, the whole multicellular state, or the genome state can be investigated
or transformed graphically by the user. Then development can be continued or restarted. For
more details on genCAD see the Appendix in Sec. 9.
9 Appendix: Multicellular genome semantics with genCAD
The CAD software, genCAD4, used to design, model and run the genome networks and em-
bryological processes in the experiments descried here will soon be available. You can then
download an experiment onto your laptop. For more information please contact genCAD di-
rectly by email: dna@gencad.net.
Then you can do these experiments yourself by manipulating the genome networks graphically
and observe both how the network executes and in parallel how the cells grow into a dynamic
3-dimensional multicellular system. At any point you can stop development and observer both
the network state and the state of the developing cells.
To observe the interior of the organism, the user can cut or slice the embryo, at will, without
destroying it -and then watch as the cells communicate and continue to divide. The network
and/or cell states can be changed even during execution.
4genCAD is a trademark of Cellnomica, Inc.
Cite As: Werner, E., The Internet of Life, Chapter I: Universal nonrandom protocols govern development and evolution
of all bilaterians, Preprint 2020, DOI: *insert DOI, located on the first page, here*
Eric Werner Internet of Life, Chapter 1: Universal protocols in bilaterians 13
Unlike wet lab experiments that can take hours, days, weeks or months, these experiments
take mere minutes or even seconds to perform. This perspicuity, transparency and speed is
invaluable for gaining a deeper understanding of how genomes and their networks control the
development of organisms.
The interface is designed to hide the imposing, underlying complexity. Tested with 12 and 13
year olds, the students, with supervision, were able to do more experiments in half an hour than
a developmental biologist can do in his or her lifetime (with CRISPR perhaps a quarter of a
lifetime). By downloading the experiments performed to write this article, the user can quickly
gain hands-on experience of the difference between random and nonrandom genome network
interactions and their effects on embryonic development.
Doing such computational experiments gives a much deeper, experience-based, insight both
into how networks control multicellular dynamic developmental processes and into the devel-
opmental processes themselves. At a higher level this provides a practical understanding of the
challenging theoretical concepts underlying the network paradigm of development. The goal
of the software is to give unprecedented practical, hands-on understanding of how genomes
work in development.
9.1 How the user does experiments with genCAD
As stated, we computationally explore the properties of both random and nonrandom genome
interaction protocols. Using genCAD (genomic embryonic network Computer Aided Design)
software the user can load a genome into a cell, transform the genome graphically in a window,
and run that genome watching the developing organism or multicellular system in adjacent
window.
9.1.1 Loading, running and transforming genomes
More specifically, the user can load a genome network interaction protocol and/or mutate a
given network protocol and rerun it in an initial cell. A transformed protocol results in a
transformed genome execution. This in turn results in a transformed developing organism.
Practically, the user can load a genome or can do one or more transformations on a given
genome. At any point, the user can simply reinitialize the system to start growing from a single
cell that contains a given, new or transformed genome. Then the user can run the transformed
genome and view the changes in morphology and functionality in the developing multicellular
organism. Thus, the user can do computationally simulated experiments on the genomes of
developing multicellular systems.
The full genome loaded into a founder cell in the experiments described here consists of two
different parental haploid genomes that interact during development to form the multicellular
organism.
Cite As: Werner, E., The Internet of Life, Chapter I: Universal nonrandom protocols govern development and evolution
of all bilaterians, Preprint 2020, DOI: *insert DOI, located on the first page, here*
Eric Werner Internet of Life, Chapter 1: Universal protocols in bilaterians 14
9.1.2 CAD - Computer Aided Design in biology
The modeling process is akin to how computer CAD programs are used to design airplanes or
automobiles, then test their dynamics, and then use that design to construct the actual thing.
The difference is that while the car or airplane is constructed out of designed parts, in genCAD
all the parts grow from the same initial, single cell while simultaneously and cooperatively
forming the multicellular organism. The virtual organism, like living organisms, is encoded in
the DNA of its genome. Like living cells, computationally modeled cells bring a lot of structure
to the table to enable them to interpret and execute their genome.
9.1.3 CAD for understanding highly complex living systems
Of course, such software is highly complex since cells, genomes, cell signaling interactions,
genome interactions with the cell, genome-genome interactions, chromosome interactions, and
cell-cell physics have to be modeled and simulated continually in embryological space and
time. Fortunately, the point of CAD modeling and simulation software is that the interface
hides complexity from the user, so that the user can do experiments easily and quickly by
graphically interacting with the growing cells and the active genomes.
