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Trauma and identity: A reciprocal relationship?

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Journal of Adolescence
Authors:
Steven L. Berman
Steven L. Berman
Steven L. Berman
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Marilyn J Montgomery at Capella University
Marilyn J Montgomery
Kaylin Ratner
Kaylin Ratner
Kaylin Ratner
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Abstract

Trauma can alter the course of identity development and destabilize existing identity commitments. Trauma, whether past or current, can also impact the resources a person brings to identity work. However, identity can also be a lens through which trauma is perceived and interpreted, helping to determine whether a traumatic experience results in posttraumatic stress disorder or posttraumatic growth. Despite the apparent implications each construct has for the other, the scholarship at the intersection of trauma and identity remains sparse. This Special Issue explores how and when trauma and identity influence one another by considering their association across various adolescent populations, methodologies, traumatic event types, and facets of identity. In doing so, this Special Issue lays the groundwork necessary for exploring, proposing, and testing more complex and nuanced reciprocal relations models between identity and trauma.
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Journal of Adolescence
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/adolescence
Editorial
Trauma and identity: A reciprocal relationship?
ARTICLE INFO
Keywords:
Identity
Trauma
Event centrality
Posttraumatic stress
Posttraumatic growth
ABSTRACT
Trauma can alter the course of identity development and destabilize existing identity commit-
ments. Trauma, whether past or current, can also impact the resources a person brings to identity
work. However, identity can also be a lens through which trauma is perceived and interpreted,
helping to determine whether a traumatic experience results in posttraumatic stress disorder or
posttraumatic growth. Despite the apparent implications each construct has for the other, the
scholarship at the intersection of trauma and identity remains sparse. This Special Issue explores
how and when trauma and identity influence one another by considering their association across
various adolescent populations, methodologies, traumatic event types, and facets of identity. In
doing so, this Special Issue lays the groundwork necessary for exploring, proposing, and testing
more complex and nuanced reciprocal relations models between identity and trauma.
Identity has been hailed as a core developmental milestone of adolescence for more than half a century (Erikson, 1959). Surveying
adolescents' developmental challenges in both contemporary and historical times, Erikson noted that for those maturing in a rapidly
changing culture, questions of identity can result in a personal crisis in knowing who one is and what is worthy of one's commitments.
Recently, scholars have empirically examined how distressing circumstances and distress related to identity formation itself appear to
be linked (Ertorer, 2014;Merrill, Waters, & Fivush, 2015;Scott et al., 2014;Wiley et al., 2011). In addition to the normal levels of
identity distress that typically characterizes adolescence, some youth face profound hardship and adversity, and these experiences
seem to promote identity development for some but complicate or hinder it for others.
As Berman (2016) argued, it is logical that adverse or traumatic experiences and identity development influence one another. Yet
there is a considerable lack of research dedicated to examining these influences, although some studies indicate that trauma can alter
the course of identity development by destabilizing existing identity commitments (Sandole & Auerbach, 2013;Tay, Rees, Chen,
Kareth, & Silove, 2015;Zheng & Lawson, 2015). Likewise, identity can serve as a lens through which trauma is perceived and
interpreted, thus moderating its impact on the individual, (Bombay, Matheson, & Anisman, 2014;Fitzgerald, Berntsen, &
Broadbridge, 2015;George, Park, & Chaudoir, 2016). An individual's perception and interpretation of events can make the difference
between whether that trauma results in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or other related sequalae, or posttraumatic growth
(Boals & Schuettler, 2011;Groleau, Calhoun, Cann, & Tedeschi, 2013).
This Special Issue explores the potential for a conceptual and potentially reciprocal relationship between trauma and identity by
sketching the association across a number of different populations, using both quantitative and qualitative methodologies, and in
relation to different traumatic event types and facets of identity. In doing so, the issue adds to what is known about how identity and
trauma may be linked. As a result of this contribution, scholars will be better equipped to explore the phenomenology of the
intersection of identity and traumatic experiences, elaborate conceptual and theoretical models of their relationship, and to test
empirical models that can illuminate how dynamic influence between identity and trauma experiences unfolds over time.
