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How well do ELT textbooks prepare students to use English in global contexts? An evaluation of the Vietnamese English textbooks from an English as an international language (EIL) perspective
Abstract
In response to the calls to incorporate the changing sociolinguistic reality of English in classroom practices, textbooks can serve as a powerful tool for equipping learners with knowledge of world Englishes and intercultural communication skills. This article explores the extent to which a set of locally produced English textbooks in Vietnam have oriented towards the English as an international language (EIL)-informed pedagogy and prepared students to use English for intercultural communication. The findings indicate that despite the fact that international communication may involve abroad spectrum of global English users, the books tend to focus merely on preparing students to use English for communication with Anglophone English users, thus only partially meeting the learners’ multiple communicative needs in the real world. Our findings highlight the importance of moving towards an EIL oriented approach in ELT materials development and use, as well as promoting discourses of multilingualism and globalization, and avoiding ideological biases.
KEYWORDS: English as an international language, intercultural communication, globalization, English language teaching materials, Viet Nam
... In this regard, it can be understood that foreign language communication at some point deals with translating a first language existing in a mental concept into a foreign language uttered in a motoric, communicative way. Positively, translating in foreign language communication to some extent contributes to strengthening the focus on meanings (Thuy et al., 2020) and also the on-going foreign language acquisition (Webb & Nation, 2017). ...
Purpose of the study: This study aimed at finding out the Islamic terms used as well as translated by English lecturers in English conversations, the strategies used by English lecturers in translating the Islamic terms in English conversations, the reasons why they use the strategies, and the contexts when they use and translate the Islamic terms in English conversations. Methodology: This research applied a qualitative study by involving seven English lecturers at State Islamic Institute of Curup, Bengkulu, Indonesia. The data were garnered from interviews and observations. The data were analyzed using an interactive model of data analysis. Main Findings: This research has found that the English lecturers used, and to some extent translated nineteen Islamic terms during English conversations. Those terms subsumed Assalammu’alaikum Warahmatullahi wa barakaatuh, InshaAllah, Bismillahirrohmannirrohiiim, Alhamdulillah, Adzan, Aamiiin, Allahuakbar, Haram, Halal, Ka’bah, Munkar, Subhanallah, Al-Qur’an, Iman, Sholat, hajj, Saum, Allah, and Masjidil Haram. Most of the lecturers used borrowed or loan words and general word-use or synonymous word strategies in translating the Islamic terms. There were some reasons for the uses of borrowing or general word-use strategies. For the use of borrowing strategy, the reasons were: first they had limited vocabularies for Islamic terms. Second, they borrowed the Islamic terms because such terms had already been common to be used in their original forms. Third, they lacked of knowledge on the translation of Islamic terms in English. Fourth, they wanted to Maintain Moslem’s identity. Subsequently, for the use of general word-use strategy or synonym, the lecturer applying this strategy had a reason that in English speaking the Islamic terms should be translated into English albeit using words with similar meanings in a general sense. Furthermore, the Islamic terms were mostly used in the classrooms and in the opening as well as closing of teaching and learning processes. Applications of this study: This research will be useful for universities, lecturers, students, and non-native English speakers that are common to be engaged in English conversations framed by Islamic discourses. Novelty/Originality of this study: Many studies as regards the English translation of Islamic terms have been conducted in the field of a written mode of translation. However, to the best of the researchers’ knowledge, very few studies have been oriented towards translation strategies of Islamic terms in a spoken mode, or in this regard, English conversations. This case is worth researching, and this research seeks to fulfill this gap.
The aim of this research is to design a coursebook for teaching English as a university compulsory subject. This research employed a Research and Development study that involves four English lecturers and eighty freshmen as the participants. Interviews and questionnaires were used as instruments to collect the data. The qualitative data were analyzed by using the adapted Miles and Huberman Model. Meanwhile, the quantitative data were analyzed by using a simple percentage analysis. At the end of this research, an English Coursebook, English for Collegian, has been finally completed. This book covers 14 units and each unit consists of seven main parts that accommodate comprehensive learning activities for each meeting. It is expected that this research brings fruitful impacts, especially in accommodating lecturers and students' needs, improving students' learning achievement, and boosting lecturers' motivation to create teaching material.
