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Understanding social networks and social support resources with sports coaches
Abstract
Objectives
Research on social support with sports coaches is limited, yet the benefits of social support within other occupations have been widely reported. This study explored sports coaches’ social network structures, the social support resources available to coaches, and the situations in which coaches use social support.
Design
Cross-sectional.
Method
Data were collected with male (n = 6) and female (n = 7) British coaches (Mage = 34.20, SD = 13.37; Mexperience = 13.20, SD = 10.41) using semi-structured interviews and interviewee-aided sociograms. Interview data and sociograms were analyzed using abductive thematic analysis and social network analysis to create ego-network diagrams. The ego-network diagrams were created to provide information on the locality and influence of coaches’ social network members.
Results
The ego-network diagrams highlight that the structure of coaches’ social networks encompasses support from peers, friends, family, and miscellaneous (e.g., media). The diagrams also demonstrate that support from friends tended to be perceived as most influential. The coaches called on their network for appraisal (e.g., affirmation), emotional (e.g., venting), informational (e.g., training), and or instrumental support (e.g., cooking dinner) for a variety of situations, such as training (e.g., drill ideas) and issues with athletes (e.g., venting about a misbehaving player).
Conclusion
Given the pertinence of coaches’ social networks and resources for performance and psychological well-being, coach education programs should include a focus on the importance of building relationships. Longitudinal research methods are warranted to, for example, explore the dynamic functions of coaches’ social support. This will develop a more comprehensive base from which interventions can be developed.
... In addition, to better prepare for and perform at major competitions such as the Olympics can depend on how athletes effectively develop and maintain their relationships with different key stakeholders and support networks (e.g., coaches, support staff, sport organizations; Poucher et al., 2018;Wagstaff, 2019). In the case of coaches, Norris et al. (2020) found in their interviews with 13 British coaches that coaches' social networks include support from friends, family, colleagues, and other sources (e.g., media). Among support from those significant social networks, it was identified that support from friends was the most significant. ...
... Coaches also valued external resources (e.g., informational and financial support) from relevant authorities such as sport governing bodies and sport organizations to enable them to better support athletes in unexpected transitions. This evidence extends our knowledge and understanding of coaches' needs and supports findings of Norris et al. (2020) that highlighted the main social networks and social support resources that coaches required were from friends, family, colleagues, and other sources (e.g., media). Therefore, sport organizations and governing bodies should This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. ...
... Coaches also found that spending time with friends who could relate to coaching specific stressors (e.g. athlete misbehaviour) enhanced coaching effectiveness and PWB. 15 A recent qualitative cross-sectional study by Norris et al., 21 focused on social support with coaches in the United Kingdom (UK) and provided novel insight into their social networks using social network analysis. 22 The study highlighted the important roles of social support by demonstrating that coaches turn to peers (i.e. ...
... Previous research on social support among coaches has been predominantly cross-sectional (e.g. Knights and Ruddock-Hudson 8 and Norris et al. 21 ) and has neglected the dynamic nature of social support. This study offers original insights to augment understanding of the multidimensional nature of social support in relation to different stressors and at various points in time. ...
Research on social support with sports coaches is limited, yet the benefits of social support on performance and well-being within other occupations have been widely reported. This study explored sports coaches’ social support resources over a six-week period to understand how social support resources may alleviate stressors. Longitudinal data were collected from women ( n = 6) and male ( n = 4) sports coaches ( M age = 35.2, SD = 13.0 years, M experience = 13.5, SD = 9.7 years) using three semi-structured interviews over a six-week training and competition period. Interview data were analysed using abductive thematic analysis. Coaches used all four types of social support resources over the six-week period. Informational support for advice, ideas, and feedback on training sessions, new job roles, and player development was used most regularly across the different time points. Coaches also reported that they perceived social support resources may alleviate stressors through stress-buffering and main-effects Social support resources (e.g. esteem) might be more important for buffering the effects of stressors and others (e.g. emotional) may be more important for the main-effects. Given the pertinence of social support resources for performance and psychological well-being, applied interventions should aim to educate coaches on ways to develop a social support network that provides all types of social support resources to help cope more effectively with stressors. Moreover, interventions should aim to alter coaches’ perceptions of potential stressors as less of a threat and more of a challenge to alleviate the prospective negative influences of stressors.
... Consequently, the coaches took their negative affective responses from these situations into other aspects of their work and homelife, which adversely influenced their experience of eudaimonic well-being dimensions (e.g., quality of relations with others). Given these findings, it appears imperative, particularly at the BOS, that coaches consider making better use of their social support networks as it may help them to offload, gain increased perspective, demonstrate more adaptive responses to stressors, and subsequently support the experience of MWB (Norris et al., 2020). ...
... In contrast, operating in an environment that is highly challenging but where individuals feel highly supported has been reported to be a facilitative environment that leads to the development of resilience and presents an opportunity for individuals to experience personal growth. Thus, although the efficacy of specific coping strategies may differ across individuals due to coping being an intrapersonal process (Lazarus, 1999), there appears to be a growing consensus surrounding the potentially adaptive nature of seeking social support as a coach in attempts to cope with stressful performance stressors and it leading to positive MWB implications (Norris et al., 2020). ...
