No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
The vulnerability of electric-vehicle and wind-turbine supply chains to the supply of rare-earth elements in a 2-degree scenario
Abstract
Decarbonation of the energy system is required at an unprecedented scale to prevent global temperatures rising more than 2°C. A suite of low carbon technologies will be required for this transition. Two of these technologies, wind turbines and electric vehicles, utilise rare earth elements that are sourced from a monopolised supply chain. This could pose a risk to attaining global climate targets. Using demand forecasting, this study shows that 2-degree targets are indeed vulnerable to the rare earth element supply chain. It was found that the consumption of rare earth elements in the electric vehicle industry is unsustainable under current market conditions, while wind turbines are relatively invulnerable to the supply risk of rare earth elements. The stark contrast in risk exposure of these technologies is clearly at odds with the economically optimal deployment projections given in the IEA 2DS scenario. Failure to incorporate these risks in future models will likely impair climate change mitigation efforts.
... OECD Europe region has a limited amount of REE reserves and very low production capacity, making this region highly dependant on imports [69]. Authors that have investigated vulnerability and potential conflicts between REE demand and supply have suggested that it is vital to be able to diversify the supply chain outside of China to prevent a monopolistic structure, especially with the growing demand for energy technologies, as this could intensify geopolitical and environmental constraints [69,71]. ...
... Studies that have focussed on the simultaneous growth expected in the wind turbine and EV sectors found that the supply for REEs is expected to be dominated by road transport due to the high market share of EVs utilising permanent magnet motors [34,47,71]. A significant scale up in production volume is required to support the future growth of wind turbines and EVs, by a factor of up to 35 for HREEs and 9 for LREEs, relative to current production rates [47,69]. ...
... To prevent irreversible demagnetization of the magnets, rareearth magnets such as Neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) with high coercivity are employed. Dysprosium is used to raise the coercivity for such demanding applications and a projection made by [5] indicates the vulnerability in its supply chain. An alternative to NdFeB is Samarium-cobalt (SmCo) which has a superior temperature stability. ...
... The rotor is axially subdivided into N sections depending on the mechanical clearance between the rotating element and the stationary part surrounding it. The total air friction losses (P v,LR ) are given by (5) and are calculated for each ith section (radius r i in m, axial length l i in m, mechanical clearance δ i in m) and summed up. ...
High-speed machines offer several advantages, such as small sizes, avoidance of mechanical gears, and low maintenance, which has led to considerable research dedicated to them in the past decade. In recent times, rectangular wire windings with a hairpin structure have gained prominence in traction motors in the electromobility sector due to their high slot fill factor, simple production, and good thermal properties. Taking these advantages into consideration, this paper analyzes the possibility of using a high-speed permanent magnet synchronous machine (PMSM) with hairpin windings as an electric turbo compressor in fuel cell applications and outlines the critical design aspects.
... The growing interest in the world in renewable energy sources creates an impetus for the development of the Russian REM industry and provides a chance for the transition of the Russian economy to a new technological order. In addition, Russia's entry into the global REM market is in high demand-a shortage of REMs is predicted in the world in the context of the development of renewable energy sources (RESs), and there are fears that the rate of growth in the supply of these metals will lag significantly behind the plans for the development of generating capacities (Li et al., 2020;Ballinger et al., 2020). "Green" energy (primarily wind) is a high-tech area of application of pure REMs. ...
This article deals with the development of the rare-earth industry in Russia. It is noted that Russia, having a significant resource base of this type of mineral raw materials, does not fully use the existing potential. Russia exports low-processed semiproducts, and imports goods containing rare earth elements with high added value. The key problem of the industry is the insignificant domestic demand for rare-earth metals. The growing interest in the world in renewable energy sources creates new opportunities for the development of the Russian rare-earth industry and makes transition of the Russian economy to a new technological order possible. At the heart of the policy to create demand for rare-earth products within the country, the authors propose using an approach based on the consideration of full-cycle projects. The approach is characterized by three main features. First, the approach is an extension of the traditional project approach and takes into account not so much the local aspects of an individual project for the extraction and processing of ore, but its integration into the country's economy through a system of interindustry interactions (multiplier effects). Second, as the demand for products within the country grows and the use of products based on rare-earth metals expands, the process of "learning" is launched, and the costs of mining, processing, and production of final products are reduced. Third, the approach suggests considering rare-earth ores in dumps as pseudo-financial assets with the ability to manage them as traditional economic assets.
... EV production relies on certain critical materials, such as lithium used in batteries [197], and rare earths required by traction motors [198]. As explained in the Literature Review, these materials are subject to substantial supply risk due to unequal geographic distribution and near monopolistic control of resources [199]. If an EoL EV infrastructure was in place to recover and reintroduce critical materials into vehicles, this might serve to mitigate the supply chain risks associated with virgin resources, thus enhancing the economic competitiveness of EVs. ...
... Induction motor (IM) is the leading technology in many industrial applications, nevertheless, suitable IM designs are proposed even for automotive applications [1] where other technologies based on rare earth (RE) Permanent Magnets (PM) are usually preferred, [2]- [6]. The current geopolitical situation and the envisioned growth in the production of EVs arise concerns in the supply chain of RE PM [7], [8]. ...
This paper deals with the design of a 200kW/ 370Nm, induction machine for electrical vehicles traction system. The design aims to enhance the performance of the current induction machine technology for mass production making it suitable to be a rare earth free solution for electric vehicle applications. To this extent, suitable materials have been analyzed and selected, also by using of mechanical analysis and experimental data. Rotor die-casting, hairpin stator winding and specific cooling systems have been adopted within the proposed solutions. Extensive analytical and numerical methods are used for performance evaluation all over the full speed range of the machine.
... Several key elements in the making of Li-ion batters such as cobalt, lithium, nickel and copper are increasing their price exponentially as a consequence of limited supply [148]. Neodymium, terbium and dysprosium are also scarce and rare minerals used to build permanent magnets for EV motors [149]. ...
This deliverable is the third one in the series of three reports that have been developed in the work package (WP) 2 "Limitations and shortcomings for optimal use of local resources" from the H2020 project eNeuron. The main objective of this deliverable is to identify the main barriers, technical limitations, shortcomings and obstacles which can limit the optimal use of local energy resources.
In this work, several technologies that can be installed in micro-energy hubs and energy hubs structures have been identified and analysed in detail in order to determine any factor that could limit their practical implementation. This analysis has covered 33 different types of technologies, divided into three broad multi-energy groups:
• Generation (thermal, electricity and H2 production).
• Storage (thermal, electrical and H2 storage).
• Other complementary technologies that may have a direct impact on the deployment of these local energy resources. In this case, the study has focused on transportation and control systems.
The main technical limitations identified in this work are related to the low efficiency of some of these technologies used in thermal (heat and cool) generation (such as adsorption chillers or air-air heat pumps (HPs)), in distributed electricity generation (such as photovoltaic (PV) cells, wave and tidal generation or fuel cells) and in some energy storage (such as Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES), Liquid Air Energy Storage (LAES), among others). Hydrogen production, storage and re-electrification has also a low performance.
Another technical barrier that has been found in this analysis is low flexibility. Some of the analysed technologies are designed to operate at constant regimes and have poor behaviour at partial load or have a low dynamic response (e.g., biomass boilers, steam boilers, heat pumps, fuel cells, etc.), reducing their controllability and limiting the number of applications in which they can be used autonomously. The easiest way to overcome this drawback is usually by hybridising these technologies (which operate at constant load) with others that can handle the fast variations in generation/consumption imposed by the control system (e.g., fuel cells are usually hybridised with battery packs in fuel cell electric vehicles-FCEVs).
There are some other technical limitations related to security concerns. Some technologies have explosion hazards due to the use of flammable materials or fuels (i.e., gas boilers, Li-ion batteries, H2 handling and LAES, where there is a risk of concentration of oxygen and possible subsequent explosion).
Environmental problems due to the production of noise (e.g., steam boilers, Internal Combustion Engine Combined Heat and Power (ICE CHP), geothermal electric generation, back up generators), the emission of green house gasses-GHG (e.g., natural gas boilers, ICE/Turbine CHP, back up generator, CAES, etc.), the content of toxic materials (e.g., PV cell production, phase change material-PCM, fuel cells, different technologies of electrochemical batteries, supercapacitors, etc.), or the impact in wildlife and environmental disturbances (e.g., small hydropower plant, wind generators, wave-tidal generators) are also important limiting factors.
Other technologies require large space to produce or store energy (e.g., PV, concentrated solar power (CSP), sensible heat energy storage systems or batteries), or they have low energy density (e.g., batteries, flywheel, supercapacitors).
Finally, cost and cost-effectiveness are two of the most important limiting factors which affect several technologies. Most of them are still very expensive, having a high start-up and/or operational costs, particularly those which require civil works (such as small hydropower plants, CAES storage in caverns, etc.) or are installed in very extreme environments, such as wave-tidal generation.
From a technical point of view, not all technologies have the same level of maturity. In some cases, the analysed technology is mature and competitive in the current global market, but in other cases, further efforts are still required to develop this technology and make it competitive in the near future.
The identification of regulatory limitations has been a more complicated process due to the difficulty in identifying legislative barriers at different levels, from limitations at the European level to barriers at the national or local levels.
Considering the work performed in Task 2.1 of this WP, the main regulatory limitations at the European level have been identified and are presented in this deliverable. Additionally, country-specific regulatory limitations have also been analysed and included in Annex I. This analysis has been done in greater detail in those countries where the eNeuron project will install and operate pilot demonstrations, namely Italy, Norway, Portugal and Poland.
After a detailed description of all the encountered technical and regulatory limitations, this document presents a series of potential recommendations for different stakeholders that will help to overcome these barriers.
The main output of this deliverable will be used as input for the specification of the pilots. Once the main technologies to be implemented in these pilots have been defined in the project (in WP5 and WP6) and the main constraints associated with each of these technologies have been identified –that is the scope of this deliverable, it will be possible to anticipate the likely limitations and shortcomings that could affect the real implementation of these pilots.
... The extensive application of rare earth elements (REEs) in emerging technologies accompanied by their high supply chain risk has projected REEs to be critical materials having international importance (Keilhacker and Minner, 2017;Ballinger et al., 2020;Pinto et al., 2020). The REEs have revolutionized various industrial sectors such as the electrical, electronic, metallurgical, and petrochemical industries and even the medical field (Isıldar et al., 2019;Iftekhar et al., 2020). ...