1. Identity and its associations with trauma
Identity is a term often used to describe the roles, goals, values, and beliefs about the world that people adopt in order to give their
lives a sense of direction and purpose. Traumatic events can cause people to question and re-evaluate their commitments to those
roles, goals, values, and beliefs. For instance, some people might define their identity to a large degree around their role as parent or
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2020.01.018
Journal of Adolescence 79 (2020) 275–278Available online 06 February 20200140-1971/ © 2020 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.T
... As a result of varied factors, identity statuses are navigated in a way characterized by fluctuation and variability instead of a linear fashion (Fadjukoff et al., 2005), making identity regarded as a complex and not straightforward process. For instance, traumatic experiences may inspire the reconsideration and re-evaluation of already made commitments (Berman et al., 2020), thereby disrupting the consolidation of identity. Van Doeselaar et al. (2018) also found a negative association between stressful life events and commitment to a future career. ...
... Traumatic experiences have been thought to encourage questioning and re-evaluation of already made identity commitments, thereby leading to unstable identity (Berman et al., 2020), although few findings noted otherwise. For instance, stressful life events were not linked to identity processes in the general population (de Moor et al., 2019), but in the sample of adolescent psychiatric patients, sexual and emotional abuse, as well as physical and emotional neglect, were related to diffused and more negative identities (Penner et al., 2019). ...
... Data from qualitative studies indicate that in young adulthood, identity is formed through the lenses of traumatic experiences, if present, which can impede the understanding of oneself positively and/or negatively (Muldoon et al., 2016;Shalka, 2019). Some studies have suggested that traumatic experiences play a determining role in an individual's life purpose and may be a part of their identity (Berman, 2016;Webermann et al., 2020), such as creating a sense of purpose in life or career ambition to prevent others from going through a similar trauma (Berman et al., 2020). ...
Relationship Between Adverse Childhood Experiences and Identity Functioning Among Emerging Adults: The Role of Peer Relations
Thesis
Full-text available
  • Jun 2024
Achieving a personal sense of identity is one of the core developmental tasks in adolescence (Erikson, 1956), and attaining developmental tasks at the expected time makes the individual happy and accepted within the society (Havighurst, 1956). Individuals’ life experiences are pertinent to personal identity (Côté, 1996). However, past experiences may be particularly dangerous when they are adverse (Novais et al., 2021). AlShawi & Lafta (2015) found an association between childhood experiences and the buildup of self-esteem, but scarce literature has examined ACEs along the lines of identity functioning. This research, therefore, explores ACEs as they relate to identity consolidation, identity disturbance, and lack of identity among emerging adults. Specifically, it aims to investigate the predictive tendencies of ACEs in achieving consolidated identity or experiencing disturbed identity and lack of identity. It also examines the quality and quantity of peer relationships as moderators of the relationship between ACEs and identity functioning. In support of hypotheses 1 to 3, SEM and path analysis revealed a negative relationship between ACEs and identity functioning. Specifically, ACEs negatively predicted identity consolidation but positively predicted identity disturbance and lack of identity. Further, the quality and quantity of peer relationships did not moderate the relationship between ACEs and identity functioning. This study provides more insight into the negative impact of ACEs on psychosocial development. Results, limitations, implications, and suggestions for further studies were discussed.
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... Дослідженням впливу чинників на формування «Я-концепції» та її складових займалась низка вчених [2,6,7,8]. Вивченням впливу негативного дитячого досвіду на доросле життя та на особливості «Я-концепції» (або ідентичності) присвячені роботи як українських [14,15,16,17] та іноземних дослідників [5,11,12,13]. ...
... Результати вказують на зв'язок травм та особливості ідентичності. Так, жорстоке фізичне та емоційне поводження, емоційне нехтування, фізичне нехтування та можуть виступати факторами ризику дифузії ідентичності підлітків [12,13]. ...
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... Heroism often emerges from traumatic circumstances, with characters like Frodo and Sam displaying resilience despite deep psychological wounds [4], [53]. The Dead Marshes, for example, evoke the grim memories of the Somme battlefield [4], [43], suggesting trauma's lingering impact on identity and action [54]. Throughout their journey, camaraderie among the Fellowship provides a crucial network of support, allowing characters to confront fear and trauma together, fostering both healing and resilience 10 [55]. ...