9.2 An outline of genCAD experimental methodology and features
There is a graphical interface simultaneously showing both dynamic embryonic development in
a physical space-time view and an adjacent genome view that dynamically shows which cells
are executing which part of the genome. Both the cells and the genome can be graphically
transformed by the user.
Given a genome a typical experimental method is the following:
1. Load a genome from a file into a single founder cell.
2. Press the Spacebar to run the genome and start cell division, communication and em-
bryonic growth.
3. Observe embryonic development as the cell divides and proliferates in space-time
forming a multicellular system.
4. Observe network dynamics: As the organism grows the network state changes are
shown graphically.
5. Start or stop development at any time and in any state by pressing the Spacebar.
6. Cut or slice the embryo to see the internal state either statically or dynamically.
7. Observe cell signaling by choosing transparency to see inside the cells.
8. Stain haploid genomes to observe which parental genome is in control in which cells.
9. Mutate or Transform the genome or the cell state graphically and continue to run or
reboot.
Cite As: Werner, E., The Internet of Life, Chapter I: Universal nonrandom protocols govern development and evolution
of all bilaterians, Preprint 2020, DOI: *insert DOI, located on the first page, here*
Eric Werner Internet of Life, Chapter 1: Universal protocols in bilaterians 15
10. Reboot the system at any time to start from a single founder cell by pressing zero ’0’.
11. Rerun: Press Spacebar again to start running the transformed genome.
12. Observe the changes in network execution and embryonic development into the com-
plete organism.
13. Do Unlimited Mutations and/or Transformations and observe the effects on devel-
opment.
14. Unlimited repeatability of an experiment by rebooting by pressing zero ’0’ resulting in
identical development if the protocols are nonrandom.
15. Save the genome and/or the entire genome-organism state to an external file if you
like the result of a run.
A typical run of a genome starting from a single cell and developing to 100 cells takes sec-
onds to minutes depending on the accuracy of the cell physics and precision of morphological
development desired by the user. Transforming and/or designing a genome or cell with the
graphical user interface, depending on the complexity of the design, can take minutes to hours
and in rare cases days but not weeks or months. For many common design and transformation
tasks there are helper menu functions that transform the whole genome at once taking only
seconds to complete.
9.3 Advantages of computational multicellular experiments
The user can quickly gain unparalleled insight into complex multicellular embryonic processes
that can take a lifetime doing biology wet-lab experiments. Computer modeling and simulation
allows understanding complex multicellular systems that would otherwise be beyond our abili-
ties as humans. Even for just 50 cells their development, their networks and their cell signaling
can be enormously complex to the extent that it cannot be understood by reading a book or lis-
tening to a lecture or doing a wet-lab experiment. In fact the processes that can be observed in
a biological CAD system are mostly inaccessible to a wet-lab biologist or a medical researcher.
Hence, most cannot even be imagined without the aid of software.
Understanding a system can have very real consequences. For example, to understand cancer
without software modeling may be beyond our bounds. With software that models and sim-
ulates cancer cells and their networks, the researcher can gain the deep insight needed to not
only understand cancer but begin to imagine a path, even a precise roadmap to cure cancer
[978,977,979,980,981,975,973].
9.3.1 Do experiments that you can only imagine
Perhaps the most important advantage of genCAD is that you can do experiments with genCAD
that you cannot even imagine. You can do experiments that you cannot yet do with present
technology. But it implies what technology has to be created to do the experiment. It thus
opens the door to fast technological development. It shows you how to design experiments that
Cite As: Werner, E., The Internet of Life, Chapter I: Universal nonrandom protocols govern development and evolution
of all bilaterians, Preprint 2020, DOI: *insert DOI, located on the first page, here*
Eric Werner Internet of Life, Chapter 1: Universal protocols in bilaterians 16
one cannot as yet even conceptualize in the present gene-centered paradigm. It opens the world
of the network control paradigm.
9.3.2 Speed
Another big advantage of computational multicellular experiments versus wet-lab experiments
is speed. While wet-lab experiments can take weeks, months or even years, the experiments
described here take seconds or minutes to develop. A whole experimental framework can be
designed from scratch within hours.
For example, the Siamese Twin experiment that explores how Siamese twins develop and how
they differ from normal twins (to be described in a later article) took less than half an hour, ap-
proximately 25 minutes to design. Doing the experiments themselves took longer, not because
of the time of embryo development -which was less than a minute, but to really comprehend
what is going on in theses complex multicellular processes. That may require repeating the
experiment over and over again experimenting with possible genomic modifications.
Designing here means designing the organism on which to do the experiments. Once designed,
running different mutations usually takes seconds or minutes. It is so fast the user usually has to
pause or elect to slow down the development to see what is happening in the organism.