A process for synthesizing Gamma alumina from kaolinitic sandstone ore has been described in this paper. Fine kaolin was recovered from the sandstones after aggressive attrition scrubbing process followed by 2" and 1" hydro- cyclone classification. The produced −25 μm kaolin was transformed to active meta-kaolin via calcination at 750 °C for 5 h. Through metakaolin- H2SO4 interactions, and consequently precipitation in ethanol solution, aluminum sulfate was formed. After dryness and calcination at 900 °C for 2 h γ-alumina was prepared. The FT-IR, DLS, BET, XRD, SEM and EDX analyses confirmed the high purity of the nanosized γ-alumina product. In addition, the prepared γ-alumina was examined as the sorbent for rare earth species from waste materials. Adsorption and thermodynamic studies, in addition to the adsorption selectivity, desorption process, and reusability showed promising performance results. The maximum adsorption capacity of the prepared γ-alumina reached 142 mg/g.
... The HREEs are less abundant than light REEs (LREEs) but command a higher price (Binnemans et al., 2018;Goodenough et al., 2018;Anenburg, 2020, and associated web tool; lambdar.rses.anu.edu.au/alambdar). Neodymium, an LREE that is used in high-strength permanent magnets, is considered the most critical of the REEs for electric vehicle and wind turbine supply chains (Ballinger et al., 2020). Alkaline-silicate associated deposits tend to have flatter REE profiles than carbonatites, so are relatively enriched in the rarer and more valuable middle and heavy REEs (see pop-ups in 3-D model, App. 1). ...
Development of renewable energy infrastructure requires critical raw materials, such as the rare-earth elements (REE, incl. scandium) and niobium, and is driving expansion and diversification in their supply chains. Although alternative sources are being explored, the majority of the world's resources of these elements are found in alkaline-silicate rocks and carbonatites. These magmatic systems also represent major sources of fluorine and phosphorus. Exploration models for critical raw materials are comparatively less well developed than those for major and precious metals, such as iron, copper and gold, where most of the mineral exploration industry continues to focus. The diversity of lithologic relationships and a complex nomenclature for many alkaline rock types represent further barriers to the exploration and exploitation of REE-HFSE resources that will facilitate the green revolution. We used a global review of maps, cross-sections, geophysical, geochemical and petrological observations from alkaline systems to inform our description of the alkaline-silicate REE + HFSE mineral system from continental-scale (1000s km) down to deposit-scale (ca. 1 km lateral). Continental-scale targeting criteria include a geodynamic trigger for low-degree mantle melting at high pressure and a mantle source enriched in REE, volatile elements and alkalies. At the province and district scales, targeting criteria relate to magmatic-system longevity and the conditions required for extensive fractional crystallisation and the residual enrichment of the REE and HFSE. A compilation of maps and geophysical data were used to construct an interactive 3D geological model (25 km cube) that places mineralization within a depth and horizontal reference frame. It shows typical lithologic relationships surrounding orthomagmatic REE-Nb-Ta-Zr-Hf mineralization in layered agpaitic syenites, roof-zone REE-Nb-Ta mineralization, and mineralization of REE-Nb-Zr associated with peralkaline granites and pegmatites. The resulting geological model is presented together with recommended geophysical and geochemical approaches for exploration targeting, as well as mineral processing and environmental factors pertinent for the development of mineral resources hosted by alkaline-silicate magmatic systems.
... However, while the EV industry is flourishing, the end-of-life (EoL) management of EVs and the supply chain for used EVs is insufficiently developed [2]. EV production relies on certain critical materials whose supply is susceptible to risk due to unequal geographic distribution and near monopolistic control of resources [3]. If an EoL EV infrastructure was in place to recover and reintroduce critical materials into vehicles, this might serve to mitigate the supply chain risks associated with virgin resources, thus enhancing the economic competitiveness of EVs. ...
The fast-growing market for electric vehicles (EVs) offers great potential for reducing the carbon footprint of the transportation sector but is heavily reliant on electric motors and batteries, which are in turn dependent on the availability of critical materials, e.g., rare earth elements and lithium. Such critical materials are subject to substantial supply chain risk, indicating a potential lack of source materials to meet EV production. To ameliorate this supply chain uncertainty that may compromise the economic competitiveness of EVs, it is essential to establish an end-of-life (EoL) infrastructure that is focused on closing the material loops within the EV life cycle, thus achieving a circular economy. However, there is a lack of research devoted to enabling technologies and supporting tools to design the reverse logistic chain for EVs that considers EoL processing of components in a holistic manner. To close this knowledge gap, this study develops a stochastic activity network to simulate an EV renewal system (EVRS) that has the goal of rebuilding used EVs and extracting maximum value from EoL EV components and materials. Based on the simulation outputs, the process flow and economic performance of the proposed system are enhanced through operation optimization and pricing optimization. The results indicate the technical viability of the EVRS from an operational standpoint and suggest its promising economic potential in industrial practice. As industries around the globe transition to a circular economy, the proposed network simulation framework has enormous potential to be adapted to other products and scenarios to provide decision support in system planning.
... REE are applied in different sectors, such as batteries for hybrid and electric cars and computer hard drives (Balaram, 2019;Frost et al., 2021;Couto et al., 2021). They are also used as permanent magnets, in screens for electronic devices, in the production of steels, in wind turbines, and in solar cells (Ballinger et al., 2020;Prakht et al., 2020;Yang et al., 2016;Znajdek et al., 2018). In the medical area, they are used in the production of drugs for cancer treatment and in imaging exams (Dutta et al., 2016;Li et al., 2021;Younis et al., 2021). ...
A R T I C L E I N F O Keywords: Cerium Lanthanum Neodymium Light rare earth elements Electromining Selective removal A B S T R A C T Rare earth elements play an important role in our society, as they are used in green energy technologies. However, they are considered critical raw materials. For this reason, there is a concern for obtaining alternative and complementary sources for conventional mining. In light of this view, electric field assisted mining arises as a technique to extract species from soils using green electrolytes to help in the extraction of metals. The aim of this paper was to evaluate the effect of different types of biodegradable electrolytes, including the use of deep eutectic solvents, in the electromining process. Six experiments were conducted applying an electric field of 1.0 V cm − 1 , and all electrolytes were used at a concentration of 0.1 mol L − 1. The results showed that different electrolytes achieved different selectivities. The maximum efficiency using acetic acid resulted in 69.1% of Ce 4+ , citric acid removed 62.3% of La 3+ , and oxalic acid extracted 21.5% of La 3+. The electromining efficiencies using deep eutectic solvents presented minor results. Therefore, considering the biodegradability and selectivity of the organic acids used, electro-mining showed to be a promising eco-friendly alternative for preferential extraction of metal species from soils.
... Therefore, conventional REE mining is not considered an environmentally sustainable industry (Navarro & Zhao, 2014). Despite the environmental footprint of REE production, the current trend of REE consumption indicates that the global demand for REE will keep growing due to technology advancements, which increases the risk of supply disruption at a global scale (Ballinger et al., 2020;Keilhacker & Minner, 2017;Schmid, 2019). Therefore, secondary sources of REE (i.e., mine wastes and E-wastes) are broadly investigated at this stage, not only to mitigate the supply risk, but also to reduce the environmental challenges Environmental Technologies to Treat Rare Earth Elements Pollution associated with REE mining (Binnemans et al., 2013(Binnemans et al., , 2015. ...
Rare earth elements (REE) have applications in various modern technologies, e.g., semiconductors, mobile phones, magnets. They are categorized as critical raw materials due to their strategic importance in economies and high risks associated with their supply chain. Therefore, more sustainable practices for efficient extraction and recovery of REE from secondary sources are being developed.
This book, Environmental Technologies to Treat Rare Earth Elements Pollution: Principles and Engineering: presents the fundamentals of the (bio)geochemical cycles of rare earth elements and which imbalances in these cycles result in pollution.overviews physical, chemical and biological technologies for successful treatment of water, air, soils and sediments contaminated with different rare earth elements.explores the recovery of value-added products from waste streams laden with rare earth elements, including nanoparticles and quantum dots.
This book is suited for teaching and research purposes as well as professional reference for those working on rare earth elements. In addition, the information provided in this book is helpful to scientists, researchers and practitioners in related fields, such as those working on metal/metalloid microbe interaction and sustainable green approaches for resource recovery from wastes.
ISBN: 9781789062229 (Paperback)
ISBN: 9781789062236 (eBook)
ISBN: 9781789062243 (ePUB)
... Among the materials for low-carbon technologies, rare earth elements (REEs)-a group of 17 elements consisting of lanthanides (lanthanum (La) to lutetium (Lu)) as well as scandium (Sc) and yttrium (Y)-are of great importance because significant quantities of REEs are utilized for manufacturing strong permanent magnet, a critical component used in generators for wind turbines and traction motors for EVs [8,[10][11][12]. For example, 2 tons of REEs are required to build a 3 MW wind turbine, and the mass of REEs in a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) with nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries is approximately 3.5-4.5 kg [7,[13][14][15]. Therefore, the stable supply of REEs for the next 20-30 years is important in the success of transitioning into a carbon-neutral society. ...
The global demand for rare earth elements (REEs) is expected to increase significantly because of their importance in renewable energy and clean storage technologies, which are critical for drastic carbon dioxide emission reduction to achieve a carbon-neutral society. REE ore deposits around the world are scarce and those that have been identified but remain unexploited need to be developed to supply future demands. In this study, the Khalzan Buregtei deposit located in western Mongolia was studied with the aim of upgrading low-grade REE ore via magnetic separation techniques. The total REE content in this ore was ~6720 ppm (~3540 ppm light REE (LREE) + ~3180 ppm heavy REE (HREE)) with bastnaesite, pyrochlore, synchysite, and columbite-(Fe) identified as the main REE-bearing minerals. As the particle size fraction decreased from −4.0 + 2.0 mm to −0.5 + 0.1 mm, the recovery by dry high-intensity magnetic separation (DHIMS) increased from 20% to 70% of total rare earth oxide (TREO) while the enrichment ratio reached 2.8 from 1.3. Although effective, gangue minerals such as quartz and aluminosilicates were recovered (~22%) due most likely to insufficient liberation. Meanwhile, the wet high-intensity magnetic separation (WHIMS) could produce a magnetic concentrate with TREO recovery of ~80% and enrichment ratio of 5.5 under the following conditions: particle size fraction, −106 + 75 μm; feed flow rate, 3.2 L/min; magnetic induction, 0.8 T. These results indicate that combining DHIMS and WHIMS to upgrade the low-grade REE ore from the Khalzan Buregtei deposit is an effective approach.
