Corridor Ecology, Second Edition Linking Landscapes for Biodiversity Conservation and Climate Adaptation
Abstract
Migrating wildlife species across the globe face a dire predicament as their traditional migratory routes are cut off by human encroachment. Forced into smaller and smaller patches of habitat, they must compete more aggressively for dwindling food resources and territory. This is more than just an unfortunate side effect of human progress. As key species populations dwindle, ecosystems are losing resilience and face collapse, and along with them, the ecosystem services we depend on. Healthy ecosystems need healthy wildlife populations. One possible answer? Wildlife corridors that connect fragmented landscapes.
This new and expanded second edition of Corridor Ecology: Linking Landscapes for Biodiversity Conservation and Climate Adaptation captures the many advances in the field over the past ten years. It builds on concepts presented in the first edition on the importance and practical details of maintaining and restoring land connectivity. New to this edition is a guest-edited chapter on ecological connectivity in oceans, including a detailed discussion on pelagic marine corridors and how coastal corridors can provide critical connectivity between marine protected areas. Another new chapter considers the effects of climate change on habitat and offers recommendations on designing effective corridors as landscapes change with shifting climate conditions. The book also includes a discussion of corridors in the air for migrating flying species, from birds to bats, butterflies, and even plant propagules—a concept so new that a term to describe it has yet to be coined. All chapters are thoroughly revised and updated.
Practitioners as well as serious scholars of landscape ecology and the science of protecting biodiversity will find this new edition of corridor ecology science an indispensable resource.
... Corridors work as a pathway for the movement of plants, animals, and other organisms, allowing them to migrate, disperse, and interact. Ecological corridors are usually defined as strips of natural habitat that connect two or more areas of similar habitat that are surrounded by a nonhabitat matrix (Beier and Noss, 1998) and that are managed over the long term to maintain or restore connectivity (Hilty et al., 2019). Corridors may include landscape features such as hedgerows, tree lines, riparian strips, or managed agricultural land, offering a blend of open space and more sheltered passageways for species (Travers et al., 2021). ...
... Each corridor should be designed with specific objectives in mind and be managed accordingly. Regardless of the types of areas that compose them, ecological corridors should always be distinguishable from non-designated areas based on the specific activities that are permitted or prohibited within them (Hilty et al., 2019(Hilty et al., , 2020. ...
... The concept of ecological connectivity encompasses both structural connectivity and functional connectivity (Hilty et al., 2019;Taylor et al., 2006). D6.1 Guidelines for connectivity conservation and planning in Europe with supporting web-based inventory and databases ...
Ecological connectivity is key to maintaining a coherent and resilient network of protected areas in the EU. The EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 has identified the unhindered movement of species, nutrients and ecological processes across connected landscapes as a key feature of a coherent Trans-European Nature Network (TEN-N) of protected and conserved areas. However, to date, streamlined guidance on planning for and implementing connectivity measures specifically at the European scale has been limited.
This report presents a coherent methodological framework and guidelines for mapping functional and structural connectivity at the European scale, as part of the Horizon Europe NaturaConnect project, which is supporting EU Member States in developing a coherent TEN-N of protected and conserved areas.
It describes key ecological connectivity concepts and approaches; outlines methods and tools for estimating connectivity; presents an overview of connectivity projects across Europe; identifies connectivity priorities, gaps and challenges following a stakeholder consultation process; and provides practical and operational guidelines for implementing ecological connectivity for conservation projects ranging from regional to national and European levels. The guidelines present a strategic blueprint aimed at enhancing ecological connectivity across Europe, and address the specific challenges and opportunities related to planning ecological connectivity in the European context.
This report has been written for practitioners and individuals involved in the management and administration of protected areas and ecological connectivity projects across Europe. This includes professionals working in TEN-N implementation at national or regional levels, others involved in spatial planning outside protected areas, and professionals engaged in the implementation of connectivity projects and protected area management.
... Over the past decade, guidance to practitioners has addressed the limitations of this "opportunity mapping" approach, promoting more rigorous methods for setting priorities (Evans et al., 2015;Game et al., 2013;Withey et al., 2012), and demonstrating approaches for considering the conservation impacts of actions on site-specific levels (Tallis et al., 2021). Concurrently, the field of connectivity modeling, as well as practitioners' access to spatial data and computational power, have rapidly expanded Hilty et al., 2019;Theobald et al., 2022). While there have been advances in both areas, practitioners prioritizing restoration investments have few tools and guiding processes to assess and incorporate connectivity value. ...
... A connectivity map representing variation and redundancy in movement potential (rather than one path) facilitates the integration of connectivity values with other decision criteria. While studies using circuit-theory tools that characterize movement networks have been increasing rapidly Hilty et al., 2019), relatively little effort has focused on locations that impede movement. Focusing on areas of low or blocked current (e.g., the white areas in Figure 2) presents an important opportunity for conservation scientists to compare potential benefits from restoring higher resistance land cover types such as intensive agriculture or former mining sites to natural habitats. ...
... In the continental U.S., over 90% of the land surface is within 3 km of non-natural land use (evaluated by M.C. from Dewitz & USGS, 2021), but knowing which of those modified places to address through restoration requires multiple perspectives. Decades of research in landscape ecology have shown that variations at local and regional scales influence the condition of habitat networks (Hilty et al., 2019). Similarly, these factors help decision-makers understand the level of investment it could take to improve connectivity. ...
Restoring landscape connectivity is a key strategy for sustaining biodiversity and ecosystem services. We developed a decision‐focused process that moves from opportunistic siting of restoration to strategic prioritization by incorporating connectivity enhancement in the Appalachian Mountains, USA. Our approach builds from a recent national‐scale assessment identifying a Resilient and Connected Network (RCN) to inform land protection priorities under climate change. In three high‐ranking study areas within the Appalachians, we demonstrated a circuit‐theory based approach simulating the connectivity value of restoring natural vegetation at sites with high human modification. Our methods were co‐developed by scientists and local decision‐makers. This emphasis on study area‐specific decisions led to differences in how model inputs were defined, for instance using feasible potential restoration sites instead of pixels to define opportunities. Similarly, landscape context influenced our process and in fragmented study areas we added a step that considered additional potential restoration sites outside of the current land protection‐based boundaries. To help interpretation of the results, and link back to the broader network of conservation priorities, we mapped connectivity values in current flow categories that matched the RCN product. Our innovative approach and the decision‐relevant framing, can inform a broad range of connectivity science applications.
... At the same time species are being forced to migrate to adapt to global warming. For many species, the barriers and distance between their natural habitat types are too challenging to surmount, leading to their reductions and ultimately extinction (Hilty et al. 2019). Presently, 1 in 8 plant and animal species are at risk of being lost (IPBES 2022). ...
... However, precedents of largescale open space protection and management in forestry, hunting, and Indigenous practices were around hundreds of years prior. Scientific evidence shows that even at its massive size, Yellowstone and most of the world's protected areas are not big enough for a viable population of apex predators (Hilty et al. 2019). National parks and other large protected open spaces, commonly referred to as hubs, are connected by a system of links or corridors expanding a species range (Hoctor et al. 2000). ...
... Founded in 1993, Y2Y is a non-profit agency that collaborates with local and Indigenous governments, landowners, other non-profits, and corporations to create interconnected landscapes between disparate protected areas. Together they have spent millions of dollars on landscape conservation and restoration within an identified boundary of 470,000 km 2 , stretching nearly 3700 km (Hilty et al. 2019). Y2Y has had extraordinary success, where "the rate of protected area growth increased 90%" since its inception, and with the creation of over 100 wildlife road-crossing structures (Hebblewhite et al. 2022, p. 1) Y2Y changed its original mission statement in 2001 to include human well-being and sustainable industry following public outcry and suspicion they were interested in removing property rights (Chester 2003). ...
One way to address the crises of climate change and biodiversity loss is the rapid deployment of so-called nature-based solutions (NbS). Coined in 2008, NbS have become exceedingly popular, with many calling to upscale these works. However, many large-scale ecological restoration and construction endeavors already exist. To capture these projects, this paper coins and defines a new term, the “mega-eco project” and identifies roughly 250 examples worldwide as material evidence. This paper explains what constitutes a mega-eco project and organizes the examples into four typological categories: connectivity, anti-desertification, watershed, and metropolitan projects. Although our primary concern is with contemporary and emerging mega-eco projects, we also show that mega-eco projects have a history and not all of it is good. It is important to consider mega-eco projects in this light because one of their distinguishing characteristics is that when set against the backdrop of environmental crises, many view these projects as virtuous, benevolent undertakings. While we agree with this sentiment and believe mega-eco projects have the potential for a profound shift in how industrialized humans treat the environment, this introductory analysis is part of a more extensive study aimed at identifying best practices to distinguish them from cases of greenwashing and exploitation.
... Consequently, large carnivores are frequently used as focal species for improving landscape connectivity, given their greater sensitivity to habitat fragmentation, threatened status, ecological importance, charisma, and ability to garner public support for conservation (Hilty et al., 2019;Thornton et al., 2016). One such large carnivore is the tiger, Panthera tigris, a globally endangered apex predator and conservation flagship species across large parts of Asia. ...
... This approach assumes that environmental variables facilitating species movement have a low cost or resistance, whereas variables that impede movement have a high cost or resistance (Wade et al., 2015;Zeller et al., 2012). It also assumes that the resistance imposed by environmental variables is species-specific and scale-dependent (Hilty et al., 2019;Zeller et al., 2012). Although the population density of prey species also influences tiger distribution and movement (Karanth et al., 2004), such information was not readily available at the local landscape scale and, therefore, could not be incorporated into the current corridor modeling. ...