Intercultural language learning (ICLL) has become an important concept that drives English learners’ attention to the understanding and application of cultural elements in their English learning process; however, the learning motivation for and engagement in the proliferation of culture in English language teaching vary from one context to another. This study aimed to unpack L2 students’ motivation for and engagement in ICLL, and the correlation between the two research variables. A group of 198 L2 students, who were learning at a high school in Vietnam, were recruited based on a convenience sampling technique. A closed-ended questionnaire was employed for data collection. The sociolinguistic perspective was adopted for data analysis using the SPSS software. The findings unraveled that Vietnamese L2 students had a high level of motivation for ICLL, and they tended to get engaged in ICLL actively; however, their level of emotional engagement in ICLL seemed higher than their behavioral and cognitive engagement in ICLL. Additionally, a positive correlation between Vietnamese L2 students’ motivation for and engagement in ICLL was significantly found. This study recommends pedagogical implications in an attempt to enhance the quality of intercultural language teaching and learning in the research context and other similar ones.
Extensive Reading through e-books is relaxing and informal and allows students to choose materials based on their English proficiency and interests. It involves the reader reading large quantities of text to understand the content in general and includes individualized and independent Reading, which gives students the chance to select the materials based on their interests without discussing texts in class. This topic research aims to measure the impact of extensive Reading through e-books on Vietnamese students' reading attitudes, Vocabulary, and reading comprehension skills. Researchers conducted a controlled intervention study with 208 students who majored in the students of English Linguistics at the LONG AN University of Economics and Industry, 104 students in the intervention group and 104 other students in the control group. The students in the selected intervention group had a high degree of similarity in demographic characteristics, attitudes, Vocabulary, and reading comprehension skills compared with the control group. Research tools include vocabulary and reading comprehension skills tests and Schutte and Malouff's Adult Motivation for Reading Scale test, 2007. Both groups took the test before and after conducting the study. In addition to a traditional curriculum for both groups, twelve weeks e-book extensive reading program was conducted for the experimental group by students encouraged to read the materials freely from three e-book library collections categorized based on level of difficulty. However, the control group did not engage in any extensive reading program. The results show that extensive reading activities by e-books can significantly improve Vietnamese students' vocabulary size, reading comprehension ability, and reading attitude. Extensive Reading through e-books effectively enhances students' reading comprehension and attitudes by expanding their Vocabulary. This result has several implications for language educators and materials developers.
Grounded in a global south perspective on the neoliberal ideology in English language education, this chapter presents an analysis of the influences of standardization and high-stakes examinations – two expressions of neoliberalism – on the design and learning tasks of a series of Vietnam-produced ELT textbooks for local high school students of grades 10–12. These textbooks have recently been produced to serve the new initiative urged and funded by the Vietnamese Government to link English language education closer to the purpose of nation-building. The analysis shows the dominance of test-type activities in the textbooks. I argue that this fact is derived from the neoliberal discourse of standardization, which encourages teaching to be about conformity to uniformity, thereby creating social inequalities and particularly making the socially and economically disadvantaged students (e.g. those from minority ethnic groups) further marginalized. In the conclusion, I recommend that there is nothing wrong with linguistic instrumentalism adopted by the Vietnamese Government and neoliberalism, for good or evil, is likely here to stay. Therefore, it is imperative that textbook writers and policy makers use their indigenous wisdom to localize the neoliberal standardization in ELT in order to create intellectual space for alternative epistemologies that may be more relevant to the global south.
Teaching English as an International Language is the first volume of the TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching. It offers the theoretical and practical aspects of English language instruction by providing an essential reference resource for educators, professionals, researchers, and students in a globalized world.
There are many solutions to improving the quality of teaching and learning foreign languages in general and teaching and learning English in Vietnamese schools in particular. One of the most important solutions is probably the renovation in curriculum design and textbook development. This is the focus of this paper. The paper is organized around five main sections. Following Section 1 - Introduction, Section 2 provides an overview of the National Foreign Languages 2020 Project, focusing on the points related to the design of school English curriculum and the development of school English textbooks. Section 3 is concerned with the design of three pilot English curricula for Vietnamese schools and highlights their innovative points. Section 4 discusses in some detail the design and development of the ten-year English textbook series for Vietnamese schools under the National Foreign Languages 2020 Project and highlights its innovative points. Section 5 presents the achievements related to the development of the ten-year English textbook series. Finally, Section 6 summarizes the main points discussed in the paper and makes some recommendations for further improving the quality and the effect of use of the ten-year English textbook series before putting it into use on a large scale.Keywords: The 2020 Project, the three pilot English curricula, the ten-year English textbook series, the six-level foreign language proficiency framework for Vietnam.