A novel concurrent, independent mixed-methods research design was adopted to explore elite association football coaches’ stress and mental ill-/well-being experiences over the course of an entire season. Elite coaches ( N = 18) completed measures of perceived stressor severity, coping effectiveness, and mental ill-/well-being, with a sample ( n = 8) also participating in semistructured interviews, across four time points. Linear mixed-model and retroductive analyses revealed (a) lower mental well-being at the beginning of the season due to negative appraisals/responses to stressors and ineffective coping attempts, (b) higher emotional exhaustion and depersonalization at the end of the season, (c) stressors high in severity led to decreased mental well-being (unless coaches coped effectively) and increased symptoms associated with burnout, and (d) ineffective coping attempts led to increased emotional exhaustion. These findings offer novel insight into the specific components of elite football coaches’ stress experiences influencing their mental ill-/well-being over time.
... In addition, previous Irish research reported how women coaches consider support from family and fellow coaches as paramount (Larkin et al., 2007). Overall the women had positive interactions with their fellow coaches and felt supported by them and learned from them which is in accordance with Norris, Didymus, and Kaiseler (2020) and North, Piggott, Rankin-Wright, and Ashford (2020) respectively. Volunteer coaches want support from their fellow coaches in the form of guidance and autonomy, conflict resolution and mentoring (Harman & Doherty, 2019). ...
... Volunteer coaches want support from their fellow coaches in the form of guidance and autonomy, conflict resolution and mentoring (Harman & Doherty, 2019). Norris et al. (2020) implies that social support from friends and fellow coaches especially those they considered more experienced were the main forms of support. However, volunteer coaches had fewer support networks than their paid and parttime counterparts suggesting that these networks need to be developed further (Potts, Didymus, & Kaiseler, 2018). ...
Volunteer women coaches in non-elite sport are underrepresented in coaching literature. To address this gap, 14 women were interviewed to explore their lived experiences as volunteer coaches within a female-only team sport of ladies Gaelic football at non-elite level in Ireland. The participants met the following inclusion criteria (i) over eighteen, (ii) with at least five-years coaching experience and (iii) a coach education qualification. The Ecological-Intersectional Model informed the design and analysis phases. The findings show how support within the home is essential for their coaching involvement. The relationships with fellow coaches and athletes are integral to a positive experience and all coaches indicated a player-centred coaching philosophy. However, there are still some negative perceptions of women in coaching at societal level such as conscious and unconscious gender bias. The findings highlight the need for club-based support structures to attract, support, develop and retain volunteer women coaches at non-elite level.
... Particularly at the higher levels of performance, it can be difficult to balance the needs of sport with family life (e.g., McKay et al., 2008). Relationships with members of their social support network can be a stressor for both athletes and coaches (e.g., McKay et al., 2008;Norris et al., 2020). For example, a lack of support from coaches, peers, significant others, family, and friends can leave the athlete or coach feeling isolated. ...
... • Building relationships to develop a strong social support network (Norris et al., 2020). ...
... Social support is an important resource to help coaches appraise stress as a challenge and perform effectively under pressure (Dixon & Turner, 2018). Given that sports coaching has been recognised as a stressful activity at a range of levels (Potts et al., 2019), promoting social support amongst coaches is especially pertinent, with recent research by Norris et al. (2020) advocating relationship building within coach education programs. ...
... Research suggests social support enhances students' learning through shared reflection, building a strong emotional base to support the processes of social learning (Peel & Shorthand, 2004). Results also support those of Norris et al. (2020) who found that informational support was a frequently recognised resource amongst coaches, whilst emotional support was identified as a calming influence. Similarly, previous research indicates that social support amongst coaches is positively related to useful perceptions of stress (Dixon et al., 2017). ...
Despite the potential to enhance learning in higher education, collaborative reflection in practical settings has received limited attention. This study investigated collaborative reflection within peer coaching assessments on a university-based coach education program. Data were collected through focus groups with undergraduate sports coaching students and individual interviews with module instructors. Thematic analysis revealed three main themes and six sub-themes as follows: reflective processes (evaluating peers’ experiences, collaboration through shared knowledge); social support (practical support, emotional support); and engagement (task engagement, pressure of assessment). Evaluating peer coaching performance through observation, participation, and discussion enhanced students’ awareness of their own coaching practice. Findings highlight a tendency for students to exchange knowledge informally and several barriers to collective reflection within formal practical settings. Students provided social support to help peers manage the demands of practical coaching assessments. Instructors’ perspectives supported and challenged the student data, culminating in recommendations to enhance collaborative reflection within and beyond a module of study.
... Across all competitive levels, a lack of social support, increased numbers of, and conflicting responsibilities, salary, job insecurity and poor work life balance, are consistently linked toelevatedlevels of perceived stress that can affect well-being (Frey, 2007;Kellmann & Kallus, 1994;Knight et al., 2013;Levy et al., 2009;Pearson et al., 2020;Robbins, Gilbert, & Clifton, 2015;Thelwell, Weston, Greenlees, & Hutchings, 2008). Conversely, supportive organisational environments that provide tangible support and value the coach's performance may buffer the stressors coaches encounter (Chroni, Abrahamsen, Skille, & Hemmestad, 2019), while higher levels of 'grit', perseverance of long-term goals (Moen & Olsen, 2020), and the provision of social support networks (Norris, Didymus, & Kaiseler, 2020), are protective for coach well-being. Together, this complex of individual and occupational stressors highlights the importance of considering coaches' experiences as part of broader social structures that interact with the potential to affect performance and psychological well-being. ...