... There are various approaches available to optimize resistance surfaces, including but not limited to expert opinion (Dutta et al., 2016;Rathore et al., 2012), habitat suitability (Balbuena-Serrano et al., 2022;González-Saucedo et al., 2021), movement patterns (Carvalho et al., 2016;Proctor et al., 2015), genetic data Jennings et al., 2020), or combinations of these methods (Zeller et al., 2018;Ziółkowska et al., 2016). A resistance surface is generally developed by using empirical data on species distribution or movement in combination with key environmental and anthropogenic variables that may influence the movement of the species (Hilty et al., 2019;Wade et al., 2015). However, when empirical data are unavailable, as it is for many species, researchers have had to rely on expert opinion to compensate for the absence of data on species movement or occurrence (Dutta et al., 2016;Zeller et al., 2012). ...
Habitat fragmentation and isolation threaten the survival of several wide-ranging species , such as tigers, through increased risk from diseases, disasters, climate change, and genetic depression. Identification of the habitat most likely to achieve connectiv-ity among protected areas is vital for the long-term persistence of tigers. We aimed to improve the mapping of potential transfrontier protected area corridors for tigers by connecting sites within the Terai Arc Landscape in Nepal and to those in India, highlighting targeted conservation actions needed along these corridors to maintain long-term connectivity. We used least-cost corridor modeling and circuit theory to identify potential corridors and bottlenecks in the study area. The landscape's resistance to tigers' movement was gathered from expert opinions to inform corridor modeling. We identified nine potential tiger corridors in the Terai Arc Landscape-Nepal that aligned strongly with the remaining intact habitats of the Siwalik landscape, which could facilitate tiger movement. Banke-Bardia and Chitwan-Parsa-Valimiki complexes and Lagga-Bhagga and Khata corridors were identified as high-priority conservation cores and corridors. While our model exhibited congruence with most established corridors in the landscape, it has identified the need to enhance existing corridors to improve landscape connectivity. Several pinch points posing an increased risk to connectivity were identified. Most of these were located near the protected area boundaries and along the Nepal-India border. The Siwalik landscape holds the key to long-term connectivity in the study area; however, immediate conservation attention is needed, particularly at pinch points, to secure this connectivity for tigers. Validation of identified corridors through empirical research and their conservation is a priority. K E Y W O R D S connectivity, habitat linkages, landscape conservation, linkage mapper, pinch points, Siwalik
... Secondly, integrated approaches can help to address jurisdictional issues and transboundary challenges. Partnership initiatives that focus on broader bioregional connectivity (e.g., Yellowstone to Yukon; Two Countries, One Forest) can harness opportunities to collaborate with climate action agencies strategically to restore key ecological corridors and protect carbon sequestration (i.e., carbon offsets) assets (Hilty et al. 2019(Hilty et al. , 2020. Such collaborations can provide opportunities to leverage multiple mandates and funding sources to execute politically viable and financially efficient ways of implementing transboundary climatebiodiversity strategies. ...
... Although protecting species-at-risk is important for biodiversity conservation, an integrated approach would involve a more holistic understanding of different habitats and their various functions for supporting both climate action and biodiversity (Onaindia et al. 2013, Sollmann et al. 2017, Hilty et al. 2019). ...
... Other research has confirmed this result: Practitioners have described wildlife crossing needs and goals treated as subordinate to transportation planning (Newell et al. 2020a), and crossing infrastructure is more likely to be funded if it is included as a part of a larger road development project (Huisjer et al. 2008, Elton andDreschner 2019). An integrated approach to wildlife crossing efforts would incorporate long-term planning and recognize sustainable imperatives around traffic reduction and optimal scale of transportation networks, which are particularly critical considerations in light of the fact that wildlife migration patterns will shift as the climate changes , Hilty et al. 2019). ...
Planning and policy are best done through integrated approaches that holistically address multiple sustainability issues. Climate change and biodiversity loss are two of the most significant issues facing our planet. Accordingly, advancements in integrated sustainability planning and policy require a means for examining how certain strategies and actions may align or conflict with these sustainability imperatives. Here, we enhance the knowledge of integrated approaches for addressing sustainability challenges by developing and applying a framework for examining different planning and policy areas in the context of climate action and biodiversity conservation. As a case study, we used wildlife crossing planning and landscape connectivity policy in Canada, which is currently piecemeal, fragmented, and could benefit from an integrated approach. The study was conducted in two stages. First, we developed an analytical framework for examining issues in the context of climate action and biodiversity conservation co-benefits and trade-offs. Then, we applied the framework to wildlife crossing and landscape connectivity issues to elucidate opportunities and challenges for integrated planning and policy. We used a literature review to develop an integrated climate-biodiversity framework (ICBF). ICBF was subsequently applied to wildlife crossing and landscape connectivity planning and policies in Canada. ICBF maps relationships between climate action and biodiversity conservation co-benefits and trade-offs and is organized into six themes: green space, transportation, green infrastructure, food and agriculture, energy, and land management. Applying ICBF to participant interview data produced insights into opportunities and challenges for integrated approaches to wildlife crossing and landscape connectivity by elucidating potential co-benefits and trade-offs such as alignments between stormwater management and aquatic crossings (i.e., co-benefits) and potential issues related to energy development and habitat fragmentation (i.e., trade-offs). ICBF has application beyond wildlife crossings, and its continual use and refinement will result in a better understanding of how to effectively implement integrated approaches and transition toward sustainable development paths.
... The model assumes that environmental variables that facilitate species movement have low costs or resistance, while those that impede movement have high costs or resistance [49,50]. It is also assumed that the resistance imposed by environmental variables is species-specific and scale-dependent [50,51]. Linkage Mapper identifies neighboring core areas, creates a network between these core areas using adjacency and distance data, calculates costweighted distances and LCPs, and finally combines the least-cost corridors into a single map [52]. ...
... The results for the EucD, CWD, and LCPs were similar for the short corridors but, as the corridor length increased, the results for the LCPs diverged from the others ( Table 3). This is because shortdistance corridors are typically relatively close to core areas and have better connectivity than long-distance corridors because they require less time to travel through relatively disturbed habitats [51,73]. We calculated CWD:EucD and CWD:LCP to determine the quality of each corridor. ...
Urban expansion leads to changes in land use, and the resulting habitat fragmentation increases the risk of species extinction. Therefore, strategies to connect fragmented habitats for wildlife conservation are required, but past research has focused mainly on large mammals and specific species, and there has been a lack of research on habitat connectivity in Korea. In the present study, we sought to design an ecological network for the conservation of endangered forest wildlife (leopard cat, yellow-throated marten, and Siberian flying squirrel) in Pyeongchang, Gangwon State, Korea. The InVEST habitat quality and MaxEnt models were used to predict forest areas with excellent habitat quality and a high probability of the occurrence of endangered wildlife. We then used Linkage Mapper to identify corridors and bottlenecks that connect fragmented habitats within the study area. The quality of these corridors and the environmental features of the pinch points were also analyzed. The results showed that the area outside of Pyeongchang is the most likely area for endangered forest wildlife habitats and occurrence. A total of seven core areas were identified, and 12 corridors connecting the core areas were identified. The highest quality corridors were those connecting forest areas outside of Pyeongchang because they had a high habitat quality with alternative paths of least resistance. We also identified sections with high pinch points in all corridors, and these points tended to have high elevation, a southern aspect, a long distance from agricultural land and water bodies, low traffic density, and low building density. ANOVA revealed that the environmental variables associated with high pinch points, least-cost paths, and Pyeongchang in general exhibited statistically significant differences. These results demonstrate that the proposed conservation planning model can be applied to multiple species using a corridor-integrated mapping approach and produces quantitative figures for the targeted improvement of ecological connectivity in forests according to local characteristics, including biodiversity. As such, this approach can be utilized as the basis for the selection and management of protected forest areas and for environmental impact assessment. However, because this study had data limitations, field surveys and the monitoring of target species are needed. Once these limitations are addressed, a quantitative conservation plan can be established based on the ecological characteristics of endangered forest wildlife.
... The methods and research questions in landscape ecology, which aim to understand the distribution of individuals and ecological processes in space, feed into our reflections on the impact of urban climatic landscapes on the dynamics of biodiversity. At present, landscape ecology applied to the urban environment focuses mainly on describing how landscape mosaics, and in particular soil mineralization and habitat fragmentation, explain species distributions (Balbi et al., 2021;Hilty et al., 2019;). If we transpose those works and describe cities through their climate component, with a specific interest in temperature, comprehensive UHI monitoring data could be used to describe this urban climatic landscape, composed of a mosaic of habitats which would be thermally more or less favorable for the establishment and survival of species and thereby explain their distributions in urban landscapes. ...
... Since then, and because of their effects on the behavior and reproduction of many species (Hölker et al., 2010;Hoy & Robert, 1996;Vaz et al., 2022;Zapata et al., 2019), other constraints to the movement and persistence of species such as anthropogenic light sources (the ALAN effect and its associated dark corridors) and noise, are also considered when defining functional ecological corridors. At this stage, however, and while there is a wealth of work on the impact of temperature on species, few have proposed climate corridors as such (see Hilty et al., 2019), and to our knowledge none at a city scale. The few studies that exist on this topic have been conducted to predict the fate of biodiversity in the face of environmental change, mostly measured at macroecological scales. ...