One comment I often receive when I talk about teaching English as an international language (TEIL) is that TEIL is all about being politically correct – a mere gesture to be inclusive and egalitarian, promoted by a certain ideological stance. It is true that there are certain ideologies, language and beyond, that are compatible with certain aspects of TEIL and this encourages some English Language Teaching (ELT) professionals to embrace or reject this approach to English language teaching. My stance on this issue, however, is that TEIL is not about being politically correct or promoting certain ideologies; rather, it is about understanding and accepting the realities of global use of English today and having our teaching grounded in this reality. The article provides a brief overview of what TEIL is and reviews some ideological arguments that seem compatible with TEIL. It then moves on to argue that TEIL is something all English language teachers can and should embrace, regardless of their ideological stance or beliefs about what English should be. This is for a pragmatic reason: to better prepare our students for the messy world of English today.
The proactive approach to internationalisation of higher education in Vietnam in the last twenty years is closely related to the phenomena of using English as medium of instruction (EMI) and borrowing curriculum from foreign institutions. In both policy and practice, EMI has been simultaneously used as a key instrument and as an indicator of internationalisation of higher education. Vietnam’s language policy stresses the preservation and enrichment of Vietnamese, the national official language, and other ethnic minority languages. However, the ways in which internationalisation is constructed through the use of EMI and EMI programs are promoted as a marker of distinction in higher education and in the labour market perpetuate the sentiment that the mainstream programs delivered in Vietnamese, alongside with EMI programs within the same university, are of second order importance and have lower status. This chapter addresses the promotion of EMI in the internationalisation agenda of Vietnamese universities and its implications for local language policies. It argues for maximising the potential benefits of using EMI to enhance the quality of higher education and graduate employability while ensuring equity and equality in university contexts where both EMI and Vietnamese medium programs are offered concurrently.
Textbooks, in general, and English teaching textbooks, in particular, are acknowledged as common sites for social reproduction and disseminating dominant ideologies. In an attempt to contribute to research on textbook ideology, the current study attempted to uncover neoliberal mentality in the highly popular ELT materials taught in Iranian private language institutes. Scrutinized though CDA methodology proposed by Fairclough [2001. Language and power (2nd ed.). London: Routledge; 2003. Analysing discourse: Textual analysis for social research. London: Routledge], the textbooks were found to popularize certain tenets of neoliberalism such as market, consumerism, branding, individual productivity/marketability as well as superficial, non-critical multiculturalism which was employed, simply to present a perfect, utopian image of the West. Such a practice, it is believed here, is a clear instance of ‘inculcation’ (Fairclough N. [2001]. Language and power (2nd ed.). London: Routledge) whose effect needs to be counterbalanced by reflective teaching and critical pedagogy.
This article examines the consequences of neoliberalism in two separate domains of multilingual language use in the context of Nepal: language education and tourism. We show that institutions and individuals have appropriated and reproduced this ideology with their creative tactics, agency, and practices that both help them promote and commodify their ethnolinguistic identity and language skills while also allowing them to acquire multilingual repertoires in global languages such as English, German, Chinese, Japanese, and the indigenous local language Newari. We show that English as a global language does not always accord more cultural capital and economic value, nor is the teaching and learning of local indigenous languages always confined to the ideologies of identity politics and language preservation. We argue that while the ideologies of English as a global language and of indigenous languages as tools for ethnolinguistic identity do not disappear from the scene, new forces of globalization and neoliberalism bestow new meanings to multilingual repertoires and practices. (Neoliberalism, multilingualism, commodification, ethnolinguistic identity, Nepal)*
This article delves into the issue of incorporating sociolinguistic aspects of language and culture into the current primary English textbooks in Vietnam. The authors first provide an overview of primary English teaching in the Vietnamese setting and then evaluate the current primary English textbooks in relation to the objectives of foreign language teaching and learning proposed by Vietnam's Ministry of Education and Training for the time period 2008–2020. The evaluation focuses on four main sociolinguistic aspects: teaching approach, bilingualism, language variations, and intercultural communication reflected in the primary English textbooks. The evaluation findings indicate that the textbook design follows communicative language teaching. However, English variations and cross-cultural knowledge are still limited in the textbook design. Although some signs of bilingualism are recognized in the teachers' books, it is not clear whether bilingualism or double monolingualism is encouraged by the textbook writers. In order to improve sociolinguistic understanding among young learners, the authors recommend cooperation among teachers, textbook writers, and policymakers.