... However, the effects of interpersonal elements (e.g., greater social support, positive relationships, organisational imposition and pressure, role ambiguity and expectations) or intrapersonal traits (e.g., grit, hardiness, resilience, anxiety, purpose) on well-being, have been underexplored in the literature. For instance, further research is required into the effect(s) of social support on coach well-being because of its role in buffering stress-induced psychological disturbance (e.g., depression and anxiety) (Frese, 1999;LaRocco, House, & French Jr, 1980;Zimet, Dahlem, Zimet, & Farley, 1988), and its significancein sustaining psychological well-being in the workplace (Häusser, Mojzisch, Niesel, & Schulz-Hardt, 2010), and in a sport and exercise context (Bianco & Eklund, 2001;Fletcher & Scott, 2010;Norris et al., 2020). Furthermore, the potential impact of work-life balance (Sirgy & Lee, 2016) which has been commonly cited as a concern for coach well-being, warrants further investigation. ...
Problem Statement: Sports coaches work inuncontrollable, complex, and ever-changingenvironments that exertnumerous demands, which together can affect psychological well-being. The stressors faced by sport coaches at varying competitive levels, and the coping methods they employ to mitigate these stressors have received considerable attention in the literature. However, factors contributing to psychological well-being, scaffolded bytheoretical models, have not been fully elucidated. Purpose:The purpose of this narrative review was to outline and discuss the main theoretical models that have been used to assess psychological well-being in sport coaches. Approach: Included studies were original research using theoretical models to assess psychological well-being in sport coaches of mixed competitive backgrounds. A major focus of this review was studies involving 'self-determination theory', published to July 2020. Results: Reviewed studies revealed that basic psychological needs satisfaction, lack of basic psychological needs thwarting and self-determined motivation, contribute to higher levels of psychological well-being in sport coaches. Working conditions, workload and social agents within the coaching environment also play pivotal roles in influencing a coach's psychological well-being. Conclusions: Supporting the psychological needs of coaches and instilling feelings of personal accomplishment is therefore a priority in maintaining high levels of psychological well-being and decreasing susceptibility to burnout, while ultimately preserving coach performance and retention. To better understand coach well-being, a clearer distinction of well-being at distinct levels of competition and experience is required, along with further investigation of well-being in female sport coaches, and the development of broader conceptual theory.
... This point could be magnified when it comes to female coaches. Although the female coaches in this study appeared to be well supported in terms of access to mentors, CPD, and coach developers, generally speaking, the existing research suggests that there is a gap between formal coach education dealing with complex issues around mental health, dealing with stress, and the increased sense of responsibility and isolation that female coaches may experience (e.g., Coach 10F; Norman et al., 2018;Norris et al., 2020). As such, there is a need to explore how coach education can be evolved to address these gaps in the knowledge base around stress by tackling it proactively rather than retrospectively and including some of the tools identified in this paper. ...
Following increased research into how situational and organizational stress affects coaches’ performance and welfare, there is a need to understand how coaches appraise and cope with the stressors they experience. These experiences could help inform applied interventions that facilitate both positive behavioural and performance-related outcomes. This is particularly important in elite coaches who operate in international competitions. Thirteen Olympic coaches participated in semistructured interviews to identify how they appraised stress as they prepared for the Tokyo Olympic Games. The research identified nine subthemes, which were categorized into three general overarching themes: (a) stressors, (b) appraisal of stressors, and (c) coping mechanisms. Despite the prevalence of negative stressors, self-doubt, and self-presentational concerns, many coaches interviewed demonstrated a positive outlook in relation to stress. Furthermore, they had established strong communities of practice as coping mechanisms against the impact of stress on performance, welfare, and health. Therefore, this study provides novel insights into the broad range of physical, psychological, and emotional challenges faced by Olympic and Paralympic coaches in the buildup to Olympic and Paralympic Games. Coach education programmes can use this information to help coaches develop effective coping mechanisms, subsequently leading to more positive outcomes from the stressors they experience.
... Most of these works are based on a quantitative paradigm by analysing the impact of networks and relationships on decision-making [4][5][6]. Within the last few years, sports research in general, and elite sport research in particular, have produced several works based on network approaches that analyse specific network constellations in (elite) sport [7][8][9]. These works have significantly contributed to establishing a sport-related social network research base. ...
In the course of their careers, elite athletes are faced with crucial decisions. This applies particularly to adolescent athletes who additionally have to cope with a variety of age-related developmental tasks. For young top football players with a migrant background, this can be even more challenging as they often attract the interest of national associations. From a network-theoretical perspective, it can be considered likely that the decision to join a top national association is not taken independently of the players' networks. This article addresses the role of network actors within the players' decision-making process. Our analysis is guided by constructivist network theory and based on a qualitative research approach that used guided expert interviews as its core research tool. Ten interviews with German-born youth internationals with a migrant background were conducted. The present analysis reveals several network actors such as family, coaches and players' agents involved in the 'national team question'. Evidently, most relevant networks of players with a migrant background are sports-related. These networks turned out to be highly functionalized and leave only limited room for manoeuvring. At the same time, the interviews reveal 'structural holes' within the players' networks and indicate a considerable need for the optimization of talent counselling.