Research has provided considerable evidence that temperature significantly influences species biology. Its influence is so great that climate corridors have been proposed to assist species in tracking their climatic niche at macroecological scales, reinforcing the importance of accounting for this variable at all scales to address the climatic threat to biodiversity. This threat is exacerbated in cities where artificialization enhances the effect of climate change, to the extent that urban temperatures are a public health concern, with heatwaves causing excess human mortality and having a stark impact on biodiversity. Recent developments in climate monitoring networks enable characterizing the spatiotemporal structure of urban climates in ever greater detail, with many cities already equipped with such networks. The impact of temperature on biodiversity, on the same scale as these networks allows, has never been explored. Characterizing urban climate infrastructures and cool corridors, and thus thermal connectivity for species, would enrich and strengthen existing ecological infrastructures, on the basis of scientific evidence. In this perspective, we discuss how stronger collaborations between ecologists and climatologists could help leverage the full potential of urban climate monitoring networks. We highlight research opportunities they could offer in terms of studying the impact of urban climate on biodiversity and the efforts that need to be pursued to enable co‐designing and make interdisciplinary collaborations operational. Such interdisciplinary research on urban climate and its impact is all the more important that its outcomes can help better inform urban planning and mitigate the impacts of climate change on people and biodiversity.
This article is categorized under: Climate and Development > Urbanization, Development, and Climate Change
Assessing Impacts of Climate Change > Observed Impacts of Climate Change
Climate, Ecology, and Conservation > Observed Ecological Changes
... However, the effectiveness of the protected area system has proven inadequate in mitigating the pace of biodiversity loss [9,10], largely due to limitations in terms of size, ecological representation, and governance [7]. Compared to individual protected areas, ecological networks show greater advantages in connecting populations, maintaining ecosystem function, and protecting biodiversity [11]. Safeguarding ecological networks not only mitigates habitat fragmentation but also establishes vital connections among isolated protected areas within a cohesive and interconnected system [12]. ...
... This network is intentionally established, restored, and maintained to ensure the protection of biological diversity within fragmented ecosystems. The theory of landscape ecology is used to identify ecological networks, and the fundamental research paradigm of "ecological source-ecological corridor" has been introduced and widely embraced as a method for identifying ENs [11,18]. In this paradigm, one of the critical prerequisites for building ecological corridors and networks is to build ecological sources. ...
Building ecological networks can effectively enhance the quality and stability of ecosystems and better conserve biodiversity. Previous studies mainly determined ecological corridors based on selecting ecological sources at a regional scale (e.g., an administrative area), without considering the bioclimatic heterogeneity within the study area. Here, we propose a novel integrating approach involving bioclimatic zoning and selecting ecological sources from various bioclimatic zones to design ecological corridors. Taking Xi’an City, China, as an example, key bioclimatic variables were first chosen, and we partitioned the study area based on its bioclimatic characteristics through a combination of K-means clustering and variance inflation factor (VIF). Ecological sources were then identified from the combination of ecosystem services and habitats of 36 endangered species. Subsequently, the minimum cumulative resistance (MCR) model was used to build ecological networks within different bioclimatic zones and across the entire region. We found the following: (1) In Xi’an city, a total of 49 source areas and 117 corridors were identified. The identified network can protect 97.77% of species, facilitating connectivity between 30.50% of ecosystems and 35.5% of species-rich areas. (2) The integrating approach protects 12.26% more species richness and 10.95% more ecosystem services than the average value of the regional and bioregional approaches. Compared to regional and bioregional methods, integrating approaches demonstrate greater advantages in preserving species richness and ecosystem services. This study introduces a novel approach to constructing regional ecological networks, which integrates the impact of bioclimatic zoning into the process of network construction to improve ecosystem services and protect species habitats.
... Ecological corridors are pathways that connect ecological sources [30], and they are now widely used to ensure ecological security. Ecological corridor building can sustain ecosystem services, lessen ecological source fragmentation, and increase ecological source connectedness. ...
... Additionally, the configuration of the resistance surface in this study is derived directly from land use information. Despite the fact that various studies altered the resistance surface [20,65], there has been controversy about how to modify it [30]. So, in this instance, we continue to directly assign values using the land use data. ...
Ecological corridors can improve the connectivity between different habitat regions, ultimately halting the loss of biodiversity and habitat fragmentation. Building ecological corridors is a crucial step in protecting biodiversity. Ecological corridors had previously been built primarily on nature reserves, ignoring ecosystem services. In this study, a novel approach to building ecological corridors is put forth that takes into account a variety of ecosystem services, morphological spatial pattern analysis (MSPA), and connectivity methodologies to identify significant ecological sources. Ecological corridors and significant strategic nodes are created based on the minimum cumulative resistance model (MCR) and circuit theory in order to construct the Yangtze River Delta’s ecological security pattern. The research found that: (1) the identified ecological sources are 90,821.84 km2, and the total length of ecological corridors is 4704.03 km. (2) In total, 141 ecological restoration areas are identified, with a total area of 2302.77 km2; 151 ecological protection areas are identified, with a total area of 5303.43 km2. This study can provide valuable insights into the establishment of ecological patterns and the construction of priority restoration and protection areas in the ecological restoration of the Yangtze River Delta.
... • The focal species occurred in core habitat areas (or historically did so and could and could be restored) and could potentially move through the landscape between core habitat areas, at least over multiple generations. We defined core habitat areas as each species' preferred habitat, which includes resources such as food and water, breeding habitat, and dispersal habitat (Hilty et al. 2019). ...
... They generally avoid grasslands, agricultural areas, and human-altered landscapes (Dickson et al. 2005), although mountain lions can and will use these habitats (Riley et al. 2006, C. Wilmers, personal communication). Dirt roads do not impede movement, but highways, residential roads, and two-lane paved roads can (Dellinger et al. 2020b, Hilty et al. 2019, Wilmers et al. 2013. ...
This study assessed ecological connectivity between the Southern Santa Crus, Gabian and Diablo mountain ranges, with a specific focus on the Aromas Hills and Upper Pajaro Valley. We assessed the need for improved permeability of the region’s highways and identified specific recommendations for improving connectivity.
... Similarly, ecological networks aim to mitigate the negative effects of fragmentation by encompassing large areas of vegetation, including numerous protected areas and conservation corridors (Pryke and Samways 2012). Ecological research consistently underscores the beneficial impact of increased habitat connectivity facilitated by corridors on species conservation and ecological functions (Hanski and Ovaskainen 2000;Bennett and Mulongay, 2006;Crooks and Sanjayan, 2006;Haddad et al. 2014;Hilty et al. 2019;Joubert van der Merwe et al. 2019;Hilty et al. 2020;Battisti 2023). Realizing a corridor's potential to connect and benefit surrounding communities is contingent upon thorough community involvement (Goldman 2009;Kikoti et al. 2010;Townsend and Masters 2015). ...
Social facets linked to conservation corridors and ecological networks have received relatively limited academic attention. This study explores the perspectives of researchers, NGO representatives, and landowners, as well as the community’s ideas of conservation efforts and corridor potential in the Vhembe District, Limpopo, South Africa. Surveys and interviews were conducted with communities, regional stakeholders, and landowners. The findings revealed that the community participants strongly support corridor implementation. The results indicate that this support is driven by the anticipated socio-economic benefits in the form of jobs. However, the employment opportunities might not align with the resident's expectations. The study identifies several challenges to corridor establishment, including infrastructure and financial constraints. Moreover, the findings revealed a lack of supportive legislation and highlighted concerns over protected area's accessibility. The study contributes to the global academic discourse by emphasizing the importance of community engagement before corridor and network implementation. It also addresses the complex trade-offs inherent in such projects, regardless of location. The methodological approach employed in this research transcends its regional context and offers actionable insights applicable worldwide.
... Desde hace más de veinte años se reconoce que científicos, planificadores, comunidades locales e individuos están interesados en mantener la continuidad de las poblaciones de especies silvestres, así como de los procesos ecológicos ante las modificaciones del hábitat por causas humanas (Bennet, 2004). De igual forma, se reconoce que las áreas protegidas son cruciales para conservar la diversidad biológica, pero que serán más efectivas, si se restauran y manejan áreas que permitan la conectividad entre ellas ( (Hilty et al., 2019). ...
Desde hace más de veinte años hay un interés por mantener la continuidad de las poblaciones de especies silvestres, así como de los procesos ecológicos, ante las modificaciones del hábitat por causas humanas y, de igual forma, se reconoce que las áreas protegidas son cruciales para conservar la diversidad biológica. El puma (Puma concolor) es una especie catalogada como de Preocupación Menor en la Lista Roja de Especies de la UICN, por considerarse uno de los mamíferos con amplia distribución en el hemisferio occidental desde Canadá hasta el extremo sur de Chile. No obstante, en Honduras el puma es considerada, según análisis de su lista roja, en peligro (EN) y con poblaciones en disminución. El incremento de los asentamientos humanos, particularmente en las zonas rurales del país, modifican el paisaje, provocando la interrupción de los ecosistemas naturales y, como consecuencia, la reducción de los espacios disponibles para el puma. El Parque Nacional Azul Meámbar también lo padece, ya que más de 73 comunidades están localizadas dentro de sus fronteras. En este trabajo se presentan seis nuevos registros de puma para el Parque y se reportan presas potenciales ocurriendo en los sitios donde se registró la especie.
... Demography, genetics, animal movements, and ecosystem service provision are all tied to habitat connectivity (Benson et al., 2016;Coulon et al., 2010;Damschen et al., 2019;Haddad et al., 2015;Laurance et al., 2002;Ricketts et al., 2006). As a result, retaining and improving connectivity has been the target of many conservation efforts at local to continental scales (Hilty et al., 2019;Van der Ree et al., 2015). ...