Communicative approaches to teaching English can too easily marginalise or ignore culture and intercultural perspectives, assuming (implicitly or explicitly) that learners aspire to a goal of something approaching idealized English native speaker competence. More than ever, this is a problematic assumption; the linguistic landscape for English is rapidly evolving as English becomes a global lingua franca for interaction between people from different first language backgrounds. This shift raises questions as to what communicative norms, if any, should form the basis for teaching and curricula planning, and how learners can be best prepared to communicate via English with other non-native speakers. In response to such issues, in this chapter I propose a set of principles to guide the teaching of English for intercultural spoken communication. I begin by providing a brief outline of the field of intercultural languages education and the origins of the principles. I then outline the theoretical basis and rationale for each principle and suggest ways in which teachers can draw on the principles to cultivate the practice of intercultural communicative language teaching.
This article investigates textbooks used in English classes in German schools to evaluate their relevance to current trends of teaching English as an international language. For many European students, English is no longer just a foreign language, but an important European lingua franca. Thus, we argue it is essential for the language to be positioned as such in key textbooks used in English classrooms, which aim to prepare students for future use of English. An analysis of three main textbook series used in Germany was done through an adapted framework that depicts a Global Englishes approach to language teaching, focussing on representations of ownership, users, models, and target interlocutors of English. The analysis found that there was over-reliance of UK models of English, and static depictions of language users and cultures. The findings can be generalized to other countries where the sociolinguistic reality of English may not be accurately represented in English teaching materials.
In this paper, I shall discuss issues regarding globalization and culture in the context of English language teaching (ELT), with a particular focus on Chinese ELT materials in secondary schools in China. Globalization has a far-reaching impact on the foreign language education industry in China. Chinese learners of English view globalization positively as opportunities for geographical and social upward mobility. In addition, Chinese learners adopt a pragmatic approach to Chinese and foreign cultures in terms of negotiated multiculturalism based on a Yin Yang principle (Fang 2011, p. 34) of co-existence, mutual reinforcement and paradoxical unity. This paper reviews Chinese conceptualizations of globalization and culture as well as English as an International Language (EIL), and analyses ELT textbook materials for secondary schools in China. The analytical framework is based on current EIL principles and criteria for ELT materials (Sharifian 2009, McKay 2012, & Matsuda 2012). Chinese secondary school English textbooks have been collected as data, and their analysis shows that 1) texts about cultures other than English (COTE) co-exist with texts of traditional Inner-Circle (Kachru 1982) cultures, 2) cross-cultural perspectives are represented in current secondary school English texts, 3) multiculturalism has been incorporated in the texts, 4) explicit efforts have been made in the compilation of text materials and relevant learning activities to cater for the needs of Chinese secondary students for learning English in the Chinese context, 5) texts that help raise awareness of world Englishes and local functionalities of English are included in the textbooks, and 6) the teachers’ and students’ relevant personal experiences and schemas are utilized and activated in the choice and design of the main and supplementary texts and related activities. I conclude the paper by arguing that the ongoing globalization and multicultural awareness, alongside the paradigm shift to teaching EIL in the Chinese context have engendered desirability for incorporating multicultural and multimodal ELT materials in China. It is, therefore, not only feasible but also natural and timely to focus on the local functionalities, i.e., local needs, functions and purposes, in the ELT materials, and this has significant implications for Chinese learners and teachers of English.
The place of culture in teaching English as an international language (EIL) is a complex issue, given the diversity of contexts in which English is currently being used globally. Building on a sociocultural perspective that language use is open to negotiation and is context-dependent, this paper argues that the design and content of English-language teaching (ELT) textbooks should reflect the multiple perspectives inherent in EIL. Findings from an analysis of the cultural content of seven series of internationally distributed ELT textbooks are reported. Our study showed that even though cultural aspects were proportionally diverse in each textbook series, inner circle cultural content still dominates most of the textbooks. Furthermore, cultural presentation still largely remains at the traditional knowledge-oriented level and does not engage learners in deep levels of reflection. The findings are discussed in light of existing studies, and some recommendations for future textbook writers and classroom practice are suggested.