... For example, our findings align with existing occupational and health literature which highlights the detrimental impact poor working relationships can have on health and PWB (Schaufeli et al., 2007;Street et al., 2009). This could be mitigated by improving both relationships and communication (Sias, 2009), particularly between coaches and their athletes, and building effective social support networks (e.g. via mentoring systems, see Norris et al., 2020). Furthermore, developing resilience appears to be an important skill for coaches to acquire to help mitigate some of the negative impacts of stressors experienced and can help coaches on their developmental journey (Sakar & Hilton, 2020). ...
Approximately 200,000 coaches cease coaching each year in the United Kingdom alone. The reasons for this dropout are not fully understood, but they could be linked to the stressful nature of coaching and the potential for this to impede health and psychological well-being (PWB). The aim of this meta-synthesis is to systematically search for and draw together the qualitative research evidence on coaches’ experiences of stressors, primary appraisals, emotions, coping, and PWB. Using a rigorous and systematic search protocol, 11 studies were identified, assessed for research quality, and synthesized thematically to generate new insight. The findings highlight the plethora of stressors that coaches can experience, the impact of coaches’ appraisals on PWB, and the coping families that coaches can use to foster adaptation. In doing so, the meta-synthesis deepens our understanding of coaches’ stress transactions and their experiences of PWB. There is a significant lack of qualitative research evidence on coaches’ appraisals and PWB. Qualitative and or longitudinal research is warranted to develop knowledge in these areas. Such research should be used to develop interventions that are applicable to different coaching populations (e.g. working parents and part-time coaches) to help minimize stressors, facilitate positive appraisals and emotions, and foster PWB.
... Especially notable was the relatively small perceived impact of a lack of social support on mental health. This is in direct contrast with research suggesting that social support forms an important buffer against stress and mental health issues (Norris, Didymus, & Kaiseler, 2020). Despite the low to moderate self-perceived impact of coach stressors on mental health, the present study demonstrates that coaches are not immune to experiencing symptoms of mental health disorders. ...
Coaching in elite sports can be a highly volatile and stressful profession. Nevertheless, limited knowledge is available on how coach stressors impact elite-level coaches’ mental health. The present study therefore aimed to assess the self-perceived impact of coach stressors on coaches’ mental health, in terms of psychological and social well-being, as well as the prevalence of symptoms of a number of common mental disorders. Furthermore, the role of resilience was examined as a potential protective resource against mental health issues in coaches. Data were collected cross-sectionally, using an online survey with 119 elite-level coaches from the Netherlands and Belgium. Results showed that, although coach stressors were commonly experienced, the self-perceived impact on mental health was low to moderate. Nevertheless, symptoms of common mental disorders were prevalent within the coaches, ranging from 39% for depression/anxiety to 19% for distress and adverse alcohol use. Furthermore, organizational stressors were found to be a positive predictor for symptoms of depression/anxiety, whereas resilience was a negative predictor. The results highlight the need for more research and attention to the mental health of coaches in elite sports.
This study explored whether gender differences exist in social support, optimism/pessimism, and psychological well-being among university student athletes and examined the relationship among these three variables and the mediating effect of optimism/pessimism. A total of 322 university student athletes (159 men and 163 women) who were Division 1 athletes participated in this study. The research instruments used in this study comprised the revised Athletes’ Received Support Questionnaire, the Life Orientation Test, and the Psychological Well-Being Scale. The results demonstrated the influence of gender differences for some variables. Regarding pessimistic tendency and autonomy (a dimension of the Psychological Well-Being Scale), the average scores of men were significantly higher than those of women. Regarding the other three dimensions of the Psychological Well-Being Scale (purpose in life, positive relationships with others, and personal growth), the average scores were higher for women than for men. Moreover, significant positive correlations were observed among social support provided by coaches, optimism, and psychological well-being. Optimism mediated the relationship between social support and psychological well-being, and pessimism was negatively correlated with psychological well-being; however, the mediating path was not significant. Finally, suggestions for future research and practical implications are proposed for researchers, educators, and supervisors in the field of sports.
The influence of the trainer on the athlete, his attitudes and training methods, is one of the key factors in the formation of successful sportsman training. However, in the current rapidly changing conditions of the modern world, trainers, both old and experienced, and young professionals, need to constantly improve and expand their knowledge. Based on the studies of a number of scientists by trainers who regularly attend various advanced training courses, athletes compete more successfully in competitions than specialists who prefer to rely on the knowledge gained during training at the university. Nevertheless, the concept of “the success of a child’s sports training” has a broader meaning than achieving a prize in competitions. In contrast to the performance of competitions, the concept of “the success of a child’s sports training” is integrative, including interrelated and correlating components. For the successful development of the components of success and their indicators, the trainer needs to have knowledge of the competent construction of sports training for the child. In order to provide trainers with such knowledge, the author has developed a continuing education program “Pedagogical conditions for the formation of the success of children in the process of sports training”.