Applying science to conservation requires deliberate planning and action infrequently taught in academic settings. To illustrate impactful analysis and science communication, we describe scientific activities targeting the needs of land trusts, NGOs, landowners, and government agencies working to conserve the Florida Wildlife Corridor (“Corridor”). This 7.2 million hectare area is prioritized for habitat connectivity conservation in the US state of Florida. Our activities are built on decades of science guiding Florida land conservation. We quantified threats (e.g., average of over 14,000 ha of development/year from 2001 to 2019) and socio‐ecological benefits of Corridor conservation, prioritized yet‐to‐be‐conserved Corridor areas, produced and shared a new statewide connectivity model, and convened groups to identify campaign science needs. The new connectivity model—the Florida Circuit Model—supported the geography of the Corridor, as designated, and facilitates local (10 km radius, or less) conservation planning. Our efforts have contributed to allocation of over $2 billion for land conservation and the permanent protection of over 82,000 ha within the Corridor by state agencies from June 2021 to March 2024. Targeting science to outreach and policy, planning, and management decisions can motivate public, media, researcher, and government support for land conservation, improve conservation interventions, and attract research funding.
... The form of countermeasures against the impacts of the edge effect is to create a pattern of limiting activities in the corridor area both artificially, naturally, and ecological and biological approaches, especially in the conservation of animals that are categorized as endemic, rare, and threatened (Hilty et al., 2019). ...
This study aims to analyze the threat of edge effects on endemic animal populations due to the presence of causeways in the TNGHS corridor habitat. Indicators of the occurrence of edge effects are characterized by the further distance of wildlife populations from sources of disturbance such as noise, light, and frequency of human activity mechanisms. Belt transect research method for population study and distribution of Javan Gibbon and Surili. Intensive Point Account (IPA) to measure the diversity index of bird species and Javan eagles. Encounter Rate is used for animal distribution studies. Results On the observation transect made along 3 km, the population density of Javan Gibbons was obtained 0.114 ind/ha, Surili 0.024 indv/ha, and Monkey 0.028 indv/ha. Bird species diversity index in 3 habitat patches each Purasari H'= 2.78 with 38 species; Garehong with 27 species, and Corridor H'= 3,087 with 27 species. The similarity of species is that there are only 7 species of birds found in the 3 habitats of the patch. As a result of primate population density and burng species similarity, it can be concluded that the cross-corridor access road area has experienced an edge effect and tends to be a bottleneck area for the distribution of animals, especially primates.
... There are two complementary views of seascape connectivity: structural connectivity and functional connectivity [53]. The first is a measure of habitat permeability and involves the physical characteristics and spatial configuration of habitat patches within ecosystems [26,60]. Functional connectivity, on the other hand, describes the response of genes, gametes, propagules, or individuals to the landscape structure, as reflected in survival, reproduction, dispersal, migration, and settlement/recruitment [26,143]. ...
In the seascape, species migrate between ecosystems to complete their life cycles, and such ontogenetic migrationscreate functional connections between ecosystems. Nevertheless, the scarcity of information on patch distribution,species life history and ecology limits its application in Marine Protected Areas (MPA) management. We use a potentialconnectivity network approach to analyze how Haemulon flavolineatum might move through a complex and diverseseascape by simulating part of its life cycle migrations among three ecosystems (reef, mangrove, and seagrass)in the MPA of Bahía Portete‑Kaurrele (BPK), Colombia. We used available ecosystem cover maps to conduct habitatfragmentation analyses and evaluate structural connectivity in BPK using eight indices that describe ecosystempatches and how they are related. With published information on the H. flavolineatum home range and its ontoge‑netic migration distances, we estimated the potential functional connectivity (CONNECT and migration distances)between ecosystems by building bipartite graphs. The benthic habitat configuration of the BPK could allow Hae-mulon flavolineatum to complete at least two stages of its life cycle (stage 5 mangroves to reefs being more likelythan stage 4 seagrass to mangroves). Ontogenetic migrations is possible since, patches of different ecosystems werehighly intermixed (76%) rather than grouped (58%); reefs showed higher values of structural indices (patch area,largest patch, shape complexity, functional links) than mangrove (shortest distance to the nearest neighbor) and sea‑grass (representativeness); and juveniles migrate from mangroves to reef patches along the bay, but they could beisolated by distance when moving from particular seagrass to mangrove patches. Our methodological approach,which integrates ecological information (evidence‑based ranges of species migration distances between habitatpatches) and the seascape (spatial configuration of habitat patches and fragmentation) is novel for a marine fish spe‑cies with ontogenetic migration to search for the likelihood of completing its life cycle stages. We discuss the needfor ecological information on French grunts and the need to validate future models and scenarios.
... An intrinsic part of urban ESPs are urban ecological corridors. These play an important role in promoting diverse natural flows (Hilty et al., 2012) and counteracting the negative impacts of human activities (McClure et al., 2015) with their effectiveness in protecting urban biodiversity proven by many studies (Hilty et al., 2019;Peng et al., 2017). The construction of bird-specific ecological corridors is an important avenue for research in the conservation of bird diversity (Gilbert-Norton et al., 2010). ...
... Wild animal populations are becoming increasingly isolated as a result of a growing human population and associated land-use conversion and fragmentation of habitat (Haddad et al., 2015). Corridors that facilitate movement across a landscape are critical for the long-term viability of many populations as they ensure that key biological processes such as mating, dispersal and gene flow (Hilty et al., 2019) can be achieved and that species maintain their ability to respond to changes in their environment, such as climate change (Chen et al., 2011). This is particularly pertinent for the African lion (Panthera leo), which has decreased from an estimated 100 thousand individuals to a figure closer to 20 thousand within the last century (Bauer et al., 2016). ...
Movement is a fundamental process that impacts an animal’s fate, population dynamics and the structure of communities and ecosystems. In this thesis I consider open challenges and opportunities in how to model animal movement in the context of wild lion populations. I apply sophisticated modern statistical approaches from across the rapidly developing movement ecology field to long-term movement datasets from wild lions in Southern Africa to generate insights into connectivity between populations, local ranging behaviour and how lions respond to their thermal environment. Specifically, I evaluate how data inputs and approaches for modelling space use and connectivity perform in capturing lion movement (i) during dispersal across a landscape, (ii) at the home range scale and smaller, and (iii) how fine-scale animal movement can be linked to the environment and key climatic variables. As a whole, this body of work extends our understanding of the movement process in lions with particular application to spatial ecology for conservation research.
... Working in the edges, community-driven science requires attention to how connections across landscapes that link areas of habitat, called "corridors" in conservation biology (Hilty et al. 2019), are created, and the inherent tensions therein. Such corridors in community-driven science are important because they make visible the powered relationalities-including the inherent risksacross the landscapes. ...
... Habitat loss and fragmentation could be attributed either to natural disturbance (e.g., climate change), or anthropogenic disturbance, by clearing-cutting of forest, cultivation of grasslands and croplands, construction of dams and reservoirs, and development of urban manufacturers. On the other hand, human-induced fragmentation tends to occur more rapidly than natural fragmentation [33]. Although no dams or reservoirs were constructed in the study region, the establishment of heavy pollution industries, extensively managed agricultural lands, and the development of urban systems, all account for the fragmentation of the living habitat, for aquatic or terrestrial communities. ...
Along with the speeding urbanization and associated anthropogenic disturbance, the ecosystem structure and function of freshwater ecosystems worldwide are substantially damaged. To improve ecosystem health thus enhancing the ecosystem security of urban ecosystem, numbers of management approaches and engineering projects were applied to mitigate the ecosystem degradation of freshwaters. Whereas, there is still a lack of comprehensive and systematic research on the ecological corridor construction of freshwater ecosystem, especially for Suzhou Grand Canal, one section of the world’s longest and ancient Grand Canal which is subscript to severe ecosystem degradation. Through investigating the adjacent land use characteristic, habitat quality, vegetation cover, instream water quality, as well as the habitat composition of river channels, we aimed to: (i) assess the water quality of the Suzhou Grand Canal; (ii) evaluate the ecological characteristic of the canal ecosystem; (iii) develop strategic countermeasures to build ecological corridors for the mitigation of ecological problems. The results demonstrated a large built area, a smaller ecological zone, a low habitat quality and habitat connectivity, and a high degree of habitat fragmentation within the corridor area of the canal, as well as a simplified instream habitat composition, a greater concentration of nutrient and COD in the surface water, especially in the upstream and midstream canal. All urbanization induced multiple stressors such as land use changes, altered hydrology, and the simplified riparian zone et al. contributed synergistically to the degradation of the canal ecosystem. To alleviate the ecosystem-related habitat fragmentation and ecosystem deterioration, three aspects of recommendations were proposed on water pollution control, watershed ecosystem restoration, and ecological network construction, aiming to create a systematic connected ecological corridor of the freshwater ecosystem to improve the regional ecological security pattern. The research measures and integrated strategy introduced in this study provide a solid guideline on the systematic ecosystem assessment as well as the ecological corridor restoration and management of running-water ecosystem, which can be used in freshwater ecosystems elsewhere to improve ecosystem stability for supporting the sustainable development of urban ecosystems.