We begin by considering how the recent phenomenon of English as a Lingua Franca (henceforth ELF) fits in with the older notion of lingua francas in general as well as with older versions of ELF. We then explore the beginnings of ELF in its modern manifestation, including the earliest ELF research, and tackle the thorny issue of defining ELF. After discussing the main locations and domains in which ELF research has been carried out to date, we move on to examining research into three linguistic levels, lexicogrammar, phonology and pragmatics, concluding with a discussion of very recent findings revealing ELF's linguistic fluidity. Next, we discuss research into two domains where ELF has proved especially prevalent: business English and academic English. This is followed by a consideration of ELF as a globalized and globalizing practice. We end the article by exploring the implications of ELF research for ELF-oriented English teaching and the role that attitudes are likely to play in this. We conclude that while the relaxed attitudes towards ELF of younger people are promising, strong resistance is still felt by many others, and that the major challenge remains in convincing the examination boards that they should take account of ELF.
This article reviews the recent literature on English as an International Language (EIL), taking into consideration the main implications of such literature for English language teaching. Relevant research on non-native-speaker (NNS) teachers is discussed, together with their role in the context of the global need for English language teachers, specially in EFL countries. It is claimed that the confluence of recent research on EIL, together with the increasing appreciation of NNS teachers – both in ESL and EFL contexts – are creating the right conditions for the gradual acceptance of English as a Lingua Franca, with the consequence of a decrease in the role of native-speaker teachers in setting the principles and norms on which this lingua franca will be taught in the future.
Reflecting the continued rise of English as a global language, English as a foreign language (EFL) has become a compulsory primary school subject across many non-English-speaking countries. This trend has been accompanied by publishers’ investment in the development of EFL teaching materials for young learners. Such materials rely heavily on images, with relatively sparse writing in English and the children’s first language. This study examines EFL textbooks for the year in which EFL is first introduced as a compulsory primary school subject in South Korea. Specifically, we analyse whether and how the multimodal resources used in five EFL textbooks approved by the South Korean government for use in Grade 3 address the curriculum requirement to present English as an important bridge connecting different countries. The critical multimodal content analysis of textbook characters and their interactions suggests that a general western bias and implicit support of native-speakerism are still existent in Korean EFL textbooks.
A great deal has been written about what English as an International Language (EIL) actually is (e.g. Alsagoff et al., 2012; Matsuda, 2012; McKay and Brown, 2016; Sharifian, 2009), ranging from a view of EIL as the many varieties of English that are spoken today to the use of English by second language speakers of English. Thus, EIL is viewed both as a type of English and as a way of using English. The purpose of this article is to (1) grapple with defining the construct of EIL and (2) elaborate on what this construct means for pedagogy. The article begins by discussing various terms and definitions associated with EIL and positing an alternative definition. Following this, the majority of the article will be devoted to elaborating on what such a definition suggests for a sensitive and effective EIL pedagogy.
This article examines bilingual identity of Vietnamese international school students as reflected in their language practices and language beliefs (Spolsky, 2004). It seeks to identify the factors related to sociocultural connection, interaction and investment (Fielding, 2015) that influence their bilingual identity. Interviews with three students were the main source of the data. Findings reveal that a number of factors had an impact on the students’ ways of practising Vietnamese and English and shaping their beliefs of the languages. As the students attached their imagined future identity to English and global mobility more than to Vietnamese and local experience, schools should play a significant role in encouraging students to think more “glocally” and positively contribute to their local communities.
Increasingly, educational research suggests that translanguaging pedagogies can provide meaningful supports for English language learners. Yet, few studies examine how multilingual teens in English-dominant settings independently translanguage to make sense of school and achieve their goals. In this study, we review definitions of translanguaging and shed light on the rich translanguaging practices of four transnational, multilingual teens in high school and middle school. Holding the view that pedagogical moves should be developed in response to particular groups of learners, we show teens’ agentive use of translanguaging and connect these to implications for practice in secondary schools. In English-only environments, multilingual students productively use languages other than English to support their learning.