... Doing so requires nothing short of a total transformation of the energy systems that underpin our economies (International Energy Agency, 2021). These profound transformations and the underlying low-carbon innovations that support them are putting pressure on the consumption of certain raw materials (Bazilian, 2018;Deetman et al., 2018) like lithium (Kushnir and Sanden, 2012;Speirs et al., 2014;Hache et al., 2019a), copper , cement or Rare Earth Elements (REEs) (Alonso et al., 2012;Ballinger et al., 2020;Guedes et al., 2021), leading to a more complex future for the geopolitics of energy (Hache, 2018;Hache et al., 2019b). Indeed, while dependence on hydrocarbons could be reduced in the future as low-carbon technologies become more widely deployed, trade relationships and the balance of power might be redefined by the new dependencies generated by mineral-intensive clean technologies (De Ridder, 2013;Nansai et al., 2015;Hache et al., 2018;Månberger and Johansson, 2019). ...
Within the context of the energy transition, decarbonization of the transport sector is the cornerstone of many public policies. As a key component in the cathodes of lithium-ion batteries and nickel metal hydride batteries used in electric or hybrid vehicles, cobalt is expected to face a dynamic demand in the coming decades. Numerous questions are arising regarding the criticality risks of this key metal of the energy transition. In order to assess the availability of cobalt until 2050, we rely on our linear programming world energy-transport model, TIAM-IFPEN. Two climate scenarios were considered (2 °C and 4 °C), each with two different mobility scenarios (Business-as-Usual mobility and Sustainable mobility) and for each mobility scenario, three lithium-ion battery chemistry mix trajectories were considered (high, central and low cobalt content) by 2050. Results show that in the most stringent scenario 83,2% of cobalt resources identified in 2013 would be extracted from the ground by 2050 to satisfy global consumption. Two Thirds of world production is from Africa while China consumes 1/3 of the total demand by 2050. We identify several ways to meet the increasing demand for cobalt resources. Public policies must therefore focus on 3 complementary axes: promoting the development of sustainable mobility; prioritizing low cobalt content batteries in electric vehicles; and concentrating efforts on the implementation and the deployment of a system for recovering, sorting and recycling waste.
... We considered two scenarios. In the first one, we assumed a linear increase in PMSG up to 75% in 2050 for both onshore and offshore turbines (high market share scenario, High) (Ballinger et al., 2020;Carrara et al., 2020;U.S. Department of Energy, 2011;World Bank, 2020). ...
Wind power is one of the fastest-growing energy in the world. Its contribution to global electricity generation should increase from 5 to 30% in 2050. With the increasing number of wind farms, we need to ensure that we will have enough material to meet the expected global capacity growth without creating new environmental issues. In this work, we estimated the material demand for wind turbines in the USA and the rest of the world and compared those values with the expected production until 2050. Based on the annual capacity installation, we quantified the carbon footprint and cumulative energy demand associated with the material production. Cement demand in 2032-2036 could be twice as much as the current amount used for wind turbines and pipeline construction in the USA. Compared to 2018, the USA steel demand in 2033 will increase by 511% (from 853 to 5215 kt). Rare earth elements (REEs) demand in the USA will increase by 254%-815% in 2033 (from 0.33 to 1.16-3 kt) compared to 2018. In the rest of the world, REEs demand will be 38% of the Chinese production in 2050. In 2050, the carbon footprint for materials required for wind turbines globally will be 9.3 times lower than the CO2 emitted currently from coal power plants in the USA. It is important to evaluate the potential impact of large-scale deployment of wind energy to avoid as much as possible creating new issues related to material scarcity, which could increase the carbon footprint of future electricity production.
... 6 In an effort to abate catastrophic consequences arising from global warming, the International Energy Agency (IEA) offers 2 C scenario. 7,8 As compared to the total amount of anthropogenic CO 2 released in 2014, CO 2 discharges in 2060 should be cut down by 70%. 8 To realize this grand challenge, reduction of CO 2 discharge from the transportation sector is of great importance. ...
To offer an innovative way to valorize industrial crop waste into the diverse types of biofuels, the thermochemical process of peanut waste (PW) was investigated. In particular, this study laid a great stress on the use of PW-derived biochar as a cheap catalytic material in the production of biodiesel. Specifically, biochar derived from the pyrolysis of PW was used as a catalytic and porous medium for biodiesel production to enhance reaction kinetics and lower reaction temperature, compared to conventional methods. Two PW-derived biochars produced at 600°C (PWB-600) and 700°C (PWB-700) were effective on the transesterification of soybean oil, showing higher than 95 wt% of biodiesel yield after 1 minute of transesterification reaction at ≥210°C. As a comparison, a commercially used reaction, alkali-catalyzed transesterification, was conducted at 60°C with a KOH catalyst. Biodiesel yield from the alkali-catalyzed reaction was less than 90 wt% even after 6 hours of reaction. Given that the biochar formation process results in the generation of pyrolytic gases and oils, both pyrolysates at different temperatures were also monitored. Pyrolytic gases included syngas and C1-2 hydrocarbons, whereas pyrolytic oils consisted of phenolic compounds that can be used as intermediates for the synthesis of value-added chemicals. Thus, the results confirmed that the thermochemical upgrading of PW produces value-added industrial chemicals (pyrolytic gases and oils) and biochars that are highly active for the biodiesel production process.
... Some forecasts have suggested that ˜40% of global NdPr in 2025 will be required to service this market alone. 348 Heavy REE (e.g. terbium), are also likely to face greater supply constraints in light of EV demand. ...
Australia’s critical minerals potential (Part I): The first phase of the analysis identifies the technologies expected to undergo accelerated or exponential growth as part of the energy transition. Australia’s potential to derive value from the critical energy minerals that underpin these technologies is then assessed. This assessment is then used as the anchor point to inform potential value-add opportunities in the subsequent phase of analysis.
Value-add opportunities assessment and ecosystem development (Part II): This section of the report assesses the potential for Australia to move up the value chains of the shortlisted energy technologies (i.e. beyond minerals extraction) to create new economic opportunities. It then sets out the investment priorities required to realise these opportunities. These investment priorities are categorised according to the following:
(a) Commercial: Includes an assessment of the commercial considerations as well as business and financing models.(b) Policy/Regulatory: Includes an assessment of where policy is needed to stimulate relevant markets together with the technical/economic regulations that are required to facilitate deployment of relevant technologies.(c) Research Development & Demonstration (RD&D): Includes an assessment of where incremental improvements to mature technologies are needed as well as the potential for a selection of emerging technologies to provide the next wave of development. Demonstration projects needed to enable industry scale up are also considered.
... We will therefore build a strong alliance to collectively shift from high dependency to diversified, sustainable and socially-responsible sourcing, circularity and innovation. (EU Commission, 2020b) To shed more light on those complex interlinkages, many studies have been published aiming to determine the criticality of materials for advanced energy technology sectors such as transportation and mobility (Hache et al., 2019;Ortego et al., 2020;Teubler et al., 2018;Ballinger et al., 2020;Valero et al., 2018), low-carbon electricity generation Boubault & Maïzi, 2019;Gonzalez et al., 2018;Li et al., 2020;Rabe et al., 2017), smart cities (David & Koch, 2019), or batteries (Wentker et al., 2019;Weimer & Braun, 2019;Naumanen et al., 2019). These studies originate from different disciplinary backgrounds and apply a broad variety of analytical approaches, but all aimed to identify the material barriers to the future expansion of production capacities and markets, which in turn also determine the strategic value of certain raw materials for national industries. ...
In this final chapter, we condense the findings of this book, and then present our concrete recommendations for anticipative governance tools to apply to the problem of CRMs in fuel cells. These recommendations are broadly separated into the areas of incentives (such as managed funding and academic prizes), education (through the provision of relevant courses, and enhanced communication between actors), and guidelines and regulation (via enhanced labelling and software tools or procurement guidelines). Finally, we lay out the conclusion of this book.
... We will therefore build a strong alliance to collectively shift from high dependency to diversified, sustainable and socially-responsible sourcing, circularity and innovation. (EU Commission, 2020b) To shed more light on those complex interlinkages, many studies have been published aiming to determine the criticality of materials for advanced energy technology sectors such as transportation and mobility (Hache et al., 2019;Ortego et al., 2020;Teubler et al., 2018;Ballinger et al., 2020;Valero et al., 2018), low-carbon electricity generation Boubault & Maïzi, 2019;Gonzalez et al., 2018;Li et al., 2020;Rabe et al., 2017), smart cities (David & Koch, 2019), or batteries (Wentker et al., 2019;Weimer & Braun, 2019;Naumanen et al., 2019). These studies originate from different disciplinary backgrounds and apply a broad variety of analytical approaches, but all aimed to identify the material barriers to the future expansion of production capacities and markets, which in turn also determine the strategic value of certain raw materials for national industries. ...
This chapter introduces the concepts behind governance for an interdisciplinary audience of the relevant actors. We establish the definitions of governance used in this work and discuss governance from a technological context. We look at examples of the governance of sustainable technologies to date, with a particular focus on critical raw materials (CRMs). Further, the notion of research-oriented anticipative governance is introduced, along with the potential benefits of early stage intervention. Fuel cells are then presented as an upcoming technology where early stage governance could still have enormous benefit for preventing CRM-related bottlenecks in the future. We look at the tools that can be used according to our governance framework, especially including foresight, engagement, and integration.
... We will therefore build a strong alliance to collectively shift from high dependency to diversified, sustainable and socially-responsible sourcing, circularity and innovation. (EU Commission, 2020b) To shed more light on those complex interlinkages, many studies have been published aiming to determine the criticality of materials for advanced energy technology sectors such as transportation and mobility (Hache et al., 2019;Ortego et al., 2020;Teubler et al., 2018;Ballinger et al., 2020;Valero et al., 2018), low-carbon electricity generation Boubault & Maïzi, 2019;Gonzalez et al., 2018;Li et al., 2020;Rabe et al., 2017), smart cities (David & Koch, 2019), or batteries (Wentker et al., 2019;Weimer & Braun, 2019;Naumanen et al., 2019). These studies originate from different disciplinary backgrounds and apply a broad variety of analytical approaches, but all aimed to identify the material barriers to the future expansion of production capacities and markets, which in turn also determine the strategic value of certain raw materials for national industries. ...
This chapter goes deeper into the concept of critical raw materials (CRMs), how they are defined, and how they are classified. The ethical and environmental problems associated with the use of CRMs in established renewable energy technologies are explored, and how path dependencies have been established in the supply chain. We focus on the specific example of cobalt as a CRM in lithium-ion batteries and show that it presents a bottleneck in the global roll-out of battery electric vehicles (BEVs). Then, we look at the different factors which increase the supply risks of CRMs and summarize political initiatives such as the European Union Action Plan on Critical Raw Materials to improve resilience against future shocks. Finally, we briefly put the above issues into the context of fuel cells.