FROM TRENCH TO TOLKIEN: A NARRATIVE LITERATURE REVIEW ON HEROISM, CAMARADERIE, AND WAR TRAUMA IN THE LORD OF THE RINGS
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This review explores World War I's influence on J.R.R. Tolkien's legendarium, revealing how his wartime experiences shaped The Lord of the Rings. Using scholarly articles, historical studies, and biographical insights, it draws parallels between WWI and Tolkien's depictions of war, trauma, camaraderie, and heroism. By situating his fantasy within its historical context, it shows how war's horrors and 2 landscapes resonate in Middle-earth's struggles. Themes like moral ambiguity in warfare, and hope amid despair are examined, offering new perspectives on Tolkien's works as reflections on war and resilience.
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... Heroism often emerges from traumatic circumstances, with characters like Frodo and Sam displaying resilience despite deep psychological wounds [4], [53]. The Dead Marshes, for example, evoke the grim memories of the Somme battlefield [4], [43], suggesting trauma's lingering impact on identity and action [54]. Throughout their journey, camaraderie among the Fellowship provides a crucial network of support, allowing characters to confront fear and trauma together, fostering both healing and resilience 10 [55]. ...
From Trench to Tolkien: A Narrative Literature Review on Heroism, Camaraderie, and War Trauma in The Lord of the Rings
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  • Nov 2024
This review explores World War I's influence on J.R.R. Tolkien's legendarium, revealing how his wartime experiences shaped The Lord of the Rings. Using scholarly articles, historical studies, and biographical insights, it draws parallels between WWI and Tolkien's depictions of war, trauma, camaraderie, and heroism. By situating his fantasy within its historical context, it shows how war's horrors and 2 landscapes resonate in Middle-earth's struggles. Themes like moral ambiguity in warfare, and hope amid despair are examined, offering new perspectives on Tolkien's works as reflections on war and resilience.
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The Role of Identity in the Relationship between PTSD and Executive Functioning
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“Now what do I do?“: Toward a conceptual understanding of the effects of traumatic events on identity functioning
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An examination of trauma narratives: Narrative rumination, self‐reflection, and identity in young adulthood
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Introduction Trauma has the potential to challenge the self and identity development in ways unlike other personal experiences and, undoubtedly, necessitates meaning‐making. The purpose of this study is to expand understanding of how young adults make meaning of traumatic experiences and how those processes, either adaptive self‐reflection, meaning‐making, or narrative rumination, relate to identity development. Methods Using qualitative methods and self‐report measures, we examined reflective and ruminative narrative processes in 32 trauma narratives written by a sample of young adults. Narratives were examined as a function of identity status (measured by the Ego Identity Process Questionnaire; Balistreri, Busch‐Rossnagel, & Geisinger, 1995) and level of identity distress (measured by the Identity Distress Survey; Berman, Montgomery, & Kurtines, 2004). Results and conclusion s: The narrative analysis suggested that young adults who constructed their narratives in adaptive self‐reflective ways that were absent of rumination made meaning of their traumatic experience is ways that reflected an integrated sense of self. In contrast, those young adults who constructed their narrative in ruminative ways, characterized by brooding, self‐doubt or criticism had unsuccessful meaning‐making efforts. A combination of identity commitment (i.e., achieved and foreclosed) and low identity distress led to meaning‐making and positive identity formation, whereas moratorium and diffused and high identity distress related to narrative rumination and either an absence of meaning‐making or a fragmented sense of self. The findings suggest that narrative patterns differ across identity statuses and, more so, high and low reported identity distress. Clinical implications of the findings are discussed.