The stressor and coping experiences of full-time and paid coaches have been reported in the literature, yet researchers have largely overlooked the experiences of part-time and voluntary coaches who make a substantial contribution to the coaching workforce. This study aimed to begin addressing these voids by exploring volunteer, part-time and full-time coaches’ stressors and coping strategies. In addition, this study aimed to explore both men and women coaches’ experiences of stressors and coping because most published literature has focused on the experiences of male coaches. Guided by our interpretive paradigm and blended constructionist and critical realist perspective, theoretically informed semi-structured interviews were conducted with 19 men and women coaches who represented a range of team and individual sports. Data were thematically analysed using an abductive approach. We constructed 141 codes that were represented by three themes of stressors (coach-related, athlete-related and organisational) and 131 codes relating to coping, which we grouped into seven themes (problem-solving, information seeking, escape, negotiation, self-reliance, dyadic coping and support seeking). Based on these findings, we propose several impactful recommendations for researchers and practitioners. For example, we recommend that researchers continue to generate rich understanding of stressors and coping among coaches who are working on different employment bases to work towards the development of effective stress management interventions. Further, we encourage national governing bodies work with practitioners to incorporate specific foci on stress and stress management during coach education programmes to contribute to more effective performance under pressure.
The aim of this study was to investigate the feedback mechanisms that sport coaches utilized to enhance their coaching practice at various stages of their careers. Sport coaches (n = 21) were interviewed in-depth with the resulting information being analysed using HyperRESEARCH qualitative data analysis software package. Results suggested four distinct dimensions that characterized the sources of feedback used by coaches: networks, players/participants, critical thinking skills and support systems. Those more experienced coaches with established networks of like-minded coaches seemed to be more open to constructive feedback. Similarly, novice coaches appeared to accept feedback from non-reliable sources in lieu of more informed sources. A distinctive emerging feature was the lack of formal feedback mechanisms within groups of coaches at all levels of qualification.
Sports’ coaching has evolved into a recognizable occupation that requires multiple roles and responsibilities. The Australian Football League is considered one of the highest profile sports in Australia, and as a result, Australian Football League coaches are perceived to operate in a complex and stressful environment; yet, there is no evidence to support this notion. The purpose of this research was, therefore, to examine the experiences of occupational stress and social support of Australian Football League senior coaches. A total of 12 senior Australian Football League coaches were involved in one semi-structured interview. Five themes emerged from the findings. These included: (i) pressurized workplace environments; (ii) development and improvement of others and self; (iii) accountabilities and responsibilities to others; (iv) advice, support and comfort from others and (v) stress and adversity—the ramifications. This research has contributed to the Australian sports coaching industry and is a critical step in gaining a richer and broader understanding of stress and social support among elite coaches globally.
In recent years, the value of social learning approaches as part of the design and delivery of formalised coach development initiatives has gained credence in the literature. However, insight is currently lacking into the fundamental social dimensions that underpin coach learning. Accordingly, this study aimed to explore coaches' perceptions of their actual and preferred methods of acquiring new coaching knowledge, the types of knowledge they currently acquire and/or desire, and their application of new knowledge. Responses to an online survey, completed by practicing coaches (N = 320) in a range of sports and contexts, were analysed descriptively and inductively. Results revealed that coaches preferred, and mostly acquired, coaching knowledge from informal learning activities, especially when these permitted social interaction. Notably, however, formal coach education courses were also reported relatively frequently as a source of recent knowledge acquisition. Nevertheless, critical justification for and application of acquired knowledge was largely absent. Based on the findings, we suggest that, before social learning activities such as mentoring schemes and communities of practice are placed at the centre of formalised coach development provision, coach educators must put in place the support structures to better enable coaches to recognise and deal with the potentially mixed influences of the social milieu on coach learning, aiming to ensure that their informal development is sufficiently open-minded, reflective and critical.
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This article addresses potential effects on reflexivity of researcher’s social position (e.g. gender, age, race, immigration status, sexual orientation), personal experiences, and political and professional beliefs. Because reflexivity is a major strategy for quality control in qualitative research, understanding how it may be impacted by the characteristics and experiences of the researcher is of paramount importance. Benefits and challenges to reflexivity under three types of researcher’s position are discussed and illustrated by means of case examples: (1) reflexivity when researcher shares the experience of study participants, (2) reflexivity when researcher moves from the position of an outsider to the position of an insider in the course of the study, and (3) reflexivity when researcher has no personal familiarity or experience with what is being studied. Strategies are offered for harvesting the benefits of researcher’s familiarity with the subject and for curbing its potentially negative effects. Directions for future research are suggested.
This study explored coaches’ responses to stress, the perceived effects of stress, and the coping
strategies coaches employed. Transcribed interviews with 12 world class coaches, based in
the UK, were inductively content analyzed. A range of themes emerged describing coaches’
responses to stressors and the effects of stress. Specifically, coaches discussed psychological
reactions, and suggested that their negative responses to stress could be projected onto their
athletes.While structuring and planning was reported as a coping strategy, coaches described a
limited use of psychological skills and tended to avoid stressors that provoked strain responses
in efforts to manage stress. Results suggest that coaches should be aware of how they respond
to stressors and the influence their responses might have on their athletes. Sport psychologists
should help coaches to identify and develop the psychological skills and strategies required to
cope with the demands of world class coaching.