... We will therefore build a strong alliance to collectively shift from high dependency to diversified, sustainable and socially-responsible sourcing, circularity and innovation. (EU Commission, 2020b) To shed more light on those complex interlinkages, many studies have been published aiming to determine the criticality of materials for advanced energy technology sectors such as transportation and mobility (Hache et al., 2019;Ortego et al., 2020;Teubler et al., 2018;Ballinger et al., 2020;Valero et al., 2018), low-carbon electricity generation Boubault & Maïzi, 2019;Gonzalez et al., 2018;Li et al., 2020;Rabe et al., 2017), smart cities (David & Koch, 2019), or batteries (Wentker et al., 2019;Weimer & Braun, 2019;Naumanen et al., 2019). These studies originate from different disciplinary backgrounds and apply a broad variety of analytical approaches, but all aimed to identify the material barriers to the future expansion of production capacities and markets, which in turn also determine the strategic value of certain raw materials for national industries. ...
In this chapter, solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are introduced, a category of fuel cells made from ceramic and metal components. By operating at high temperatures, this type of fuel cell avoids the disadvantages of polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFCs) regarding the use of platinum group metal catalysts and sensitivity to impurities in the fuel. The aims of this chapter are to give a brief overview of the operating principles of the SOFCs, the advantages and disadvantages of the technology, and examples of the type of material used as components in the cells. The use of critical raw materials (CRMs) and the amounts required to satisfy a range of energy applications using this technology are discussed. Finally, the range of research being carried out towards the development of SOFCs is examined and the potential for addressing CRM bottlenecks and availability issues are discussed.
... We will therefore build a strong alliance to collectively shift from high dependency to diversified, sustainable and socially-responsible sourcing, circularity and innovation. (EU Commission, 2020b) To shed more light on those complex interlinkages, many studies have been published aiming to determine the criticality of materials for advanced energy technology sectors such as transportation and mobility (Hache et al., 2019;Ortego et al., 2020;Teubler et al., 2018;Ballinger et al., 2020;Valero et al., 2018), low-carbon electricity generation Boubault & Maïzi, 2019;Gonzalez et al., 2018;Li et al., 2020;Rabe et al., 2017), smart cities (David & Koch, 2019), or batteries (Wentker et al., 2019;Weimer & Braun, 2019;Naumanen et al., 2019). These studies originate from different disciplinary backgrounds and apply a broad variety of analytical approaches, but all aimed to identify the material barriers to the future expansion of production capacities and markets, which in turn also determine the strategic value of certain raw materials for national industries. ...
As the world accelerates towards a renewable energy transition, the demand for critical raw materials (CRMs) for energy generation, conversion, and storage technologies is seeing a drastic increase. Such materials are not only subject to limited supply and extreme price volatility but can also represent serious burdens to the environment, to human health, and also to socio-political systems. Taking an interdisciplinary perspective, this book provides a novel perspective on the discussion about material dependencies of energy technologies. It examines CRMs use in fuel cells, an emerging energy conversion technology, and discusses governance strategies for early-stage fuel cell development to predict and avoid potential issues. This will be an invaluable resource for researchers in energy studies, engineering, sociology and political science as well as those with a general interest in this field looking for an accessible overview.
Martin David is a Postdoctoral Researcher and Lecturer in the Institute of Sustainability Governance at Leuphana University in Germany. He conducts research in the field of Environmental Sociology, Science and Technology Studies, and Sustainability Transitions. Among other topics, Martin has a proven track of investigating processes of innovation and sociotechnical discontinuation in energy transitions.
Stephen M. Lyth is an Associate Professor at Kyushu University in Japan and has authored over 75 papers on energy and materials. He was a recipient of the prestigious “NICE STEP Researcher Award 2019” from the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) for significant contribution to science and technology.
Robert Lindner is an Associate Professor at Kyushu University’s Faculty of Law and the Platform for Inter/Transdisciplinary Energy Research (Q-PIT). He is a political scientist with an interest in energy and environmental governance, international relations, and sustainability transitions in developing countries.
George F. Harrington is an Assistant Professor at Kyushu University in Japan, working in the Next-Generation Fuel Cell Research Centre (NEXT-FC) and Center for Co-Evolutional Social Systems (CESS), and also holds a Visiting Scholar position at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering. His research is focused on advanced functional oxide materials for applications in energy conversion and information storage.
... On the other hand, industries could provide more information about how the required resources are affecting the global environment. Because the supply chain for crucial resources of wind technologies involves intense mining activities causing strong vulnerability due to regional impacts on the environment (Ballinger et al. 2020). ...
The focus on expanding the sector coupling and binding the electricity system and end-user sectors like the transport and industry bring attention to environmental trade-offs. Otherwise, unintended environmental impacts could potentially impede the transformation process. Given that, this paper aims to identify and discuss environmental burdens that should require government attention. For that, the approach of coupling Life Cycle Assessment with the electricity market model (ELTRAMOD) is presented. Results show that the large impact on land use occupation as a regional issue requires attention due to diversified permitting mechanisms and eligibility criteria for solar fields among European member states. Metal and ozone depletion bring the challenge that transformation processes need attention on global limits related to finite resources and fugitive losses of anthropogenic substances.
... Unfortunately, this results in more consumption of REY which naturally occur in economically viable deposits in few parts of the world such as South Africa, Russia, USA, India, Australia and China (Jun et al., 2010;Kulczycka et al., 2016). Studies have indicated that the demand for REY will increase by 5% each year (USGS, 2016;Ballinger et al., 2020). This then calls for the discovery and development of materials that can recover REY from wastewaters to ensure sustainability. ...
Rare earth elements including scandium and yttrium (REY) are valuable elements that are used in different economically valuable applications. Moreover, these elements are in demand especially in electronic products and energy gadgets such as solar panels and wind turbines. Thus, their recovery from industrial wastewaters will be very beneficial to the economy of the world. The current study reports on the simultaneous recovery of REY (Sc, Y, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb and Lu) from aqueous solutions using column studies. The role of pH (2 – 8), concentration (2 – 10 mg L⁻¹), bed height (3 – 9 cm) and flow rate (2.0 – 5 mL min⁻¹) on the uptake of REY was investigated. The effect of the presence of SO4²⁻, Cl⁻ and PO4³⁻ at different conditions was also assessed. Column models were used to describe the column sorption data. The speciation of the elements was determined using PHREEQC geochemical modelling. The highest adsorption capacity was reached with 3 cm bed height and 2 mL min⁻¹ flow rate at pH 5.5, with>98% removal efficiency of all the elements. The REY removal process was ineffective in highly acidic pH. There was no significant difference on the removal of REY in the absence or presence of Cl⁻. >75 and 90% removal percentage of REY was observed in the presence of SO4²⁻ and Cl⁻, respectively, but the adsorption was low in the presence of PO4³⁻. Natural zeolite proved to be a suitable adsorbent for simultaneous removal of REY from wastewaters.
... Concerns over REE supply are already pushing auto companies to lower REE content in their vehicles 45 and have spurred research in developing REE substitutes, 46 but there is still large projected future demand for REEs over the next decade for EVs. [47][48][49] A coordinated effort of industry, academia, and government, including strong leadership by major hybrid and EV OEMs, is required to create a robust CE for these REE-containing components. ...
The use of decision support tools to accelerate the development of circular economic business models for hard disk drives and rare-earth magnets - Volume 7 - Kali Frost, Hongyue Jin, William Olson, Mark Schaffer, Gary Spencer, Carol Handwerker
... The current dearth of diversity in the raw material supply chain along with the rapid deployment of all decarbonisation and digital innovations required in the short to medium term, to meet more stringent environmental constraints and economic growth, raises concerns about the feasibility of meeting short-term roll-out targets (Ballinger et al., 2020). Since many important countries (such as China) are less and less interested in exporting strategic raw material and more and more constrained by their internal consumption (Wübbeke, 2013), many importing countries have considered resource supply limitations as a priority by formulating raw material strategies (Europe is a perfect illustration (European Commission, 2008. ...
This article aims to assess the impact of copper availability on the energy transition and to determine whether copper could become critical due to the high copper content of low-carbon technologies compared to conventional technologies. In assessing copper availability through to 2050, we rely on our linear programming world energy-transport model, TIAM-IFPEN. We examine two climate scenarios (2°C and 4°C) with two mobility shape, implemented with a recycling chain. The penetration of low-carbon technologies in the transport and energy sectors (electric vehicles and low-carbon power generation technologies) is likely to significantly increase copper demand by 2050. To investigate how tension over copper resources can be reduced in the energy transition context, we consider two public policy drivers: sustainable mobility and recycling practices. Results show that in the most stringent scenario, the cumulative primary copper demand between 2010 and 2050 is found to be 89.4% of the copper resources known in 2010. They also pinpoint the importance of China and Chile in the future evolution of the copper market.
... Additionally, Ballinger et al. [51] underlined the potential issues related to the supply of rare-earth elements for Li-ion batteries production in strong decarbonization scenarios, due to the very high penetration of EVs. They underlined the need of incorporating these risks in future modeling scenarios. ...
Lithium ion batteries are experiencing an increased success thanks to their interesting performances, in particular for electric vehicles applications. Their continuous technological improvements in the last years are providing higher energy density and lower manufacturing costs. However, the environmental performance of their supply chain is of paramount importance to guarantee a cleaner alternative to fossil-based solutions on the entire life cycle of the applications. This paper carries out a comprehensive review on the main aspects related to Li-ion batteries manufacturing, to support the readers in understanding the complexity of the subject and the main challenges and opportunities for the future developments of this technology. The paper discusses the expected future demand of batteries; the main aspects related to the supply chain, including existing assets, input materials and alternative technologies; the end-of-life of batteries; the environmental impacts; and the main geopolitical implications.
Smith and Brisman (2020) have argued that our social and cultural orientation toward environmental crises is influenced by the existence of an ‘Environmental Crisis Industry’ (ECI hereafter) that favours environmental ‘solutions’ that are palatable to state corporate interests and the global consumer classes ahead of systemic change. This article, however, argues that the ECI is evolving in the context of political-economic and geopolitical changes that have emerged as a result of the Covid-19 pandemic, and is becoming increasingly focused on renewable energy and the shoring up supply and control over the minerals and natural resources crucial to the energy transition. These, however, are not without their own harms. While green criminology has spent a great deal of time considering the harms and consequences of failing to seriously tackle climate change, it has scarcely considered the potential harms that could emerge if the ECI decided to seriously pursue zero-carbon targets. As the ECI gets more serious, this article considers these potential harms and the implications this has for criminologists and zemiologists interested in climate change and environmental harm.
Climate change is a matter of extreme urgency. Integrating science and economics, this book demonstrates the need for measures to put a strict lid on cumulative carbon emissions and shows how to implement them. Using the carbon budget framework, it reveals the shortcomings of current policies and the debates around them, such as the popular enthusiasm for individual solutions and the fruitless search for 'optimal' regulation by economists and other specialists. On the political front, it explains why business opposition to the policies we need goes well beyond the fossil fuel industry, requiring a more radical rebalancing of power. This wide-ranging study goes against the most prevalent approaches in mainstream economics, which argue that we can tackle climate change while causing minimal disruption to the global economy. The author argues that this view is not only impossible, but also dangerously complacent.