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Acculturation, identity distress, and internalizing symptoms among resettled adolescent refugees
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Introduction This study examines the relations among native and host country acculturation, identity distress, and internalizing symptoms among multicultural adolescent refugees (N = 33) resettled to the United States from a range of countries including Cuba, Iraq, Jordan, Haiti, Colombia, and Venezuela. Despite previous research supporting the advantages of developing a bicultural style to acculturation, mixed results have been found regarding native and host country acculturation patterns among resettled refugees and how these patterns may be associated with refugee mental health outcomes. Methods The objective of this study was not only to consider the roles that US and native acculturation may play on the self‐report of identity distress and internalizing symptoms among refugee adolescents more broadly, but also to consider the role various dimensions of acculturation (e.g., cultural identity, language competence, and cultural competence) may play for refugee adolescents post‐resettlement. Results and Conclusions The study findings indicate that native acculturation, and more specifically native cultural identity, may serve as significant protective factors against identity distress among adolescent refugees post‐resettlement, with native cultural identity additionally serving as a protective factor against internalizing symptoms. US acculturation was not found to be significantly associated with identity distress or internalizing symptoms, nor were the acculturative dimensions of language learning (i.e., English and native language competencies), cultural knowledge (i.e., US and native cultural knowledge competencies), or US cultural identity. Recommendations and implications for practice and future research are discussed.
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Stressful life events and identity development in early and mid‐adolescence
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Introduction In the past, stressful life events have been consistently linked to developmental outcomes such as well‐being and psychopathological problems. Theory on identity postulates that stressful life events may also predict a regression in identity development. While some support for this link has been found in adult populations, it is important to examine this in adolescence, a time marked by identity development as well as stressful transitions and experiences. Methods In the present study, we examined whether having to repeat a grade and death of a family member or friend were related to regressive change in educational and relational identity in a sample of 840 Dutch adolescents (49% female, Mage W1 = 12.4) drawn from a large ongoing longitudinal study. We also investigated whether the impact of the events was moderated by neuroticism, and parental and peer support. All analyses were controlled for age, educational level, and sex. Results Results of latent difference score models indicated that experiencing an event did not predict regressions in identity. Congruence between the domain of the event and identity (i.e., educational or relational) did not affect the strength of the effects. Neuroticism and parental and peer support did not significantly moderate this link. However, social support was related to relational and educational identity. Conclusions The link between stressful events and identity may not be as straightforward as would be expected based on identity theory, as our results did not show evidence for a link between these events and change in identity for all adolescents.
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A model of identity development: Life‐course narratives of North Korean youth resettling in South Korea
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Introduction Identity development is a convoluted process for youth experiencing traumatic interruptions in their lives. This study aimed to build a model of identity development in an understudied cultural group of trauma‐exposed youth who fled North Korea and resettled in South Korea. Methods Sixteen participants (75% female, Mage = 26.63 years, Mdefection age = 16.29 years, Mdefection duration = 5.72 years) produced life‐course narratives, as guided by the life‐lines they drew to depict their high and low points and future trajectories. The cross‐sectional qualitative data were analyzed using thematic content analysis. Themes of identity, trauma, and turning points were derived and coded, and then organized sequentially to classify stages of identity development. Results The Vulnerable stage defined a sense of helplessness during an early life of deprivation in North Korea. Their identity entered the Invisible stage during their hiding in China. Upon reaching South Korea, they traversed four stages: The Renewal stage signaling a fresh outset; the Turmoil stage characterized by acculturative stress, rejection, and family disruption; the Achieved stage of relative stability; and the Self‐Transcendence stage in which youth extended beyond their immediate views of self and focused on meaning and purpose across the themes of social change, reconciliation, and spirituality. Discussion The six‐stage model of identity development demonstrates that North Korean youth who defect to South Korea undergo a multifaceted identity development process as they navigate adversities, interruptions, and turning points. Results suggest that traumatic experiences can spur positive identity development and provide implications for professionals working with youth affected by intense and prolonged social conflict.