... Landscape connectivity loss or habitat fragmentation is the primary threat to biodiversity, particularly for the terrestrial realm (Rogan & Lacher, 2018). The scientific evidence demonstrates that landscape connectivity promotes species conservation and ecological functions (Lidicker et al., 2019). Maintaining or restoring both structural and functional connectivity remains a priority in conservation planning (Mimet et al., 2013). ...
In the past years, efforts have been made to include connectivity metrics in conservation planning in order to promote and enhance well-connected systems of protected areas. Connectivity is particularly important for species that rely on more than one realm during their daily or life cycle (multi-realm species). However, conservation plans for the protection of multi-realm species usually involve a single realm, excluding other realms from the prioritization process. Here, we demonstrate an example of cross-realm conservation planning application for the island of Cyprus by taking into account the terrestrial and marine realms and their interface (i.e. coast). Operating within a data-poor context, we use functional connectivity metrics to identify priority areas for the conservation of six multi-realm species, by setting conservation targets simultaneously for the terrestrial and marine realms. MARXAN decision-support tool was used for the identification of the priority areas.
Four scenarios were developed to evaluate the impacts of including connectivity in the prioritization process and the effectiveness of the existing coastal/marine protected areas in the achievement of the conservation targets set for the species. All scenarios considered land and sea anthropogenic uses as surrogate costs to influence the prioritization process.
Our findings show an increase in the area of the reserve network and, therefore, the cost, when connectivity is included, whilst reducing the total boundary length. Furthermore, the current reserve network fails to achieve conservation targets, particularly for the marine part, which has a substantially smaller protection coverage than the terrestrial part.
We conclude that focus should be given in the expansion of the current coastal/marine reserve network following a cross-realm conservation approach. This approach is not only relevant for the conservation of multi-realm species, but also for islandscapes, in particular, where the interdependence between the hinterland and the coast is larger and therefore the magnitude of the impacts generated in one realm and affects the other.
... They also serve as a buffer with certain similarities to habitual kernels benefiting the recovery and adaptation of native species (Lawler et al., 2013;Degteva et al., 2015;McGuire et al., 2016;Keeley et al., 2018). Such landscapes play important roles in sustaining and restoring biodiversity (Hilty et al., 2019) by promoting the flow of energy and materials and genetic exchange in terrestrial environments (Miklos et al., 2019), freshwater systems (Bastian et al., 2015;Hauer et al., 2016), and marine environments (Gillanders et al., 2003;Cowen and Sponaugle, 2009), or a transboundary of the above-mentioned environments. The methods for investigating ECs (Weeks, 2017;Balbar and Metaxas, 2019) have grown steadily during the past several years. ...
Ecological corridors (ECs) are important management tools to protect biodiversity by linking fragile habitats, especially for highly mobile organisms. ECs in terrestrial landscapes work as passages on land or in water. However, the significance of ECs to migratory species in estuaries has not been well elucidated. Based on annual fishery investigation in the Yangtze estuary and their dominance index rank, three of the top five species, including Larimochthys polyactis, Coilia mystus, and Gobiidae, exhibited absolute dominance in spring during the past 5 years. The temporal and spatial density variance of C. mystus supported its short-distance migration pattern. Redundancy analysis and the MaxEnt model predicted optimum habitats for C. mystus. C. mystus larvae survival was significantly related to salinity, total nitrogen, pH, reactive silicate, dissolved oxygen, surface water temperature, and chlorophyll-a in May and to salinity, surface water temperature, permanganate index, suspended particles, total nitrogen, and total phosphorus in August. The MaxEnt model predicted a broader longitudinal distribution range from offshore to the upstream freshwater area but narrower latitudinal distribution in the southern branch in May than in August. Finally, we delineated migratory corridors connecting optimum habitats for C. mystus using the least-cost route method. Optimum habitats close to the coastlines in the south branch might play a significant role in maintaining population or community connectivity in the Yangtze estuary. Our findings provide a perspective and method to quantify and facilitate the harmonious development of socioeconomy and fishery biodiversity conservation.
... A connectivity metric should adhere to fundamental conservation science principles and perform well in both hypothetical and real-world landscapes (Hilty et al., 2019). It should allow tracking progress toward meeting connectivity goals and targets and complement measures of the proportion of area protected. ...
Abstract Measuring connectivity is key to track progress toward broad conservation goals, such as the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity's proposed Post‐2020 Global Biodiversity Framework. The framework includes an area‐based target for the protection of 30% of lands and seas globally—through well‐connected systems of protected areas. Although the field of connectivity science has grown rapidly, limited progress has been made in tracking conservation connectivity in practice. This is in part due to the lack of a standardizing framework to clarify different purposes, approaches, and datasets—particularly in differentiating a metric from its application within a broader connectivity framework—as well as a benchmark to quantitatively compare alternative approaches. To address this science‐practice gap, we developed a novel metric of connectivity called the Protected Network metric (ProNet). ProNet is designed to assess the structural connectivity of a protected area network in a way that can be easily described, clearly communicated, and rapidly computed at high resolution. We evaluated how ProNet adheres to fundamental conservation science principles using a library of hypothetical landscapes, compared it to two commonly used existing connectivity metrics, and demonstrated its performance in assessing connectivity for a set of real‐world landscapes selected across the gradient of human modification. More broadly, ProNet is a powerful tool to galvanize emerging connectivity conservation as a countermeasure to increasing fragmentation of global ecosystems.
... The habitat fragmentation and land change use can modify the migration paths or affect their general movement (Ray et al. 2002), in salamanders, it has been observed that reduced connectivity is mainly due to poor habitat quality and increased anthropogenic activities (Ashrafzadeh et al. 2019). Thus, for species with limited dispersal capacity, their habitats are expected to offer suitable conditions for their maintenance and reproduction as well to preserve their dispersion paths, and the evolutionary process at different spatial and temporal scales (Pelletier et al. 2014;Hilty et al. 2019). ...
Habitat loss is one of the most important threats to biodiversity; it alters the habitat connectivity of species and is among the main causes of the global amphibian extinction crisis. Identifying the potential areas of distribution and connectivity of species is of the utmost importance so that informed decisions can be made for the conservation of vulnerable amphibian populations. In this study, we performed species distribution models and used circuit theory to model omnidirectional connectivity for two plethodontid salamanders of conservation concern distributed in the forests of Chiapas, Mexico, and Guatemala (Bolitoglossa franklini and Bolitoglossa lincolni). Potential distribution maps show an affinity for well-preserved montane forests for both species. Likewise, we found that the niches of the species are not similar. The connectivity models show that the main areas of connectivity are in the Meseta Central de Chiapas, Sierra Madre de Chiapas, and the Cordillera Volcánica Guatemalense, in this last range, important areas of connectivity were located, as well as least-cost paths and barriers to the movement of both species. We identified that important areas of climatic suitability and connectivity are not within the protected natural areas and may be threatened by the increasing influence of anthropogenic activities. The results of our study show the importance of preserving the regional forests to ensure the persistence of species with arboreal habits and high sensitivity to habitat transformation, as well as to recognize and prioritize potential areas for management and protection in both southern Mexico and Guatemala.
... This work aimed at providing a formal framework for the evaluation of financial resources needed to preserve the connectivity of an ecological network in uncertainty. In a world filled with uncertainty, a good safety measure is to conserve existing corridors to account for changing landscape conditions and threats (Hilty et al. 2019). Indeed, through the consideration of stochastic optimal control, we have been able to study the controllability of a random graph. ...
The paper models the maintenance of ecological networks in forest environments, built from bioreserves, patches and corridors, when these grids are subject to random processes such as extreme natural events. It also outlines a management plan to support the optimized results. After presenting the random graph-theoretic framework, we apply the stochastic optimal control to the graph dynamics. Our results show that the preservation of the network architecture cannot be achieved, under stochastic control, over the entire duration. It can only be accomplished, at the cost of sacrificing the links between the patches, by increasing the usage of the control devices. This would have a negative effect on the species migration by causing congestion among the channels left at their disposal. The optimal scenario, in which the shadow price is at its lowest and all connections are well-preserved, occurs at half of the course, be it the only optimal stopping moment found on the stochastic optimal trajectories. In such a scenario, the optimal forestry management policy has to integrate agility, integrated response, and quicker response time.
... Viewing the river environment as an interconnected 'riverscape', that adjusts, erodes, floods, functions, changes and evolves is imperative to this approach [69,70]. Large scale ecosystem corridor conservation or building, of which fluvial corridors form a part, allows for the maintenance or creation of healthy functioning ecosystems [71,72]. ...
By connecting corridors of river recovery, resilience can be built into river systems to mitigate against future floods and droughts driven by anthropogenic disturbance or climate extremes. However, identifying where these corridors can be built is still lacking in river management practice. The Open Access NSW River Styles database contains comprehensive information on geomorphic river condition and recovery potential. The database can be used to systematically analyse where corridors of river recovery could be created via conservation or rehabilitation. Analysis was undertaken in ArcGIS using the recovery potential layer along 84,342 km of freshwater stream length, across 20 catchments of coastal NSW. We identified 4,905 km of reach connections, defined as an upstream to downstream section of river that is connected end-to-end, and 17,429 km of loci connections defined as more isolated sections of river from which recovery can be seeded and extended into adjacent reaches. There was significant spatial variability in the types and lengths of connections made across the catchments. Some catchments have significant potential to build corridors of recovery along large sections of river, whereas other catchments are more fragmented. These results provide practitioners with a user-friendly distillation of where river conservation and rehabilitation activities could be focussed when working with river recovery in practice. Combined with local on-ground knowledge, this information forms an important input to evidence-based prioritisation and decision making in river management.