Offshore wind energy (OWE) shows rapid growth in reducing CO2 emissions. Although OWE is considered renewable several used materials in their activities, such as manufacturing, installation, maintenance, and dismantling of the wind farms, generate negative impacts on human health, the natural environment, and natural resources. To provide a better insight into these impacts on the OWE industry, this research generated the first detailed relationship between the main activities of the OWE industry, the turbine components, the main used materials, and the environmental impacts according to LCA's impact categories. Also, this study synthesized information about the impacts and energy consumption reported for the OWE industry, but also published for other industries about materials used in OWE. Their impacts have not been properly considered in the previous research. The results revealed that there is not enough information about LCA's assessment of the environmental effects generated in manufacturing some turbine components and during operation-maintenance activities. The results evidence that Steel is one of the main materials with the highest negative impacts and energy consumption, followed by Concrete, and petroleum-based materials. The findings of this research highlight the need for establishing strategies to replace the most contaminant materials with less harmful ones.
This report details preliminary findings from the project ‘Rare Earths in the Just Transition: Connecting Global Inequalities in REEs Commodity Chains’, which was funded by the British Academy’s Just Transitions within Sectors and Industries Globally scheme.
Ionic clays, formed by natural weathering of rare earth element (REE)-containing minerals and surface adsorption of liberated ions, are a critical REE resource. Here, the sequential precipitation of impurities and REEs from the desorption of a South American ionic clay is investigated. Selective sequential precipitation profiles are constructed by stepwise addition of 1.3 M ammonium bicarbonate to the lixivium. During sequential precipitation, ammonium bicarbonate first behaves as a pH adjustor to remove co-extracted impurities as hydroxides, and then behaves as both a carbonate ion source and a pH adjustor to precipitate the REEs as carbonates. Impurity precipitation is completed at pH 6.0 and REE precipitation is completed at pH 6–7.5; however, total carbonate concentration during the impurity precipitation step must be kept low to prevent REE loss. To gain a better understanding of the REE precipitation step, thermodynamic calculations using the Davis model are performed. Dysprosium is studied as a model REE and its speciation diagram as a function of pH and total carbonate and sulfate ion concentrations is constructed. It is found that the primary factors controlling REE precipitation are pH, carbonate, and sulfate concentrations. The knowledge gained in this work provides a deeper understanding of the sequential impurity and REE precipitation processes from the desorption lixivium of a unique ionic clay from South America. The results would help guide future work on REE separation from this distinct ionic clay.
Pre-concentration and separation processes of Rare Earth Elements (REEs) were investigated in terms of several factors. Nitric acid leachate of e-waste was first pre-treated by increasing pH and filtering through microfiltration. For pre-concentration, pre-treated leachate was concentrated by nanofiltration. While a 70% permeate recovery ratio was kept constant, the rare earth elements concentrations were triplicated under optimum conditions. A flat sheet supported liquid membrane process with a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) support membrane was successfully used to extract REEs from the pre-treated leachate. Of the two extractants evaluated, bis-2-ethylhexyl phosphoric acid (D2EHPA) displayed a higher REE separation efficiency than did di-2,4,4,-trimethylpentyl phosphinic acid (Cyanex 272). However, Cyanex 272 separated Sc more selectively. For direct membrane solvent extraction (MSX) and MSX with pre-concentration, pre-treatment pH and D2EHPA concentrations were optimized at values of 1.5 and 15%, respectively. When comparing the results of MSX for direct and pre-concentrated configurations, it was seen that REEs and HREEs recoveries were increased 10% and 30% in MSX with pre-concentration at the end of single-stage MSX. Pre-concentration not only increased the MSX process efficiency but also enabled acid recovery from nanofiltration permeate. A more environmentally friendly and economical process scheme was proposed, including acid recovery from both NF filtrate and post-MSX leaching residue by two different membrane distillation configurations.
2020 has proven to be an unprecedented year for all of us, as the ‘new normal’ of lockdown, the challenges of home schooling and the realities of living through a global pandemic have raised fundamental questions about the structure of our society and made us evaluate how we live. But how has the COVID-19 pandemic, and the subsequent restrictions upon public life, affected those of the population whose lives are contoured around the gym and bodywork? Utilising data precured through semi-structured interviews with image and performance enhancing drug-using bodybuilders as part of the author’s PhD research, this article sets out to provide a glimpse into the realities of life in the hardcore fitness community in 2020. First, the impact of lockdown on the men’s training will be explored, and their flouting of the restrictions will be described. Following this, the sample’s IPED consumption during this period will be examined, noting an overall reduction in use and a homogenisation of their favoured substances. Finally, the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on the IPED market itself will be explored, wherein the sample’s accounts of panic-buying, supply chain issues and declining demand will be presented. Ultimately, whilst not entirely generalisable given the modest sample size, it is hoped that this article will serve to paint a picture of life under lockdown for the most committed gym users in the population, and follow the community’s challenges during the ‘longest year’.
Rare earth elements (REE) have applications in various modern technologies, e.g., semiconductors, mobile phones, magnets. They are categorized as critical raw materials due to their strategic importance in economies and high risks associated with their supply chain. Therefore, more sustainable practices for efficient extraction and recovery of REE from secondary sources are being developed.
This book, Environmental Technologies to Treat Rare Earth Elements Pollution: Principles and Engineering: presents the fundamentals of the (bio)geochemical cycles of rare earth elements and which imbalances in these cycles result in pollution.overviews physical, chemical and biological technologies for successful treatment of water, air, soils and sediments contaminated with different rare earth elements.explores the recovery of value-added products from waste streams laden with rare earth elements, including nanoparticles and quantum dots.
This book is suited for teaching and research purposes as well as professional reference for those working on rare earth elements. In addition, the information provided in this book is helpful to scientists, researchers and practitioners in related fields, such as those working on metal/metalloid microbe interaction and sustainable green approaches for resource recovery from wastes.
ISBN: 9781789062229 (Paperback)
ISBN: 9781789062236 (eBook)
ISBN: 9781789062243 (ePUB)
Limited natural resources and a continuous increase in the demand for modern technological products, is creating a demand and supply gap for rare earth elements (REEs) and Sc. There is therefore a need to adopt the sustainable approach of the circular economy system (CE). In this review, we defined six steps required to close the loop and recover REEs, using a holistic approach. Recent statistics on REEs and Sc demand and the number of waste generations are reported and studies on more environmentally friendly, economic, and/or efficient recovery processes are summarized. Pilot-scale recovery facilities are described for several types of secondary sources. Finally, we identify obstacles to closing the REE loop in a circular economy and the reasons why secondary sources are not preferred over primary sources. Briefly, recovery from secondary sources should be environmentally and economically friendly and of an acceptable standard concerning final product quality. However, current technologies for recovery from for secondary sources are limiting and technology needs will vary depending on the source type. The quality/purity of the recovered metals should be proven so that they do not result in any adverse effects on the product quality, when they are being used as secondary raw material. In addition, for industrial-scale facilities, process improvements are required that consider environmental conditions.
The reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by the energy transition may lead to trade-offs with other impacts on the environment, society, and economy. One challenge is resource use impacts due to increasing demand for high-tech metals and minerals. A review of the current state of the art resource assessment of energy systems was conducted to identify gaps in research and application. Publications covering complete energy systems and supplying a detailed resource assessment were the focus of the evaluation. Overall, 92 publications were identified and categorized by the type of system covered and the applied abiotic resource assessment methods. A total of 78 out of 92 publications covered sub-systems of renewable energy systems, and nine considered complete energy systems and conducted a detailed resource use assessment. Most of the publications in the group “complete energy system and detailed resource assessment” were found in grey literature. Several different aspects were covered to assess resource use. Thirty publications focused on similar aspects including criticality and supply risks, but technology-specific aspects are rarely assessed in the resource assessment of renewable energy systems. Few publications included sector coupling technologies, and among the publications most relevant to the aim of this paper one third did not conduct an indicator-driven assessment.
Rare earths elements (REE) are considered as strategic resources because they interact with business and gov-ernments' direct policy interventions. Policy interventions can have a major effect on security of rare earth supply (Kooroshy et al., 2015). The purpose of this study is to scrutinize China's REE policies and its impacts on the supply chain resilience. We analyze the supply chain dynamics by specifically targeting a number of Chinese REE policies that have disruptive tendencies. We analyze various policies placing the price at the center as an overarching feedback loop. In other words, we focus on how price responds to various resilience influencing mechanisms such as diversity of supply, regulatory frameworks, and stockpiling. In the process, we investigate Chinese influence on rest of the world (RoW) supply chain and dynamics inside the Chinese supply chain as there are two different layers of supply chain one for China and another one for rest of the world. We show that the supply chain is a complex phenomenon and resilience of a system is not solely dependent on physical disruptions but also on dynamic factors such as societal and geo-political (eg. environmental regulation, speculative market and export ban). We identify links and interdependencies even where data is not readily available and examine how the overall system reacts to various constraints and disruptions.
Neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) magnets offer the strongest magnetic field per unit volume, and thus, are widely used in clean energy applications such as electric vehicle motors. However, rare earth elements (REEs), which are the key materials for creating NdFeB magnets, have been subject to significant supply uncertainty in the past decade. NdFeB magnet-to-magnet recycling has recently emerged as a promising strategy to mitigate this supply risk. This paper assesses the environmental footprint of NdFeB magnet-to-magnet recycling by directly measuring the environmental inputs and outputs from relevant industries and compares the results with production from ‘virgin’ materials, using life cycle assessments. It was found that magnet-to-magnet recycling lowers environmental impacts by 64-96%, depending on the specific impact categories under investigation. With magnet-to-magnet recycling, key processes that contribute 77-95% of the total impacts were identified to be 1) hydrogen mixing & milling (13-52%), 2) sintering & annealing (6-24%), and 3) electroplating (6-75%). The inputs from industrial sphere that play key roles in creating these impacts were electricity (24-93% of the total impact) and nickel (5-75%) for coating. Therefore, alternative energy sources such as wind and hydroelectric power are suggested to further reduce the overall environmental footprint of NdFeB magnet-to-magnet recycling.