9.3.3 Clarity and understanding
Another advantage is clarity of observation and process. The user can see both the multicellular
state and the simultaneous genome state graphically. In observation mode, the organism can
be cut, sliced without damage or affecting its development. In experimental mode, the user can
delete cells, change cell states, cell signaling and more.
9.3.4 Exact repeatability
Experiments are exactly repeatable. Changes can be saved to a file as a genome only or as a
full physical multicellular state of cells plus their genome states and their genome.
The standard wet-lab biologist has weeks, months or years to think of how to interpret his or
her results, i.e., to understand what is going on. In contrast, doing computational experiments
is so fast that repeating the same experiment several times is usually necessary to understand
what is happening. Fast, exact repeatability is thus a huge advantage of bio-computational
CAD software like genCAD .
9.3.5 Reduces animal and human suffering
Doing computational virtual animal experiments versus wet-lab experiments on live or killed
animals, reduces enormously the need for animal and human testing. Much of lab and medical
testing is actually looking for what is not really understood resulting in needless suffering of
animals and humans. To repeat, much of animal testing is done because the researcher does
not understand the multicellular processes that cause the phenomena or behavior he or she is
Cite As: Werner, E., The Internet of Life, Chapter I: Universal nonrandom protocols govern development and evolution
of all bilaterians, Preprint 2020, DOI: *insert DOI, located on the first page, here*
Eric Werner Internet of Life, Chapter 1: Universal protocols in bilaterians 17
interested in. The method is to mutate and then kill the animal and see what you get. It is blind
search rather than a heuristic, designed search.
9.4 Abstraction in systems biology
Gains in efficiency and perspicuity are possible because the genome and organism are modeled
at a higher level of abstraction. Trying to model the cell at the lowest molecular level is com-
putationally intractable. Just modeling protein folding of one protein for one millisecond is
computationally hard, taxing any super computer. This computational intractability is the case
for most real world situations. The key to Newton’s success was to build an abstract math-
ematical model. Thus, abstraction hierarchies are commonly used in areas like architecture,
computer science, engineering and robotics.
Fig. 4: The Systems Biology Hierarchy
Presented in a talk “In Silico Multicellular Systems Biology” to the IBM BlueGene conference on pro-
tein folding at the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, March 2002. Image is adapted from [951]. While
the Systems Biology Hierarchy in shown above is far from complete, it can be quite helpful as an
overview and general roadmap. genCAD focuses on the network level, i.e., top blue-gray colored areas
in the hierarchy.
Network abstraction permits modeling and understanding of complex biological processes that
Cite As: Werner, E., The Internet of Life, Chapter I: Universal nonrandom protocols govern development and evolution
of all bilaterians, Preprint 2020, DOI: *insert DOI, located on the first page, here*
Eric Werner Internet of Life, Chapter 1: Universal protocols in bilaterians 18
would otherwise be impossible. For example, the OSI network model or the Internet protocol
suite TCP/IP, are used to understand, design, and build computer networks. They have levels
of abstraction starting from the most basic physical layer to an application layer. Each level
has its own protocols of interaction.
To understand living systems, a hierarchical view of levels of abstraction and function is an
enormous help. When I first published and presented the Systems Biology Hierarchy in Fig.4
it was considered revolutionary. Now it is a common way to look at biological systems.
Note, many models do not fit neatly into one level. For example, genCAD uses a hybrid of sev-
eral models. It uses differential equations to model aspects of continuous cell physics but also
uses very different, but complimentary, models for cell signaling and cell-genome interaction.
The key is to integrate different levels of abstraction into one functioning system.
The network theory that I developed gives a global view of developmental processes above the
apparent confusion of the molecular genome and its containing cell. The network paradigm
is even more necessary to understand what hundreds, let alone billions, of cells are doing
when they grow, divide and communicate. It gives clarity where the gene-centered paradigm
falters.
9.5 Multicellular modeling complements wet lab experimentation
Modeling cannot replace wet labs. However it can be a great aid for design and precise, deeper
understanding of the concepts and theories involved. Modeling depends on the data generated
by wet lab and other researchers. At the same time modeling and especially CAD programs are
invaluable in helping scientists to understand the complex phenomena they are investigating.
At a minimum computational modeling can show what is not possible, but it can also show
unimagined possibilities. So genCAD will hopefully help scientists understand the deeper
networks underlying cancer and embryonic development. At the same time the data from
various levels of the systems biology hierarchy will improve the models. Ideally the model
will be not just explain the given data but be predictive. This will enable the design of living
multicellular systems as well as future therapies.
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