... To the contrary, there is widespread acknowledgement of the complexity of corridors: that corridor 'success' depends on context -both geographical and political; that connectivity for one species might mean fragmentation for another; that the connectivity requirements for flora and fauna are different; that structural and functional connectivity are not the same thing; and that connectivity and fragmentation can be both desirable and undesirable at different times and in different contexts (Anderson and Jenkins, 2006;Bennett, 2003;Crooks and Sanjayan, 2006;Hilty et al., 2019). As Chetkiewicz et al (2006) point out, the lack of universal rules for corridors applies as it does for ecology more generally. ...
My research investigates corridors for wildlife conservation in Tanzania. I draw from political ecology and science and technology studies to shape my enquiry, examining processes of discursive and material construction of this form of conservation space, and exploring what happens when the idea of the corridor ‘touches down’ in particular places. I approach the corridor as a socially and politically contingent outcome of negotiations taking place at multiple sites, at different scales, presenting data on these processes as they take place at the (broadly defined) national, regional and local level in Tanzania. I use Q methodology, semi-structured interviews, workshops, observation and documentary review to inform my interrogation of the corridor’s presence in Tanzania’s literal and figurative conservation landscape. At the national level, I offer an in-depth exploration of perspectives on corridors held by professional conservation stakeholders using Q methodology. I uncover three perspectives, and argue that the dynamic between them contributes to the corridor’s burgeoning hegemony in conservation. At the subnational level, I analyse the discursive construction of a specific regional corridor purportedly connecting two protected areas in central Tanzania – the Udzungwa Mountains National Park and the Selous Game Reserve. I explore how the idea of this regional corridor gained a foothold, and highlight the resilience of the idea even as its original advocates began to abandon it as a lost cause. At the local level, I explicate the manifestation of a village-level corridor project within the same region. I show how multiple elements – including the ‘mappability’ of the corridor, state-sanctioned spatial planning mechanisms, profit-making motivations of international voluntourism organisations and ideas of immutable nature – combine to result in a socially intractable and ecologically questionable corridor manifestation. My results show that corridors in Tanzania are not products of the straightforward ‘application’ of scientific knowledge, but rather can be understood as an assemblage – a confluence of diverse elements, connecting and colliding, and sustained by a diffuse and relational power. By highlighting selected examples of diverse manifestations of corridors at different scales, and tracing connections between them, my research draws explicit attention to processes of forming and maintaining the broader corridor assemblage in Tanzania. I emphasise that there is both an ethical and intellectual imperative to interrogate intuitively appealing conservation strategies, and to question why and how ideas gain momentum and staying power.
... Flying animals move through airspace that is becoming increasingly fragmented by features usually associated with intense urbanization: tall physical structures, air traffic, and emissions of heat, noise, chemical and light pollutants (Davy et al. 2017, Zuluaga et al. 2021. However, the aerosphere is not typically considered as an integrated habitat (Kunz et al. 2007, Diehl 2013, Lambertucci and Speziale 2020, compared to the well-studied concepts of structural or functional connectivity in terrestrial landscapes (Hilty et al. 2019). Structural connectivity, wherein habitat patches are physically connected to allow movement, is a less useful concept for aerial habitat than functional connectivity, which takes into account species-specific abilities or willingness to use varying-quality habitat edges, gaps and the matrix to move among preferred habitat patches (Taylor et al. 1993, Calabrese and Fagan 2004, Vogt et al. 2009). ...
Flying animals use aerial habitats to forage, communicate and travel. However, human activities that fragment aerial habitat with built structures, noise, and chemical or light pollution, may limit the ability of wildlife to use airspace efficiently. Applying landscape connectivity theory to aerial habitats could reveal how long‐distance migrants respond to sources of aerial habitat fragmentation along their migratory routes. Artificial light at night is a major component of urbanization that fragments dark skies across North America. Attraction of nocturnal migrants to urban light is well documented, but species‐specific responses, especially throughout a full migration from breeding to wintering grounds, are not. We tested hypotheses about long‐distance migratory movements in relation to artificial light using a highly nocturnal, Nearctic‐Neotropical avian migrant (Eastern whip‐poor‐will Antrostomus vociferus). We applied a resource selection framework at multiple spatial scales to explore whether GPS‐tracked birds (n = 10) responded to urbanization in general, or artificial light specifically, during migratory flights. We found little evidence of attraction to artificial light during nocturnal flights. Artificial light and urbanization were highly correlated and difficult to disentangle, but the birds generally avoided urban areas and selected dark‐connected skies for travel. Migratory stopovers (locations where GPS‐tracked birds (n = 20) paused for at least one night), were located almost exclusively in dark, rural areas. Our results illustrate that considering how nocturnal aerial migrants respond to both aerial and terrestrial habitat elements can improve our understanding of what may facilitate their long‐distance movements.
... Since they were first proposed by Wilson and Willis in 1975 [19,20], connectivity corridors have gone from being controversial [21][22][23] to widely recognised [24][25][26], and several frameworks and models for assessing connectivity have been proposed [27][28][29]. Two primary approaches have been used: the traditional species-specific ('fine filter') approaches and those based on ecological integrity as a proxy ('coarse filter') [30]. ...
Mountain biodiversity is under unprecedented threat due to climate change and excessive human activity. Although protected areas (PAs) are the cornerstone of nature conservation, it is increasingly hard for isolated PAs to maintain the species and ecological processes they depend on in the long term. Linking nature reserves to form a large and connected conservation network is regarded as the optimal measure, but research in this field is lacking in China. We mapped PAs in the Qinling-Daba Mountains in China and identified corridors among PAs and the corridors’ key nodes using a least-cost analysis and circuit theory to model an ecological connectivity conservation network for the region. The results showed that this large ecological network has 46 habitat patches connected by 88 corridors, with 69 pinchpoints, 86 barriers and 37 stepping stones in and around the corridors. In this study, 34.86% of suitable habitats have little or no protection and, in the future, these areas should be developed with caution, with more emphasis on protecting their ecological connectivity. This study used connectivity analysis to construct large ecological corridors based on PAs, providing a framework for connectivity conservation at the biogeographic scale and a scientific reference for further, subsequent conservation actions.
... 27 Accroître la connectivité des paysages pour permettre aux populations animales et/ou végétales de se déplacer ou de se disperser en réponse au changement climatique est une stratégie, souvent déployée pour améliorer la CA des espèces (Egerer et al., 2020 ;Lawler et al. , 2015). Les corridors écologiques favorisent le mouvement des espèces dans des paysages fragmentés (Hilty et al., 2019), par exemple, des études ont démontré cet avantage pour les insectes pollinisateurs (Townsend et Levey, 2005). D'autres études rapportent le rôle crucial de ces corridors dans l'augmentation de la biodiversité végétale, à la fois dans les principales parcelles d'habitat et dans les habitats voisins, grâce au processus d'« effet d'entraînement ou spillover effect » (Bonthoux et al., 2014). ...
Adaptive capacity is increasingly recognized as essential for building the resilience of the nested social-ecological systems under global change. Enhancing adaptive capacity through appropriate land (re)use planning, including wastelands transformation, could help societies and ecosystems to mitigate change and adjust to the inevitable impacts of climate change, at local and even regional scales. Our objective is to show why the adoption of a systemic perspective based on social-ecological systems, can offer a relevant framework, in order to consider wastelands transformation to achieve desirable and sustainable futures of territories. Herein, we argue the necessity for such a transformation strategy and provide examples from literature, with regard to the social and ecological adaptive capacity that enables social-ecological adaptation.
... Large LTI are usually overlapping, altering or sometimes even interrupting wildlife/ecological corridors, especially if the infrastructures are not permeable, in the absence of properly designed and placed underpasses, overpasses and other crossing structures (Van der Ree et al. 2009). Considerable efforts are, thus, being made to maintain ecological connectivity at the landscape level (Hilty et al. 2019;Keeley et al. 2019) in order to allow species movement. Dedicated ecological connectivity studies are needed in this respect (Loro et al. 2015;Mimet et al. 2016) and to integrate their results into early planning processes. ...
The development of sustainable transport is a key challenge in societies where there is an accelerated need for socio-economic development. This is the case for seven countries from central and south-eastern Europe that share the Carpathian Mountains. The challenge of developing sustainable transport requires transdisciplinary, or at least cross-sectoral cooperation, between the transport development and nature conservation sectors. Such cooperation is not in the culture of the Carpathian countries, which together host some of the most remarkable biodiversity values in Europe, including the largest populations of brown bear, grey wolf and Eurasian lynx. The overall length of motorways in these countries more than quintupled in the last 30 years and the rapid expansion of Linear Transport Infrastructure (LTI) continues at exacerbating rates. The rich biodiversity habitats are being fragmented and the concept of ecological connectivity is poorly understood and implemented by the national authorities. Ecological networks for large carnivores are not defined nor officially recognised in the Carpathian countries, with little exceptions. The legislation is not consistent across the strands of ecological connectivity and is not harmonised between the countries to effectively support transnational conservation efforts. Thus, the critical intersections between planned or even existing LTI and ecological corridors for large carnivores cannot be identified, in most cases leading to increasing habitat fragmentation and isolation of wildlife populations in the region. We summarised all this key context-related information for the Carpathians in relation to LTI development and ecological connectivity. To counteract this trend in the Carpathian ecoregion, we propose a set of recommendations to: improve and harmonise the legislation; develop and endorse methodologies for designating ecological corridors; address the cumulative impact on ecological connectivity; define other threats on landscape permeability; improve stakeholder engagement, cooperation and communication; develop comprehensive and transparent biodiversity and transport databases; monitor wildlife and transport for implementing most appropriate mitigation measures and strategies; build capacity to address the issue of sustainable transportation; and foster transnational cooperation and dialogue. Bringing these elements together will support the design of ecological networks in a way that considers the needs and location of both current and future habitats and contribute to efforts to address the climate crisis. These specific recommendations are relevant also for other areas of the world facing similar problems as the Carpathians.