Wind energy technology is evolving towards larger machines (longer blades, taller towers and more powerful generators). Scaling up wind turbines is a challenging task, which requires innovative solutions as well as new configurations and designs. The size of wind turbines (in terms of rotor diameter, hub height and rated power) has increased extraordinary from 30 m rotor diameter, 30 m of hub height and 300 kW rated power, usual in the late 1980s, to 92.7 m rotor diameter, 87.7 m of height and 2.1 MW on average at the end of 2014. However, technological evolution has not only been focused on the scaling up process but also on developing innovative solutions that minimize costs at the same time as they deal with aspects of different nature, such as grid code requirements, reliability, quality of the wind resource or prices and availability of certain commodities, among others.
This paper analyses the evolution of wind technology from a market‐based perspective by identifying trends in the most relevant technological indicators at the same time as stressing the key differentiating aspects between regions/markets. Evolution and trends in indicators such as rated power, rotor diameter, hub height, specific power, wind class, drive train configuration and power control systems are presented and analysed, showing an intense and fast technological development, which is enabling wind energy to reduce costs and becoming increasingly more competitive with conventional fuel‐based generating technologies. © 2016 The Authors Wind Energy Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Rare earths, sometimes called the vitamins of modern materials, captured public attention when their prices increased more than ten-fold in 2010 and 2011. As prices fell between 2011 and 2016, rare earths receded from public view—but less visibly they became a major focus of innovative activity in companies, government laboratories and universities. Geoscientists worked to better understand the resource base and improve our knowledge about mineral deposits that will be mines in the future. Process engineers carried out research that is making primary production and recycling more efficient. Materials scientists and engineers searched for substitutes that will require fewer or no rare earths while providing properties comparable or superior to those of existing materials. As a result, even though global supply chains are not significantly different now than they were before the market disruption, the innovative activity motivated by the disruption likely will have far-reaching, if unpredictable, consequences for supply chains of rare earths in the future.
Export restrictions on metals and mineral products have been broadly applied by many countries with a view to securing domestic supply and addressing resource depletion. Export restrictions are designed to meet diverse policy objectives ranging from environmental protection and increasing fiscal revenue to the development of processing sectors. The global dependency on China for raw materials (particularly rare earth elements) is a contentious issue, as China imposes a number of restrictions on the export of these minerals. This study uses the case of rare earth elements to evaluate Chinese export restrictions, reviewing China's current monopoly over the industry and providing insights on how widely traded these minerals are and China's position in international trade in terms of both volume and value. The study investigates the various trade restrictions imposed by China and their implications, including the availability of materials to industrialized countries.
The rare earth elements (REEs) are all around us, not only in nature but in our everyday lives. They are in every car, computer, smartphone, energy-efficient fluorescent lamp, and color TV, as well as in lasers, lenses, ceramics, and more. Scientific applications of these elements range from tracing the provenance of magmas and sediments to studying body structures with magnetic resonance imaging. The realization that we need rare earths for so many applications, but that their supply is effectively restricted to several mining districts in China, has brought these elements to the headlines and created a critical-metals agenda. Here we introduce the REE family: their properties, minerals, practical uses, and deposits. Potential sources of these elements are diverse and abundant if we can overcome the technical challenges of rare earth mining and extraction in an environmentally and socially responsible way.
Since the Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) became main-stream with the launch of the Toyota Prius in 1997, the use of rare earth magnets in vehicle traction motors has become common. In particular the rare earth based, hard magnetic material Neodymium Iron Boron (NdFeB) has offered significant performance benefits, not possible with other technologies, enabling the development of compact, torque- and power-dense electric traction motors. This trend has continued as mass market Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) such as the Nissan Leaf, have come to market. However in 2011–2012 the price of these materials rose significantly, owing to geopolitical concerns relating to security of supply. Whilst the price has recovered more recently closer to historical levels, concern still remains in the minds of governments and many manufacturers of hybrid and electric vehicles. Reports have also raised questions over the environmental sustainability of these materials and this has further encouraged users to consider alternatives. This paper therefore examines why these magnetic materials have been so successful in traction motor applications. It also explores the alternatives, including those which are ready for market and those which are in the process of being developed.
In this assessment we summarise advances in our knowledge of how UV-B radiation (280-315 nm), together with other climate change factors, influence terrestrial organisms and ecosystems. We identify key uncertainties and knowledge gaps that limit our ability to fully evaluate the interactive effects of ozone depletion and climate change on these systems. We also evaluate the biological consequences of the way in which stratospheric ozone depletion has contributed to climate change in the Southern Hemisphere. Since the last assessment, several new findings or insights have emerged or been strengthened. These include: (1) the increasing recognition that UV-B radiation has specific regulatory roles in plant growth and development that in turn can have beneficial consequences for plant productivity via effects on plant hardiness, enhanced plant resistance to herbivores and pathogens, and improved quality of agricultural products with subsequent implications for food security; (2) UV-B radiation together with UV-A (315-400 nm) and visible (400-700 nm) radiation are significant drivers of decomposition of plant litter in globally important arid and semi-arid ecosystems, such as grasslands and deserts. This occurs through the process of photodegradation, which has implications for nutrient cycling and carbon storage, although considerable uncertainty exists in quantifying its regional and global biogeochemical significance; (3) UV radiation can contribute to climate change via its stimulation of volatile organic compounds from plants, plant litter and soils, although the magnitude, rates and spatial patterns of these emissions remain highly uncertain at present. UV-induced release of carbon from plant litter and soils may also contribute to global warming; and (4) depletion of ozone in the Southern Hemisphere modifies climate directly via effects on seasonal weather patterns (precipitation and wind) and these in turn have been linked to changes in the growth of plants across the Southern Hemisphere. Such research has broadened our understanding of the linkages that exist between the effects of ozone depletion, UV-B radiation and climate change on terrestrial ecosystems.
Significance
Plausible estimates of climate change impacts on agriculture require integrated use of climate, crop, and economic models. We investigate the contribution of economic models to uncertainty in this impact chain. In the nine economic models included, the direction of management intensity, area, consumption, and international trade responses to harmonized crop yield shocks from climate change are similar. However, the magnitudes differ significantly. The differences depend on model structure, in particular the specification of endogenous yield effects, land use change, and propensity to trade. These results highlight where future research on modeling climate change impacts on agriculture should focus.
The concentration of rare earth elements (REEs) production in China raises the vital issue of supply susceptibility. Until recently, the global dependency on China for rare earths was a well-kept secret. But word started to spread fast after Beijing cut export quotas by 70 per cent for the second half of 2010, sending prices of some oxides—the purified form of rare earth elements sky-rocketing. This article seeks to evaluate what rare earth elements are and explores China’s role in the global supply-demand equations. It also explores the history of rare earth elements and China’s current monopoly over the industry, including possible repercussions if rare earth elements supply were to be disrupted.
The RCP2.6 emission and concentration pathway is representative of the literature on mitigation scenarios aiming to limit
the increase of global mean temperature to 2°C. These scenarios form the low end of the scenario literature in terms of emissions
and radiative forcing. They often show negative emissions from energy use in the second half of the 21st century. The RCP2.6
scenario is shown to be technically feasible in the IMAGE integrated assessment modeling framework from a medium emission
baseline scenario, assuming full participation of all countries. Cumulative emissions of greenhouse gases from 2010 to 2100
need to be reduced by 70% compared to a baseline scenario, requiring substantial changes in energy use and emissions of non-CO2 gases. These measures (specifically the use of bio-energy and reforestation measures) also have clear consequences for global
land use. Based on the RCP2.6 scenario, recommendations for further research on low emission scenarios have been formulated.
These include the response of the climate system to a radiative forcing peak, the ability of society to achieve the required
emission reduction rates given political and social inertia and the possibilities to further reduce emissions of non-CO2 gases.
Electric vehicles are poised to play a large role in the decarbonisation of the transportation sector. World governments have pledged to bring 13 million plug-in electric vehicles on the road by 2020 and 100 million by 2030. The rapid expansion required to meet these targets, from a global stock of 5 million electric vehicles in 2018, has the potential to be constrained by material supply chains. This study has identified 7 key elements which are significant supply risks to the electric vehicle industry: battery grade natural graphite, lithium and cobalt for electric vehicle batteries, and the rare earth elements dysprosium, terbium, praseodymium and neodymium for electric vehicle motors. None of these elements are able to be substituted without (i) increasing the supply risk of the other constrained elements, or (ii) altering industry wide manufacturing processes. The inability to fully mitigate material supply risks at the required market expansion rates is a key issue for minimising carbon emissions from the transportation sector.
The continuous miniaturization of modern green and advanced technologies is increasing the demand of rare earth elements (REEs). Consequently, REEs are listed as the critical metals concerning their crucial role for a clean environment. However, their resources are limited which in turn disrupt their supply chain. To tackle the supply issue and to meet future demand, there is need to exploit recycling schemes for the recovery REEs from secondary resources. This review describes comprehensively various processes developed for the separation of REEs and transition metals from secondary resources. It focuses on the hydrometallurgical route, especially solvent extraction employed to separate REEs and transition metals from potential wastes originated from different industries. The use of different commercial extractants for the recycling purposes and mechanisms involved in the extraction has been discussed in detail.
Concerns about both climate change and energy security stress the importance of clean energy technologies. This paper examines the minerals used in clean energy technologies (mainly solar energy, wind energy and electric vehicles), of which 12 elements are identified to be dependent on resources outside China. Therefore, a quantitative, relative assessment of short-to medium-term supply risks is measured for 12 elements by analyzing the following factors: country concentration, import reliance, import concentration, country risk, depletion time, companion metal fraction, recycling potential and substitutability. The results highlight four elements to present a high risk, namely: tin, cobalt, chromium and nickel; while lithium, copper and titanium are the most impossible to encounter a supply disruption; the remaining five elements (silver, cadmium, zirconium, manganese and selenium) appear a moderate risk. An uncertainty analysis using Monte Carlo simulation shows a robust reliability on most of the 12 elements except for cobalt and tin. Mitigation strategies to alleviate the potential supply disruption are also discussed, such as broadening import sources; investing domestic and global mining; recycling and substitution; stockpiling.
Recent studies indicate that China accounts for about 96 percent of the world's supply of rare earth materials (REMs). With REMs becoming increasingly important for a growing number of high-tech applications, appropriate action must be taken to mitigate the effects of a shortage of critical REMs in defense systems and components. Bringing together information previously available only from disparate journal articles and databases, Rare Earth Materials: Properties and Applications describes the unique characteristics and applications of 17 REMs. It defines their chemical, electrical, thermal, and optical characteristics. Maintaining a focus on physical and chemical properties, it addresses the history and critical issues pertaining to mining and processing of REMs. In this book, Dr. A.R. Jha continues his distinguished track record of distilling complex theoretical physical concepts into an understandable technical framework that can be extended to practical applications across commercial and industrial frameworks. He summarizes the chemical, optical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, and spectroscopic properties of REMs best suited for next-generation commercial and military systems or equipment. Coverage includes extraction, recycling, refinement, visual inspection, identification of spectroscopic parameters, quality control, element separation based on specific application, pricing control, and environmental / geo-political considerations. Potential applications are identified with an emphasis on scientific instruments, nuclear resonance imaging equipment, MRI systems, magnetic couplers for uranium enrichment equipment, battery-electrodes, electric motors, electric generators, underwater sensors, and commercial and military sensors. The book describes unique applications of rare earth magnets in all-electric and hybrid electric cars and microwave components. It also considers the use of rare earth magnets in commercial and military systems where weight and size are the critical design requirements. Suitable for both students and design engineers involved in the development of high-technology components or systems, the book concludes by summarizing future applications in electro-optic systems and components, including infrared lasers, diode-pumped solid-state lasers operating at room temperatures, and other sophisticated military and commercial test equipment.