The rise of English as an international language (EIL) has challenged the focus on native-speaker culture in second language teaching and learning. Exposing learners to a single culture is no longer considered sufficient as intercultural language teaching and understanding gains momentum. The aim of this study was to investigate the representation of culture in dialogues and reading passages in international and localised textbooks used in Iran where localisation is favoured by language education policymakers in their macro-planning. The categorisations proposed by Cortazzi and Jin and Adaskou, Britten and Fahsi were used to conduct a content analysis to see which ‘cultures’ - those associated with the first language, those associated with the target language (TL), or other cultures - and which aspects of each culture (sociological or aesthetic) were addressed in these textbooks. The analysis revealed that most of the cultural elements embodied in the localised textbooks were culturally neutral in that they did not clearly refer to any particular culture and only a few were based on the TL and other cultures. Furthermore, in the localised textbook corpus, first language/local culture did not feature at all, while sociological values were highlighted more than the aesthetic aspects of culture. In contrast, the main focus in the international textbooks was on intercultural elements, two-thirds of which were in the aesthetic category. TL cultural elements were comparatively more evident in the international textbooks while very few representations were culturally neutral.
In an increasingly globalized world, writing courses, situated as they are in local institutional and rhetorical contexts, need to prepare writers for global writing situations. Taking introductory technical communication in the United States as a case study, this article describes how and to what extent global perspectives are incorporated into writing. Based on an analysis of eight textbooks and a closer analysis of four of them, we illustrate the representation of technical communication and communicators as well as multiculturalism and multilingualism in these textbooks and point out the limitations vis-à-vis the cultural and linguistic complexity of global technical communication in today’s world. We conclude by considering implications for U.S. college composition as it continues to contribute to the international discourse of writing studies.
Although a key component in English language teaching programs, English textbooks have been criticized for not offering classroom learners adequate opportunity for learning authentic language (Bardovi-Harlig, 2001; Grant and Starks, 2001; Wong, 2002; Vellenga, 2004). This is because instead of making use of language samples that native speakers actually produce, many textbooks have drawn on native speakers’ intuition about language use, which might not always be reliable (Wolfson, 1989a). This article reports on the finding of a study which aims to analyze and evaluate the pragmatic content of a recently developed series of textbooks intended for use in Vietnam’s upper-secondary schools. Specifically, the article examines how speech acts are linguistically presented in the textbooks and whether adequate contextual and meta-pragmatic information is provided to facilitate the learning of these speech acts. The article also draws implications regarding the writing of ESL/EFL materials for developing intercultural communicative competence in the context of English as a Global Language.
This paper attempts to introduce and explain the famous Three Concentric Circles proposed by Kachru, namely, the Inner Circle, the Outer Circle and the Expanding Circle. Based on Kachru’s theory, the paper proceeds to discuss four fallacies in EFL and ESL contexts, which are (1) English learners in the Outer and Expanding Circles learn English essentially to communicate with people from the Inner Circle; (2) a native speaker model is the only appropriate model for all learners of English; (3) all native speakers of English can go to teach in the Outer and Expanding circles; (4) English is a tool for understanding and teaching American or British cultural values.
Despite long-standing recognition of the importance of sociocultural context in meaning making, criticisms have been levelled
at communicative language teaching (CLT) for failing to effectively address this at the level of classroom practice. In fact,
it has been argued that the way CLT presents content reveals a fundamentally reductionist view of communication. This paper
uses examples of dialogues from the New Interchange series to briefly illustrate what can be considered a typical shortcoming of many modern commercial English language textbooks:
the neglect of the place of sociocultural context in dialogues and dialogue-related activities. This paper shows two ways
in which this neglect is manifested and then suggests some concrete ways that teachers can use the SPEAKING model developed
by Hymes (1972) to increase their awareness of elements of sociocultural context and also develop analytical questions for
learners.
Firth and Wagner (1997) questioned the dichotomies nonnative versus native speaker, learner versus user, and interlanguage versus target language, which reflect a bias toward innateness, cognition, and form in language acquisition. Research on lingua franca English (LFE) not only affirms this questioning, but reveals what multilingual communities have known all along: Language learning and use succeed through performance strategies, situational resources, and social negotiations in fluid communicative contexts. Proficiency is therefore practice-based, adaptive, and emergent. These findings compel us to theorize language acquisition as multimodal, multisensory, multilateral, and, therefore, multidimensional. The previously dominant constructs such as form, cognition, and the individual are not ignored; they get redefined as hybrid, fluid, and situated in a more socially embedded, ecologically sensitive, and interactionally open model.
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We provide the best international education and use internationaloriented learning materials": Questioning the 'international' from the perspective of English as an International Language
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