... We had the great pleasure of writing the first comprehensive book on biological corridors, Corridor Ecology, with William Z. Lidicker in 2006(Hilty et al. 2006) and significantly updating it together in 2019 (Hilty et al. 2019). Here we define a corridor as any space that facilitates the movement of populations, individuals, gametes or propagules, and plant parts capable of vegetative reproduction, in a matter of minutes, hours, or over multiple generations of a species. ...
Overwhelming evidence points to the importance of maintaining connectivity given rapidly fragmenting habitats and climate change. Many efforts to identify where ecological corridors should be placed are based on estimates of structural connectivity that take advantage of readily available land-cover data. We provide an overview of structural connectivity methodology and review the various limitations of these methods for functional connectivity -- the degree to which corridors facilitate the movement of organisms. These limitations include not accounting for dispersal complexities and specific habitat requirements of focal species, and invisible barriers to movement. Also, to what extent will the resulting corridors serve the most vulnerable species under a rapidly changing climate? We describe several connectivity-modeling approaches designed to be climate-wise. Assessing species for traits that may make them more susceptible to extinction is one way to prioritize which species warrant additional data collection and demographic analyses to improve the likelihood that corridors will function for them. There is substantial evidence that traits such as limited movement or dispersal ability as well as geographic range and habitat restrictions make species more vulnerable. Therefore, we suggest using these traits to guide focal-species selection. Finally, we discuss the importance of employing new technologies to monitor individual movement and species utilization of corridors varying in width and other characteristics to help plan and verify functional connectivity for these species.
... Disruptions in connectivity alter the movements of organisms and nonliving materials and change ecological processes such as pollination, seed dispersal, and disturbance regimes. These disruptions can fundamentally alter the biophysical processes, independently of whether they occur within or outside the focal system (i.e., crossscale dependence; Hilty et al. 2019). Although loss of connectivity has received the most attention in the literature, an Forum increase in connectivity can also negatively influence ecosystem function (Haddad et al. 2014, Crook et al. 2015, Fletcher et al. 2016. ...
Ecosystem management and governance of cross-scale dependent systems require integrating knowledge about ecological connectivity in its multiple forms and scales. Although scientists, managers, and policymakers are increasingly recognizing the importance of connectivity, governmental organizations may not be currently equipped to manage ecosystems with strong cross-boundary dependencies. Managing the different aspects of connectivity requires building social connectivity to increase the flow of information, as well as the capacity to coordinate planning, funding, and actions among both formal and informal governance bodies. We use estuaries in particular the San Francisco Estuary, in California, in the United States, as examples of cross-scale dependent systems affected by many intertwined aspects of connectivity. We describe the different types of estuarine connectivity observed in both natural and human-affected states and discuss the human dimensions of restoring beneficial physical and ecological processes. Finally, we provide recommendations for policy, practice, and research on how to restore functional connectivity to estuaries.
Biodiversity encompasses the vast array of living organisms in a habitat, crucial for ecosystem functioning and human health. Humans derive advantages from biodiversity across environmental, economic, and cultural dimensions. Biodiversity provides various ecosystem services such as climate regulation, pollutant control, soil erosion prevention, conservation of natural habitats, and crop pollination. Biodiversity is decreasing at a faster rate in the current situation. Several studies have demonstrated a decrease in biodiversity and the extinction of numerous species. Human actions such as overexploitation, pollution, global warming, and habitat loss are the primary causes of biodiversity decline. Restoring and conserving biodiversity is crucial for maintaining environmental health and human well-being. It is imperative to preserve essential animal and plant species. Various methods, including in-situ and ex-situ conservation, are employed to restore and protect biodiversity. In-situ conservation utilizes strategies like national parks, biosphere reserves, and wildlife sanctuary regions. Ex-situ conservation involves botanical gardens, zoological gardens, aquaria, and in-vitro processes. Hence, preserving biodiversity is crucial to prevent species extinction and protect endangered and indigenous species. This chapter identifies the primary risks to biological diversity resulting from human activities and examines various conservation and restoration techniques for biodiversity.
This chapter closely examines the crucial role of integrating green infrastructure in enhancing urban resilience amidst the contemporary challenges faced by cities. These challenges highlight problems relating to climate change, urban sprawl, etc. within the boundaries of limited resource constraints. The chapter starts by examining the crucial role of green infrastructure in mitigating these challenges. The scope and historical evolution of green infrastructure in urban planning has also been discussed. It thereby provides a background for its contemporary relevance and adoption. It further examines the ecological aids of green infrastructure, emphasizing its capacity to mitigate the urban heat island effect, improve water and air quality, conserve biodiversity, and facilitate natural storm water management. The chapter also discusses some of the contemporary green infrastructure projects and their positive impacts on local ecosystems. It further deliberates upon the economic advantages of green infrastructure, evaluating its cost-effectiveness and social benefits as compared to traditional urbanization. The subsequent section focuses on policy implications, emphasizing upon the fact that integration of green infrastructure needs to be augmented into urban policies. This can be done through issuance of regulatory guidelines, and by devising incentive schemes with regard to urban real estate development. It also proposes the need for educating the general masses in this context. The chapter explores future directions and innovations, examines emerging trends and technological advancements in the field of green infrastructure. The final section summarizes key findings and issues; and highlights the importance of integrating green infrastructure in future urban planning.
The general objective of this study was to generate a model of potential connectivity for P. puda in the Coastal Mountain Range of the Maule, Ñuble and Biobío regions in order to identify opportunities for ecological protection and restoration to ensure the functional connectivity of the species in a highly transformed landscape. Connectivity was modeled by means of circuit theory and least-cost routes through ArcGIS 10.4.1 software using the Linkage Mapper and Gnarly Landscape Utilities tools. In addition, indices were developed for the prioritization of nodes and links according to their importance for protection and restoration respectively. The main results were that the ecological network of P. puda is divided into 14 components, where the largest component represents 65% of the total and the rest less than 15% each. The node with the largest surface area represents 12% of the network. The priority sites for both protection and restoration are located in the largest component of the ecological network, in the communes of Pelluhue, Cauquenes and Cobquecura. There are protected areas within the network, but they cover only one of the eight sites with the highest protection priority. The 19 restoration priority sites are of high flow and high landscape resistance. It is concluded that it is urgent to implement protection and restoration actions to ensure the mobility of the species in highly fragmented landscapes.
Climate change is predicted to cause severe economic, social, and environmental impacts to cities across the globe. As such, it is paramount for cities to implement cost-effective and functional adaptation policies that reduce these negative impacts. One such approach is the incorporation of ecosystems services into the built environment as a form of green infrastructure. This approach leverages the provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural services of ecosystems to build urban resilience that persists with ongoing climate uncertainty. To connect concepts in literature to planning policy and contribute a Canadian example to global discourse, this paper has two overarching objectives: (1) to assess the extent to which the City of Edmonton’s policy approach to build urban resilience includes ecosystem services; and, (2) to identify gaps in this approach and provide recommendations for improvement. Findings highlight that ecosystem services are associated with the key themes of climate resilience, public health benefits, biodiversity preservation and economic savings. This research also identifies key gaps in Edmonton’s resilience-building endeavor which include the frequent separation of human and non-human systems, limited consideration for social accessibility, and an underdeveloped approach to ecosystem service evaluation. Recommendations are provided to address these gaps.
In response to the constant loss of biodiversity in European ecosystems, which is partly due to the impacts of climate change, the European Commission urges member states to include Green Infrastructure (GI) in their land-use plans. However, although the European Commission establishes the fundamental principles to be applied, the ambiguity of some terms generates a certain degree of complexity regarding the delineation of GI elements, especially Ecological Corridors (ECs). Thus, a straightforward methodology for delineating GI elements is required. Here, we propose a Spatial Decision Support System (SDSS) that could help non-expert planners identify areas with a high potential to function as ECs and that could thus facilitate the inclusion of these areas in regional GI plans. Probability distribution maps were constructed by fitting a maximum entropy model (MaxEnt) to publicly available data on selected focal species. The maps were combined with other variables that negatively affect species mobility and later inserted in a graph theory tool to determine the least-cost path that would serve as the basis for delineating ECs. The method was applied to the design of an EC network in Galicia (NW Spain), and use of the system as a tool to help spatial decision-making was evaluated. Despite some limitations, the method yielded promising results that could help non-expert planners to establish the basis for delineating EC networks and other GI elements.