The primary production of rare earth elements (REE) used in neodymium-iron-boron (Nd-Fe-B) magnets is associated with environmental impacts from both mining and processing. It has been suggested that recycling of scrap Nd-Fe-B magnets would reduce primary production of REE, and thus environmental impacts. However, existing studies on environmental effects of recycling based on the methodology of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) do not take into account the so-called balance problem, which accounts for the fact that all elements co-occuring in the ore are jointly produced, resulting in either an excess or a shortage of individual elements. We develop a two-part approach to incorporate this issue into LCA. In the first part, we investigate the effects of introducing large-scale Nd-Fe-B recycling to the global rare earth market. A production model is presented that quantifies the potential market effects of secondary production (recycling) on the balance problem. Results show that primary production could partly be avoided when introducing a secondary production route to the rare earth market, whilst still meeting demand for joint (non-magnet) REE, only produced from the primary route. The production model will be used for a consequential life cycle assessment study which will be published as a separate paper (Part II). In addition, we show that our approach may also be interesting for other LCA studies, where effects of market changes on a co-production system are investigated.
China was in the past the main driver when analysing rare earth prices and their market, since it commercialised around the 90% of the world's supply. After a cut in its exports during 2010 and 2011, rare earth prices dramatically spiked. The world's reaction to this fact was the development of a huge amount of mining projects outside China, many of whom failed when prices fell again. Nevertheless, several of them survived.
This paper analyses in first place the future trend of rare earth elements prices in order to contrast the stable tendency forecasted by different providers of price assessments and market data. Secondly, it studies in deep five ready-to-go rare earths mining projects around the world: Nechalacho Project (North-west Territories, Canada); Zandkopsdrift Project (Northern Cape, South Africa); Bear Lodge Project (Wyoming, USA); Kvanefjeld Project (Southern Greenland); and Dubbo Zirconia Project (New South Wales, Australia). The main purposes being to give an “order of magnitude” both technical and economic of this specific mining industry; to provide a tool for investors, potential investors and professional advisers addressing rare earth mining investment analysis; and to facilitate the development of preliminary economic assessments of future rare earth mining projects. These aims will also help to fight against several systemic problems of the rare earth market: lack of trust, market opacity, and short versus long-term approaches and profit orientation.
Conclusions clearly show that despite the complexity of rare earth mineral deposits and the fact that their mining operation usually includes different by-products, the evaluation of rare earth mining investments does not present much more difficulty than in the case of single element mining projects. Forecasted prices used in these economic studies are the Achilles’ heel of nowadays rare earth mining investment analysis.
Finally, although differences in demand of different rare earth elements will make really difficult to achieve “a priori” a market in balance, the five studied projects are anticipated to cover approximately the third part of the total rare earth consumption in the world. When their dysprosium oxide production was analysed, the resulting proportion for the most critical rare earth element based on its role in clean energy together with its biggest supply risk was almost the same, something optimistic regarding the achievement of a balanced market outside China.
The Paris climate agreement aims at holding global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius and to “pursue efforts” to limit it to 1.5 degrees Celsius. To accomplish this, countries have submitted Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) outlining their post-2020 climate action. Here we assess the effect of current INDCs on reducing aggregate greenhouse gas emissions, its implications for achieving the temperature objective of the Paris climate agreement, and potential options for overachievement. The INDCs collectively lower greenhouse gas emissions compared to where current policies stand, but still imply a median warming of 2.6–3.1 degrees Celsius by 2100. More can be achieved, because the agreement stipulates that targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions are strengthened over time, both in ambition and scope. Substantial enhancement or over-delivery on current INDCs by additional national, sub-national and non-state actions is required to maintain a reasonable chance of meetin
The emergent imbalance in rare earths is primarily a self-imposed construct outside China. International regulations pertaining to source material have had a significant role in today's outsized market distortions related to rare earths. The resulting market concentration has caused severe economic dislocation and national security problems for the United States (US), Japan, Korea, the European Union (EU), and other nations. A solution to this problem is required. Traditional free market solutions are failing. These failures are largely linked to regulatory obstacles preventing the use of monazite, apatite, and other thorium and uranium-bearing rare earth resources that are common byproducts of existing mining operations throughout the US and the world. These regulatory obstacles force Western producers to develop low thorium/uranium deposits with rare earth distributions that do not conform to market demand.This chapter demonstrates that the status quo is not economically or strategically viable. Developing rare earth resource supply chains within the current regulatory constraints is unworkable. Lowering environmental standards or fast-tracking new mining permits is not necessary or desirable.To develop an alternative rare earth resource outside China, these regulatory issues must be addressed. Furthermore, the development of additional rare earth resources cannot resolve economic or national security issues without a corresponding fully integrated value chain of rare earth products such as metals, alloys, magnets, and garnets.
Export restrictions on metals and mineral products have been broadly applied by many countries with a view to securing domestic supply and to address the problem of resource depletion. Export restrictions are designed to meet diverse policy objectives that range from environmental protection and increasing fiscal revenue to the development of processing sectors. The global dependency on China for raw materials particularly for rare earth elements is a contentious issue because China imposes a number of restrictions on the export of these minerals. This study takes rare earth elements as a case to evaluate Chinese export restrictions. The study evaluates China's current monopoly over the industry and provides insights into how widely traded these minerals are and China's positions in international trade in terms of both volume and value. The study investigates the various trade restrictions imposed by China and its implications including the availability of materials to Western companies.
In 2014, ~ 90% of rare earth production originates in the mines of Inner Mongolia, China. High-purity (99.9 mass%) rare earth compounds (e.g., oxides) are produced from these ores by physical concentration, leaching, solution purification, solvent extraction separation, and individual rare earth compound precipitation. About 40% of all rare earth production is used in metallic form—for making magnets, battery electrodes, and alloys. Metals are made from the above compounds by high-temperature fused salt electrowinning and/or high-temperature reduction with metallic reductants. Production/consumption of rare earths is ~ 100 kilotonnes of contained rare earth elements per year. The rare earths are mainly consumed in permanent magnets, catalysts, glass polishing powders, rechargeable batteries, and photonics (luminescence, fluorescence, and light amplification devices). Magnets and photonics are expected to grow significantly over the next few years.
Rare earths occur around the world but are mostly mined and extracted in China. Mining in other countries (e.g., Australia, India, and USA) is increasing—but slowly. Prices of all rare earths peaked in 2011. They have fallen ever since. This has had a discouraging effect on new mining projects. Rare earths have a myriad of uses. The major uses (tonnage-wise) are permanent rare earth-transition metal magnets, oxide catalysts, oxide polishing powders, and rare earth-hydride rechargeable batteries. They also have many minor uses, small in tonnage but huge in significance—for example, medical lasers, data transmission fiber amplifiers, and luminescent materials.
Considering the quest for alternative energy and transportation modes and their importance for sustainable growth, this chapter examines to what extent the supply risk of rare earths poses a barrier to the increased adoption of low-carbon technologies. Using secondary data collected on offshore wind turbines and electrically powered vehicles, the analysis allows a determination of actual quantities of rare earths used within their generators, electric motors, and batteries. The results of this chapter disprove the widespread allegation that availability risk impedes the deployment of offshore wind. Contrary to this, a potential supply shortage would disrupt further development of the automotive industry and its electrification. Uncertainty about volatile prices and the threat of supply shortages induce manufacturers to shift from superior rare earth-intensive topologies, ultimately rendering innovation in these economically nonviable.
Available at: (copy & paste in browser)
http://www.amazon.com/Political-Economy-Rare-Earth-Elements/dp/1137364238
There are numerous reports available about REE in general, mostly from consultants. Usually the contents of their reports resemble each other with the exception that some reports contain more details than others, some deal more in depth with producing companies, others stay on top level only. Consultants with emphasis on the financial businesses (e.g. Crystal International Consultants Ltd.,) have reports that start with a general overview of the REE followed by a presentation of present and promising companies listed on the stock markets.
As a promising solution to the energy and environment concerns in today's world, electric vehicles (EVs) are receiving increasing interest. An EV traction motor requires a wide torque-speed range, high power density and high energy efficiency. Hence, permanent magnet (PM) brushless machines are an attractive candidate. Nd2Fe14B magnet is one of the key materials for high performance PM machines, thanks to its high energy product. However, the volatile supply chain of heavy rare earth elements has made the magnets subject to massive price fluctuation and extremely high cost. This is especially the case for the Dysprosium (Dy), whose price is almost as 6 times high as the Neodymium (Nd). Since the operating temperatures of traction motors can reach 150°C at which the coercivity (Hc) of pure Nd2Fe14B magnets is too low, Dy plays an important role in the Nd2Fe14B magnet as small addition of Dy substitutes the Nd to form (Dy, Nd)2Fe14B which has a higher anisotropy field than Nd2Fe14B, thus can significantly increase the Hc and elevate the temperature performance.
The long-term growth of numerous industries will depend on the ability to secure stable and diverse sources of rare earths.
Recent years have seen unprecedented volatility in this sector, with the rare earths being increasingly considered as strategic
and critical to a wide range of technologies. During the next few years, demand for some of the rare earths is expected to
exceed supply. Chinese export-quota policies have had a severe impact on the market. Worldwide exploration efforts are now
leading to the deployment of a rare earth supply chain based outside China.
Maintaining the balance between the demand by the economic markets and the natural abundance of the rare-earth elements (REEs) in ores constitutes a major challenge for manufacturers of these elements. This is the so-called balance problem (or balancing problem). The ideal situation is a perfect match between the demand and (production) supply of REEs, so that there are no surpluses of any of the REEs. The balance problem implicates that the rare-earth industry has to either find new applications for REEs that are available in excess, or needs to search for substitutions for REEs that have limited availability and that are high in demand. Different solutions are proposed to solve the balance problem: diversification of REE resources, recycling and urban/landfill mining, substitution, reduced use and new high-volume applications. No single solution can solve the balance problem, but a combination of different strategies can. It is illustrated that the issue of thorium in REE ores is also directly related to the balance problem: presently, thorium is considered as radioactive waste, but this waste could be turned into a valuable resource by using thorium in a thorium-based nuclear fuel cycle.