Examined the social support (SS) networks of 78 male and 92 female college athletes with respect to who provides what types of SS and in what perceived amounts and compared the SS networks of low- and high-stressed Ss. Results indicate that (1) SS was provided by coaches, teammates, friends, and parents and (2) each made a unique contribution to the Ss' SS network. Coaches and teammates were identified as providing types of SS requiring expertise in sports, and friends and parents were identified as providing complementary types of SS not requiring such expertise. Few differences were found between the SS networks of low- and high-stressed Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Embedded in the self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) framework, we obtained self-report data from 418 paid and voluntary coaches from a variety of sports and competitive levels with the aim of exploring potential antecedents of coaches' perceived autonomy supportive and controlling behaviors. Controlling for socially desirable responses, structural equation modeling revealed that greater job security and opportunities for professional development, and lower work-life conflict were associated with psychological need satisfaction, which, in turn, was related to an adaptive process of psychological well-being and perceived autonomy support toward athletes. In contrast, higher work-life conflict and fewer opportunities for development were associated with a distinct maladaptive process of thwarted psychological needs, psychological ill-being, and perceived controlling interpersonal behavior. The results highlight how the coaching context may impact upon coaches' psychological health and their interpersonal behavior toward athletes. Moreover, evidence is provided for the independence of adaptive and maladaptive processes within the self-determination theory paradigm.
Sex differences in social support have been explained in terms of gender differences in socialization and personality. The current research focused directly on the link between social support and gender variables. An adult, largely Caucasian sample of both sexes reported an experience in which they had received support, and were assessed on masculinity, femininity, nurturance, affiliation, autonomy, and self-confidence. The results revealed that gender, but not sex, was significantly correlated with patterns of social support. Femininity (in both sexes) was associated with seeking and receiving emotional support, and with seeking and receiving support from women. Masculinity (in both sexes) was linked only with receiving tangible support. These findings argue for the significance of femininity in promoting a more social form of well-being, and underscore the importance of studying gender directly rather than relying on sex as a proxy variable.
The purpose of this article is to determine whether the positive association between social support and well-being is attributable more to an overall beneficial effect of support (main- or direct-effect model) or to a process of support protecting persons from potentially adverse effects of stressful events (buffering model). The review of studies is organized according to (a) whether a measure assesses support structure or function, and (b) the degree of specificity (vs. globality) of the scale. By structure we mean simply the existence of relationships, and by function we mean the extent to which one’s interpersonal relationships provide particular resources. Special attention is paid to methodological characteristics that are requisite for a fair comparison of the models. The review concludes that there is evidence consistent with both models. Evidence for a buffering model is found when the social support measure assesses the perceived availability of interpersonal resources that are responsive to the needs elicited by stressful events. Evidence for a main effect model is found when the support measure assesses a person’s degree of integration in a large social network. Both conceptualizations of social support are correct in some respects, but each represents a different process through which social support may affect well-being. Implications of these conclusions for theories of social support processes and for the design of preventive interventions are discussed.
We examined the varying performance and organizational stressors experienced by coaches who operate with elite athletes. Following interviews with eleven coaches, content analysis of the data revealed coaches to experience comparable numbers of performance and organizational stressors. Performance stressors were divided between their own performance and that of their athletes, while organizational stressors included environmental, leadership, personal, and team factors. The findings provide evidence that coaches experience a variety of stressors that adds weight to the argument that they should be labelled as "performers" in their own right. A variety of future research topics and applied issues are also discussed.
Organizational stressors may be important factors influencing athletes’ sport experiences. In this study we examined organizational stressors as ‘background variables’ (Gump & Matthews, 1999) that may impact athletes’ perceptions of support and appraisals of competitive stressors. Perceptions of available esteem support, organizational stressors, competitive appraisals, and performance satisfaction were prospectively examined among varsity team sport athletes (N = 84). Esteem support was positively related to athlete's perceptions of satisfaction with performance, and the indirect effect through secondary appraisal was significant. Two types of organizational stressors moderated the association between esteem support and secondary appraisal: more frequent coaching stressors weakened the association between esteem support and secondary appraisal, while more frequent team and culture stressors strengthened the association between esteem support and appraisal. These results support previous research (cf. Freeman & Rees, 2009), indicating that perceived available esteem support was positively associated with athletes’ assessments that they had the necessary resources to cope with competitive stressors, which positively predicted performance satisfaction after a competition. Furthermore, these findings suggest that higher levels of coaching stressors were associated with poorer perceptions of having the necessary resources to cope with competition stressors, while conversely, higher team and culture stressors were not necessarily detrimental to athletes’ perceptions of their resources to cope with competitive demands. These results suggest that different types of organizational stressors may have differential impacts on athletes’ sport experiences.
Objectives: Sports coaching can be an inherently stressful occupation because coaches must fulfill multiple roles and cope with various expectations. Further, stress and well-being have implications for coach performance. The objective of this study was, therefore, to conduct a systematic review of literature on stressors, coping, and well-being among sports coaches.
Design: A systematic review using PRIMSA guidelines.