La Microcuenca Estero El Salado localizada en la ciudad turística de Puerto Vallarta, Jalisco, alberga el Área Natural Protegida (ANP) homónima. Sin embargo, su alta biodiversidad y servicios ecosistémicos están amenazados por actividades antrópicas que han acelerado el cambio de coberturas y usos de suelo. Este trabajo evaluó la dinámica del paisaje y la fragmentación de esta área en el periodo 2000 2021. Se generaron mapas temáticos de coberturas y usos del suelo con imágenes de satélite Landsat 5 y 8 para los años 2000 y 2021, y se calcularon métricas de composición y configuración del paisaje. La microcuenca evidencia una predominancia de los usos de suelo urbano, pastizal y agrícola, que pasaron de ocupar un 73.56% de la superficie (2000) a un 78.33% (2021). Las coberturas y usos de suelo registraron cambios en el 38.86% de la superficie. Los cuerpos de agua y bosque tropical disminuyeron su superficie un 75% y 23.86% respectivamente, mientras que el uso urbano la incrementó un 82%. La cobertura de vegetación acuática registró cambios en su configuración espacial, caracterizados por la disminución del número de parches (NP= 127 vs 26) y el aumento del área de los mismos (ÁREA= 2.25 vs 15.05 ha), con mayor agregación hacia la parte baja de la microcuenca (IA= 81.91 vs 95.38), evidenciando que el ANP brinda una protección efectiva a este ecosistema. Las coberturas y usos de suelo presentaron una disminución en el número de parches (NP= 942 vs 849) y un aumento en la distancia entre ellos, principalmente en la selva tropical (ENN_MN= 107.60 vs 180.86 m). El paisaje de la microcuenca mantiene una baja conectividad (Connect= 11.52%-48.65% vs .3.57%-18,15%), por lo que es necesario elaborar instrumentos de planeación territorial que regulen los cambios de uso de suelo, particularmente en las partes altas de la microcuenca.
El presente libro reúne una serie de trabajos cuidadosamente seleccionados, los cuales fueron presentados por estudiantes e investigadores de México y Latinoamérica dentro del marco del Primer Simposio Nacional sobre Estudios en Conectividad del Paisaje. El Simposio se desarrolló en el Centro de Investigaciones en Geografía Ambiental de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, campus Morelia, del 13 al 15 de septiembre de 2022. La obra está conformada por 14 capítulos que fueron seleccionados después de ser revisados por pares académicos a doble ciego, bajo estrictas normas editoriales y dictaminados por evaluadores expertos en el tema, a los cuales les agradecemos su tiempo y dedicación. Los trabajos abordan temas sobre análisis de la fragmentación, conectividad estructural y funcional del paisaje, además de conectividad hidrológica, y elaboración de propuestas de corredores y sitios prioritarios para la conservación del paisaje.
Context
Evaluating connectivity and identifying corridors for protection is a central challenge in applied ecology and conservation. Rigorous validation and comparison of how approaches perform in capturing biological processes is needed to guide research and conservation action.
Objectives
We aim to compare the ability of connectivity surfaces optimised using home range and dispersal data to accurately capture lion movement during dispersal, using cost-distance and circuit theory approaches.
Methods
We delineate periods of dispersal in African lions (Panthera leo) to obtain movement trajectories of dispersing individuals across the Kavango Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area, southern Africa. We use these trajectories to assess comparative measures of connectivity values at dispersal points across surfaces and the ability of models to discriminate between observed and randomised paths.
Results
Encouragingly, results show that on average, all connectivity approaches and resistance surfaces used perform well in predicting movements of an independent set of dispersing lions. Cost-distance approaches were generally more sensitive to resistance input than circuit theory, but differences in performance measures between resistance inputs were small across both approaches.
Conclusions
Findings suggest that home range data can be used to generate resistance surfaces for connectivity maps in this system, with independent dispersal data providing a promising approach to thresholding what is considered as “connected” when delineating corridors. Most dispersers traversed through landscapes that had minimal human settlement and are likely highly connected by dispersal. Research into limiting factors and dispersal abilities will be critical to understanding how populations will respond to increasing habitat fragmentation and human expansion.
The scope of the Handbook is to provide support for the capacity building programme from the SaveGREEN project and to represent a basis for policy work for advocating the improvement of management practices in corridor areas
As the risks of climate change keep increasing, countries have emphasized the ecosystem adaptation policy, and the United Nation Environmental Program (UNEP) aids countries to adapt to a warming world with eco-based adaptation (EbA) measures for good ecosystem governance for boosting ecosystem adaptation services (EAS). With the purpose of helping to indicate the magnitude of the benefits of EAS from local EbA measures, this study assesses the economic value of the EAS of hillside forests regarding the residents in a climate vulnerable watershed, the Lanyang River watershed, by applying a single-bounded contingent evaluation method. The demographic variables and motivation variables indexed by perceived impacts are influencing factors in the residents’ willingness-to-pay. These variables are of significance in EbA policy application. The average economic value for each responding resident was estimated to be NT$ 793.65 on the basis of a survey of the residents’ willingness to pay for EAS and the single-boundary contingent valuation method. The results verified that the residents depend on the protection of natural hillside ecosystems. Considering the complex interactions between ecosystems and humans, the EbA is demonstrated to be a crucial method for mitigating the consequences of climate change. Protecting hillside ecosystems in the Lanyang River watershed through soil and water management presents critical policy implications. Now that climate change has become an emergency, this case study shows the success of Taiwan’s long manipulated EbA for EAS, with evidence of residents benefiting. This Taiwan case study has policy implications for the world and UNEP’s global EbA program to maintain EAS.
The available information of the black bear (Ursus americanus) in Mexico and the subspecies
distributed within it is limited to general features of its natural history, some studies that
provide general information on its populations, and the expansion of its known range of
distribution. The current situation of the black bear in the Mexican territory reflects a difficult
situation due to lack of specific information for the populations distributed in Sierra Madre
Occidental and Sierra Madre Oriental.
98 bibliographical references were collected, most of them were scientific articles
(78%) and only four (4%) of these research papers refer to "subspecies" of Ursus americanus
eremicus: Ursidae. According to information collected about black bears diet, their diet
consists mainly of vegetable matter (90%). This suggests the availability of resources is an
important attribute in their distribution. Stochastic events such as fires and prolonged
droughts have favored the displacement and migration of populations found in SMO bound
for the "Big Bend" National Park in Texas, and possibly to Protected Natural Areas in central
Mexico.
Isolation effects on the distributions of plant species in fragmented forests appear to be weak over tens to hundreds of years and strong over geological eras. The 250 km wide, 6.5 millennia old Bass Strait, and other millennium‐scale disjunctions in the range of Eucalyptus regnans forests, were used to determine the effects of intermediate periods of isolation on plant species occurrence and composition. Three of six floristic communities were found on both sides of Bass Strait. The residuals from multiple regression models using climatic variables on the latitude vector were not explained by latitude, indicating negligible isolation effects from Bass Strait. However, there was a lesser compositional effect of disjunctions within land masses than between land masses, suggesting some effect of the larger barrier. No species that commonly occurred with E. regnans and were largely confined to wet forest exhibited absences from any region where the climate and soils were within their range. If areas isolated from each other for millennia can maintain their vascular plant biota, the expenditure of conservation funds on creating corridors to connect large areas separated by anthropogenic landscape modification might require more justification than it is currently afforded. As isolation of 250 km for many millennia has not substantially affected vascular plant species composition, creating corridors to connect large areas separated by anthropogenic landscape modification might require more justification than it is currently afforded.
A fundamental condition for maintaining viable populations of wildlife is to ensure that animals can access resources. In landscapes where the boundaries of protected areas encompass only a fraction of annual home ranges, animal movement is often curtailed by human activities, often with negative population consequences. In the Tarangire Ecosystem (TE), wildlife generally aggregates in three main protected areas during the dry season (Tarangire and Lake Manyara National Parks, and Manyara Ranch Conservancy) and disperses to several other areas during the wet season. Connectivity between and within seasonal ranges in the ecosystem has generally become more restricted over time, though the apparent effects of these changes have been species-specific. Historical accounts of wildlife movement suggest that animals once moved over much larger areas than they do currently. In this chapter, we review historical information on wildlife movement and distributions in the TE and synthesize data on population genetic structure and individual movements from studies of elephants, giraffes, lions and wildebeests conducted over the past 25 years. Given the continued expansion of agricultural and urban areas, there is a need to coordinate efforts across land management agencies and local governments to ensure that wildlife can continue to move across the landscape.
Climate change is among the greatest threats to biodiversity conservation worldwide. Understanding which species are vulnerable to climate change and in what ways is essential for adaptation planning and mitigation. We used the NatureServe Climate Change Vulnerability Index (CCVI) to conduct a range‐wide assessment of tule elk (Cervus canadensis nannodes) – a California‐endemic ungulate with low genetic diversity, occupying highly fragmented landscapes – to climate change. Using results from the CCVI, we tested the hypothesis that increasing connectivity among populations, by mitigating anthropogenic barriers to movement and dispersal, decreases vulnerability of tule elk to climate change. We compared CCVI scores given predicted conditions within current ranges with CCVI scores as if anthropogenic barriers were mitigated, with and without allowing elk to shift distributions up to 50 km to areas predicted to experience less warming, drying, or overall exposure to climate change (indicated by an interaction between warming and drying). Vulnerability of tule elk to climate change varied among populations; from most to least vulnerable rankings in the CCVI, 1 population was ranked extremely vulnerable, 1 was highly vulnerable, 12 were moderately vulnerable, and 4 were less vulnerable. Mitigating anthropogenic barriers alone did not have a significant effect on vulnerability to climate change compared to original CCVI estimates, nor did mitigation of anthropogenic barriers and shifts in distribution to areas expected to experience the least amount of warming. Mitigation of anthropogenic barriers coupled with elk shifting distributions to areas predicted to experience less drying than current ranges or less overall exposure to climate change significantly reduced climate change vulnerability. Our findings illustrate the need to prioritize increasing landscape connectivity for tule elk across California as part of climate change mitigation measures, but also may apply to non‐migratory ungulates more generally, particularly where drying and warming are predicted to increase under climate change.
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any references for this publication.