The dependency on critical resources like Rare Earth Elements (REEs) has been pronounced as a potential barrier to a wider implementation of emerging renewable energy technologies. This study explores the dependency of such technologies especially wind turbines and electric vehicles along with other background end-uses on two key REEs, i.e. neodymium (Nd) and dysprosium (Dy). Our study reveals that a Business As Usual Development (BAUD) projected primary supply is unable to meet the forecasted demand of Nd and Dy in all the four modelled demand scenarios by 2050. This means that a highly accelerated rate of Nd and Dy mining is unavoidable in order to keep up with the pace of increasing demand from new technologies required in a renewable energy strategy for meeting the climate change challenge. Recycling does not seem to be in a position to close the wide gap between future demand and supply by 2050 mainly due to the long lifetime of key end-use products. However, in the long term, i.e. by 2100, secondary supply from recycling can meet almost 50% of the demand. Moreover, recycling, is found to play major role in reducing the geopolitical aspects of supply risk due to diversification of geographical distribution of supply by 2100. The study suggests that China is very likely to play its dominant role for Dy primary supply in the short-to-medium term future, as 72% of the geological reserves of Dy are in China. Our study indicates that considering the historically proven developments in metal reserve estimates as being analogous for REEs, geological reserves of Nd and Dy will not deplete for many hundred years ahead. Opening of new mines at an accelerated pace remains a supply bottleneck issue in the short-to-medium term future until recycling provides significant secondary supply to reduce the future demand.
The most direct way in which climate change is expected to affect public health relates to changes in mortality rates associated with exposure to ambient temperature. Many countries worldwide experience annual heat-related and cold-related deaths associated with current weather patterns. Future changes in climate may alter such risks. Estimates of the likely future health impacts of such changes are needed to inform public health policy on climate change in the UK and elsewhere.
Time-series regression analysis was used to characterise current temperature-mortality relationships by region and age group. These were then applied to the local climate and population projections to estimate temperature-related deaths for the UK by the 2020s, 2050s and 2080s. Greater variability in future temperatures as well as changes in mean levels was modelled.
A significantly raised risk of heat-related and cold-related mortality was observed in all regions. The elderly were most at risk. In the absence of any adaptation of the population, heat-related deaths would be expected to rise by around 257% by the 2050s from a current annual baseline of around 2000 deaths, and cold-related mortality would decline by 2% from a baseline of around 41 000 deaths. The cold burden remained higher than the heat burden in all periods. The increased number of future temperature-related deaths was partly driven by projected population growth and ageing.
Health protection from hot weather will become increasingly necessary, and measures to reduce cold impacts will also remain important in the UK. The demographic changes expected this century mean that the health protection of the elderly will be vital.
Due to the rapid growth in demand for certain materials, compounded by
political risks associated with the geographical concentration of the
supply of them, shortages of materials could be a potential bottleneck
to the deployment of low-carbon energy technologies. Consequently, an
assessment has been carried out to ascertain whether such shortages
could jeopardise the objectives of the EU's Strategic Energy Technology
Plan (SET-Plan), especially in the six low-carbon energy technologies of
SET-Plan, namely: nuclear, solar, wind, bioenergy, carbon capture and
storage (CCS) and electricity grids. The assessment identified 14 metals
for which the deployment of the six technologies will require 1% or more
(and in some cases, much more) of current world supply per annum between
2020 and 2030. Following a more critical examination, based on the
likelihood of rapid future global demand growth, limitations to
expanding supply in the short to medium term, and the concentration of
supply and political risks associated with key suppliers, 5 of the 14
metals were pinpointed to be at high risk, namely: the rare earth metals
neodymium and dysprosium (for wind technology), and the by-products
(from the processing of other metals) indium, tellurium and gallium (for
photovoltaic technologies). In addition, the work has explored potential
mitigation strategies, ranging from expanding European output,
increasing recycling and reuse to reducing waste and finding substitutes
for these metals in their main applications. Furthermore,
recommendations are provided which include closely working with the EU's
Raw Materials Initiative; supporting efforts to ensure reliable supply
of ore concentrates at competitive prices; promoting R&D and
demonstration projects on new lower cost separation processes; and
promoting the further development of recycling technologies and
increasing end-of-life collection
Supply of some critical raw materials by European industry is becoming more and more difficult. After the case of natural textile fibres, in particular cotton, and timber, over the last few years the problem of rare earths (REs) availability has also risen. The 97% of the global supply of rare earth metals (REMs) is produced by China, that has recently done copious cuts of its exports, apparently in order to protect its environment. This fact has greatly increased the REs prices, causing tension and uncertainty among the world hi-tech markets. Many of these materials, in fact, have very few effective substitutes and low recycling rates too. In addition, their natural reserves of rare earths are concentrated in a small number of countries (China, Brazil, US, Russia, Democratic Republic of Congo). REMs are a group of 17 elements particularly used in many new electronic and advanced components: such as fuel cells, mobile phones, displays, hi-capacity batteries, permanent magnets for wind power generation, green energy devices, etc. Many analysts foresee much more requests in the next decades.
The rare earth elements are indispensible in modern technology, especially in the applications of permanent magnets. Very little quantitative information is available on rare earth elements used in permanent magnets, however. This study looks back to 1983, when neodymium‐iron‐boron (NdFeB) permanent magnets were first manufactured, and reaches to 2007, when the market of permanent magnets was well developed. We draw on the historical data on permanent magnets from China, Japan, the United States, and Europe to provide the first estimates of global in‐use stocks for four rare earth elements - praseodymium (Pr), neodymium (Nd), terbium (Tb), and dysprosium (Dy) - in NdFeB permanent magnets. In‐use stocks amount to 62.6 gigagrams (Gg) Nd, 15.7 Gg Pr, 15.7 Gg Dy, and 3.1 Gg Tb; these stocks, if efficiently recycled, could provide a valuable supplement to geological stocks as they are almost four times the 2007 annual extraction rate of the individual elements.
Energy is an essential ingredient of socio-economic development and economic growth. Renewable energy sources like wind energy is indigenous and can help in reducing the dependency on fossil fuels. Wind is the indirect form of solar energy and is always being replenished by the sun. Wind is caused by differential heating of the earth's surface by the sun. It has been estimated that roughly 10 million MW of energy are continuously available in the earth's wind. Wind energy provides a variable and environmental friendly option and national energy security at a time when decreasing global reserves of fossil fuels threatens the long-term sustainability of global economy. This paper reviews the wind resources assessment models, site selection models and aerodynamic models including wake effect. The different existing performance and reliability evaluation models, various problems related to wind turbine components (blade, gearbox, generator and transformer) and grid for wind energy system have been discussed. This paper also reviews different techniques and loads for design, control systems and economics of wind energy conversion system.
The paper provides an overview of the historical development of wind energy technology and discusses the current world-wide status of grid-connected as well as stand-alone wind power generation. During the last decade of the twentieth century, grid-connected world-wide wind capacity has doubled approximately every three years. Due to the fast market development, wind turbine technology has experienced an important evolution over time. An overview of the different design approaches is given and issues like power grid integration, economics, environmental impact and special system applications, such as offshore wind energy, are discussed. Due to the complexity of the wind energy technology, however, this paper mainly aims at presenting a brief overview of the relevant wind turbine and wind project issues. Therefore, detailed information to further readings and related organisations is provided. This paper is an updated version of the article ‘Wind Energy Technology and Current Status: A Review’, published in Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 4/2000, pp. 315–374. This update was requested by Elsevier due to the large interest in wind power.
The future availability of rare earth elements (REEs) is of concern due to monopolistic supply conditions, environmentally unsustainable mining practices, and rapid demand growth. We present an evaluation of potential future demand scenarios for REEs with a focus on the issue of comining. Many assumptions were made to simplify the analysis, but the scenarios identify some key variables that could affect future rare earth markets and market behavior. Increased use of wind energy and electric vehicles are key elements of a more sustainable future. However, since present technologies for electric vehicles and wind turbines rely heavily on dysprosium (Dy) and neodymium (Nd), in rare-earth magnets, future adoption of these technologies may result in large and disproportionate increases in the demand for these two elements. For this study, upper and lower bound usage projections for REE in these applications were developed to evaluate the state of future REE supply availability. In the absence of efficient reuse and recycling or the development of technologies which use lower amounts of Dy and Nd, following a path consistent with stabilization of atmospheric CO(2) at 450 ppm may lead to an increase of more than 700% and 2600% for Nd and Dy, respectively, over the next 25 years if the present REE needs in automotive and wind applications are representative of future needs.
Even though rare earth metals are indispensible in modern technology, very little quantitative information other than combined rare earth oxide extraction is available on their life cycles. We have drawn upon published and unpublished information from China, Japan, the United States, and elsewhere to estimate flows into use and in-use stocks for 15 of the metals: La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu, and Y. Here, we show that the combined flows into use comprised about 90 Gg in 2007; the highest for individual metals were ∼28 Gg Ce and ∼22 Gg La, the lowest were ∼0.16 Gg Tm and ∼0.15 Gg Lu. In-use stocks ranged from 144 Gg Ce to 0.2 Gg Tm; these stocks, if efficiently recycled, could provide a valuable supplement to geological stocks.
2014 JRC wind status report - Technology, market and economic aspects of wind energy in Europe
- R Arántegui
- T Corsatea
- K Suomalainen
Arántegui, R., Corsatea, T., Suomalainen, K. (2015). 2014 JRC wind status report -Technology, market and economic aspects of wind energy in Europe. https:
//ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/publication/eur-scientific-and-technical-research-reports/
2014-jrc-wind-status-report.
Assessment of potential bottlenecks along the materials supply chain for the future deployment of low-carbon energy and transport technologies in the EU
- D T Blagoeva
- P Dias
- A Marmier
- C C Pavel
Blagoeva, D. T., Aves Dias, P., Marmier, A., Pavel, C.C. (2016). Assessment of
potential bottlenecks along the materials supply chain for the future deployment of low-carbon energy and transport technologies in the EU. https:
//ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/publication/eur-scientific-and-technical-research-reports/
assessment-potential-bottlenecks-along-materials-supply-chain-futuredeployment-low-carbon.
Performance/cost comparison of induction-motor & permanent-magnet-motor in a hybrid electric car
- M G Burwell
- J Goss
- M Popescu
Burwell, M. G., Goss, J., Popescu, M. (2013). Performance/cost comparison
of induction-motor & permanent-magnet-motor in a hybrid electric car.
http://www.coppermotor.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Techno-Frontier-2013-MBurwell-ICA-EV-Traction-Motor-Comparison-v1.