Method: Thorough and systematic literature searches of PsycINFO, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science were conducted. To be eligible for inclusion, papers had to be published in the English language between January 1994 and March 2016 and as full papers in peer-reviewed journals.
Results: The final sample consisted of 38 studies that were conducted with 4,188 sports coaches. This sample consisted of 19 qualitative, 17 quantitative, and two mixed methods studies. The findings demonstrate that coaches experience a variety of stressors relating to their performance and that of the athletes they work with in addition to organizational, contextual, interpersonal, and intrapersonal stressors. The findings also highlight that coaches use a variety of coping strategies (e.g., problem solving, social support, escaping the stressful environment) to reduce the negative outcomes of stress. Five studies that were included in this review focused on coaches’ well-being and found that basic psychological needs satisfaction, lack of basic psychological needs thwarting, and self-determined motivation are needed for coaches to be psychologically well.
Conclusion: Future research should address gaps in extant literature by using longitudinal study designs to explore coaches’ appraisals of stressors, coping effectiveness, social support, and well-being among the unique sports coaching population.
Keywords: cognitive-affective, cognitive-motivational-relational, high performance, transactional
Thematic analysis (TA) is one of a cluster of analytic approaches you can use, if you want to identify patterns of meaning across a qualitative dataset. The widely-used version of TA we outline in this chapter is fairly unique in the canon of qualitative analytic approaches in that it just offers the researcher analytic tools to make sense of data. It is not tied to a particular theoretical framework, and it does not come with methodological stipulations about, for example, how to sample, or to collect data. This gives the researcher great flexibility in how they use TA. Alongside the fact that TA is a relatively accessible qualitative analytic technique, these features make it an excellent and robust method for beginner qualitative researchers, for those wishing to do fairly descriptive work, for those working in teams across disciplinary contexts, or with researchers of mixed (qualitative) experience, and for those wanting to produce research for public consumption (e.g., policy- or practice- oriented research). That said TA also provides a tool that offers the potential for nuanced, complex, interpretative analysis. After introducing TA, and explaining why and when you might use it, we provide a detailed discussion of how you do TA, illustrated with examples from Paul’s focus group study exploring women’s perspectives on, and experiences of, exercise.
The purpose of this study was to investigate sources of occupational stress for NCAA Division I and Division III track and field coaches during the championship season. The Administrative Stress Index (ASI) measured the perceived occupational stressors, and the Personal Resource Questionnaire (PRQ): Part 2 assessed perceived social support. A total of 67 male and female (44.51 + 10.92 yrs.) experienced (14.75 + 10.00 yrs.) coaches participated. Results indicated that a weak to moderate significant correlation exists between the three subscales of the ASI. A significant negative correlation was found between the PRQ and task-based stress (r = -.244, p <.05). When all three predictors and the interaction of years of experience were entered into the model, the social support (β = -0.259 p = 04) and NCAA Division (β = -0.243 p =.052) were significant predictors of task-based stress. As social support increased, task-based stress decreased.
Lack of consensus regarding the nature and conceptual definition of the social support construct has led to a plethora of different forms of measurement of this psychosocial variable, many with psychometric limitations. Beyond the psychometric limitations of some measures, in sport there is also a need for measures to be relevant to the specific experiences of sports performers. In order to gain a greater understanding of the social support experiences of sports people, 10 high-level sports performers were interviewed regarding their experiences of social support. Principles of the grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) approach were adopted for analysis of their responses and insights. Four dimensions of support were generated, within each of which were comments relating to sport-specific support and comments relating to support not directly concerning the sport itself. The dimensions were labeled emotional, esteem, informational, and tangible. Example quotes are given to highlight each dimension of support, and implications for intervention are derived.
The purpose of the present research was to test how behavioral regulations are mediated between basic psychological needs and psychological well-being and ill-being in a sample of team-sport coaches. Based on self-determination theory, we hypothesized a model where satisfaction and thwarting of the basic psychological needs predicted coaches' behavioral regulations, which in turn led them to experience well-being (i.e., subjective vitality, positive affect) or ill-being (i.e., perceived stress, negative affect).
Three-hundred and two coaches participated in the study (Mage = 25.97 years; 82% male). For each instrument employed, the measurement model with the best psychometric properties was selected from a sequence of nested models sustained by previous research, including exploratory structural equation models and confirmatory factor analysis. These measurement models were included in 3 structural equation models to test for mediation: partial mediation, complete mediation, and absence of mediation.
The results provided support for the partial mediation model. Coaches' motivation mediated the relationships from both relatedness need satisfaction and basic psychological needs thwarting for coaches' well-being. In contrast, relationships between basic psychological needs satisfaction and thwarting and ill-being were only predicted by direct effects.
Our results highlight that 3 conditions seem necessary for coaches to experience psychological well-being in their teams: basic psychological needs satisfaction, especially relatedness; lack of basic psychological needs thwarting; and self-determined motivation.