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The intersectionality of identity‐based victimization in Adolescence:A person‐centered examination of mental health and academic achievement in a U.S. high school
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Introduction Growing evidence indicates that identity‐based victimization (IBV; e.g., discrimination) is traumatic, and associated with mental health and academic concerns. Youth with multiple stigmatized identities face a higher risk of both victimization and poor mental health. The current study enhances a growing research base on intersectional IBV by examining 1) identity, rather than attribution, 2) a range of IBV experiences, 3) both mental health and academic achievement, 4) the mediating role of discrimination across multiple social identities, and 5) including gender expansive youth within a diverse sample representative of a high school population in the U.S. Methods A cluster analysis was conducted to provide a nuanced depiction of intersectionality in a diverse sample of high school students (N = 946; ages 14–20, 44% cisgender boys, 53% cisgender girls, 3% gender expansive youth). Outcome and IBV differences across clusters were examined, in addition to the mediation of cluster membership and outcomes by discrimination. Results Three distinct profiles of identity emerged: LGBTQ Youth (24%), Heterosexual Youth of Color (37%), and Heterosexual White Youth (39%). LGBTQ Youth and Heterosexual Youth of Color experienced the most IBV, and had higher levels of depression, lower wellbeing, and lower GPAs. Finally, discrimination partially mediated the association between identity and outcomes for LGBTQ youth, and fully mediated this association for Heterosexual Youth of Color. Conclusions The disproportionately of IBV, poor mental health, and lower academic achievement faced by LGBTQ youth and youth with intersecting stigmatized identities suggests that they may benefit from tailored and targeted treatments.
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Childhood maltreatment and identity diffusion among inpatient adolescents: The role of reflective function
Article
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Introduction Identity integration, as opposed to identity diffusion, has been associated with greater self‐esteem, meaning in life, and functioning. Trauma may have negative effects on identity; however, few studies have examined trauma and identity among adolescents, particularly those with psychiatric disorders. Moreover, factors that may promote healthy identity in adolescents who have experienced trauma have not been identified. This study aimed to test associations between childhood maltreatment and identity diffusion among adolescents with psychiatric disorders, and evaluated reflective function (RF) as a mediator of these associations. Methods 107 adolescents (Mage = 15.36, 75.7% female) who were inpatient at a psychiatric hospital in the United States completed self‐report measures of childhood maltreatment (physical, sexual, and emotional abuse; physical and emotional neglect; total maltreatment), identity diffusion, and RF. Path analysis was used to test two models of the relations between childhood maltreatment, RF, and identity diffusion. Results Total maltreatment and all forms of maltreatment except physical abuse were significantly associated with identity diffusion at the bivariate level. In path analysis (Model 1), emotional and physical neglect were directly associated with identity diffusion, and RF mediated the association between emotional abuse and identity diffusion. In Model 2, RF partially mediated the association between overall level of maltreatment and identity diffusion. Conclusions Emotional abuse, emotional neglect, physical neglect, and total combined maltreatment exposure may be risk factors for adolescent identity diffusion. Targeting RF may help to build healthy identity among adolescents with symptoms of psychiatric disorders who have experienced maltreatment, particularly emotional abuse.
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From Trauma to Growth: The Roles of Event Centrality, Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms, and Deliberate Rumination
Article
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  • Jul 2019
  • Traumatology
Researchers have increasingly found that traumatic events cannot only lead to pathological outcomes such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), but also to positive outcomes such as posttraumatic growth (PTG). Consistent with Tedeschi and Calhoun’s (2004) conceptual model of PTG, individuals must experience at least a moderate level of distress to experience growth. Moderate distress can also trigger deliberate rumination or meaning making, which can lead to PTG. Berntsen and Rubin (2006) have proposed that a traumatic event is most likely to elicit distress and subsequent rumination when it involves a fundamental or central aspect of one’s identity. Accordingly, in a large sample of trauma-exposed undergraduates (N = 269), the present study examined a serial mediational model in which the effect of event centrality on PTG is mediated by both PTSD symptoms and deliberate rumination. Results supported this model, indicating that traumatic events that are appraised as central can lead to distress and activate deliberate rumination, which has a positive effect on PTG. These findings highlight the contributions of event centrality, PTSD symptoms, and deliberate rumination in their association with PTG. Thus, by specifically examining the ways in which individuals engage in cognitive processing, such as through a more deliberate and focused strategy, trauma survivors could experience greater positive outcomes. The present study contributes to the PTG literature by identifying additional cognitive constructs that are associated with PTG. Future longitudinal studies should be conducted to assess the path of the aftermath of traumatic events.
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