The current study examined, via online focus groups, the consequences of work-family conflict at work and at home with 41 mothers who are Division I head coaches. In addition, the authors focused on the coping mechanisms that these women used to achieve success at work and quality of life with family. Results revealed that work-family conflict influenced outcomes with work (e.g., staffing patterns, relationships with athletes, team performance), family (e.g., time spent and relationships with children and spouses or partners), and life (e.g., guilt and exhaustion, balance and perspective, weaving work and family). Coping mechanisms included stress relief, self-awareness, organization and time management, sacrificing aspects of work, support networks, flexibility with hours, and familyfriendly policies and cultures. Implications are that the women work to promote change within their circle of influence. Although their efforts might not result in actual policy changes, over which they feel limited control, they might result in changes in perceptions and attitudes.
Being subject to a great range of demands is believed to increase burnout propensity in high-performance coaches. This study is the first to explore whether the four step self-determination theory process model is a valuable framework to better understand the process influencing burnout and well-being in high-performance coaches (N = 343, M = 40.33 years) throughout a competitive season. Findings indicated that coaches on average increased in burnout and decreased in well-being. Hypotheses were to a large extent supported: change in perceived environment → change in psychological need satisfaction → change in autonomous motivation → change in burnout and well-being.
This paper uses a reflexive approach to consider the opportunities and challenges of using a visualisation tool in qualitative research on social networks. Although widely used to map social networks over many decades, particularly in health studies and psychology, network visualisation tools are less common in qualitative sociological research. While recent trends in Social Network Analysis (SNA) have tended to concentrate within the quantitative domain, our paper is influenced by the 'cultural turn' in network research, and aims to respond to calls for more exploration of how social ties are constructed and represented in qualitative research. Having used a target sociogram to visualise the networks of highly skilled migrants, we reflect critically on how this tool, far from being a neutral data collective device, influences how networks were described, explained, and perceived by participants. Focusing on the dynamics within the interview encounter, especially in the context of 'researching up', we explore participant reactions, what we learned and might do differently, next time. We conclude that, despite certain limitations, the sociogram helped mitigate the abstract nature of some topics by connecting them to specific groups of people drawn on the diagram. The tool not only enhanced participants' reflection process but allowed certain topics to emerge which might have not otherwise surfaced, hence greatly contributing to the collection of rich data. Nonetheless, as we discuss, there are also ethical issues associated with its use.
This is a book - please kindly do NOT request a copy from me.
Qualitative forms of inquiry are a dynamic and exciting area within contemporary research in sport, exercise and health. Students and researchers at all levels are now expected to understand qualitative approaches and be able to employ them in their work. in this comprehensive and in-depth introductory text, Andrew C. Sparkes and Brett Smith take the reader on a journey through the entire qualitative research process that begins with the conceptualization of ideas and the planning of a study, moves through the phases of data collection and analysis, and then explains how findings might be represented in various ways to different audiences. Ethical issues are also explored in detail, as well as the ways that thegoodnessof qualitative research might be judged by its consumers.
Sampling is central to the practice of qualitative methods, but compared with data collection and analysis its processes have been discussed relatively little. A four-point approach to sampling in qualitative interview-based research is presented and critically discussed in this article, which integrates theory and process for the following: (1) defining a sample universe, by way of specifying inclusion and exclusion criteria for potential participation; (2) deciding upon a sample size, through the conjoint consideration of epistemological and practical concerns; (3) selecting a sampling strategy, such as random sampling, convenience sampling, stratified sampling, cell sampling, quota sampling or a single-case selection strategy; and (4) sample sourcing, which includes matters of advertising, incentivising, avoidance of bias, and ethical concerns pertaining to informed consent. The extent to which these four concerns are met and made explicit in a qualitative study has implications for its coherence, transparency, impact and trustworthiness.
Over the past 30 years investigators have called repeatedly for research on the mechanisms through which social relationships and social support improve physical and psychological well-being, both directly and as stress buffers. I describe seven possible mechanisms: social influence/social comparison, social control, role-based purpose and meaning (mattering), self-esteem, sense of control, belonging and companionship, and perceived support availability. Stress-buffering processes also involve these mechanisms. I argue that there are two broad types of support, emotional sustenance and active coping assistance, and two broad categories of supporters, significant others and experientially similar others, who specialize in supplying different types of support to distressed individuals. Emotionally sustaining behaviors and instrumental aid from significant others and empathy, active coping assistance, and role modeling from similar others should be most efficacious in alleviating the physical and emotional impacts of stressors.
I review existing knowledge, unanswered questions, and new directions in research on stress, coping resource, coping strategies, and social support processes. New directions in research on stressors include examining the differing impacts of stress across a range of physical and mental health outcomes, the "carry-overs" of stress from one role domain or stage of life into another, the benefits derived from negative experiences, and the determinants of the meaning of stressors. Although a sense of personal control and perceived social support influence health and mental health both directly and as stress buffers, the theoretical mechanisms through which they do so still require elaboration and testing. New work suggests that coping flexibility and structural constraints on individuals' coping efforts may be important to pursue. Promising new directions in social support research include studies of the negative effects of social relationships and of support giving, mutual coping and support-giving dynamics, optimal "matches" between individuals' needs and support received, and properties of groups which can provide a sense of social support. Qualitative comparative analysis, optimal matching analysis, and event-structure analysis are new techniques which may help advance research in these broad topic areas. To enhance the effectiveness of coping and social support interventions, intervening mechanisms need to be better understood. Nevertheless, the policy implications of stress research are clear and are important given current interest in health care reform in the United States.
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