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Digital nudges and dark patterns:
The angels and the archfiends of
digital communication
............................................................................................................................................................
S ebnem O
¨zdemir
Department of Public Relations and Publicity, Faculty of
Communication, Sivas Cumhuriyet University, Sivas, Tu
¨rkiye
.......................................................................................................................................
Abstract
Nudging is simply guiding people behaviors by the use of user-interface and
design elements in digital environments. Today, many decisions are made in
online environments. Gaining insights about digital nudging can greatly help
communicators, policy makers, and designers lead users to make the most de-
sirable choice for them and/or for the wealth of the society as well. Digital nudges
can be used in many digital environments like e-mail, SMS, push notifications,
mobile apps, social media, gamification, e-commerce, e-government, location
services, corporate digital information systems, and many other digital interfaces
that include any kind of decision-making processes. This study is a descriptive
study and more of a qualitative nature and aims to identify the digital nudging
concept, dark patterns, and usage of digital nudges in real-life applications. It also
proposes a brief digital nudging process schema to be used for designing behav-
ioral digital interventions.
.................................................................................................................................................................................
1The Collapse of Homo
Economicus
De toutes les de
´finitions de l’homme, la plus
mauvaise me paraı
ˆt celle qui en fait un animal
raisonnable.
(Of all the ways of defining man, the worst is
the one which makes him out to be a rational
animal.)
– Le Petit Pierre [Little Peter] (1918), ch.
XXXIII
Human beings have long been enunciated as ‘ra-
tional decision-makers’ throughout history.
However, mostly in the recent years, many studies
have definitely shown that this so-called rational
animal (which is named as ‘homo economicus’ in
the classical management theory) is not so rational
at all. ‘Man is prone to error’ and many times
human beings tend to deviate from rational deci-
sion-making, systematically.
It can be said that the idea that human decision-
making may not be so optimal at all was first put
forward by Adam Smith, who is now considered as
the founder of behavioral economics by many.
Many years ago, Smith explained some very well-
known ideas of today, like loss aversion, overconfi-
dence, altruism, self-control, fairness, and so on. He
claimed, ‘Pain, I have already had occasion to ob-
serve, is, in almost all cases, a more pungent sensa-
tion than the opposite and correspondent pleasure’
(Smith, 1759, s. 121). Smith’s idea on pain was
Correspondence:
S ebnem O
¨zdemir,
Department of Public
Relations and Publicity,
Faculty of Communication,
Sivas Cumhuriyet
University, 58140, Merkez,
Sivas, Tu
¨rkiye.
E-mail:
sebnemozdemirtr
@gmail.com
Digital Scholarship in the Humanities, Vol. 0, No. 0, 2019. The Author(s) 2019. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of
EADH.
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doi:10.1093/llc/fqz014
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going to be put forward by Daniel Kahneman and
Amos Tversky in 1979 as ‘loss aversion’. Kahneman
and Tversky (1979) claimed that decisions are not
always optimal by putting forward ‘prospect theory’
which states human beings’ risk-taking willingness
is highly context-dependent. People dislike losses
more than they like gains (loss frame – gain
frame); losses are much more painful than the
same amount of gain. In 2002, Daniel Kahneman
was awarded by Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences
for having integrated insights from psychological
research into economic science, especially concern-
ing human judgment and decision-making under
uncertainty (The Royal Swedish Academy of
Sciences, 2002). Similarly Smith’s idea on self-con-
trol; ‘The pleasure which is to enjoy ten years
hence, interest us so little in comparison with that
which we may enjoy to-day’ (Smith, 1759, s. 272)
was later going to be put forward by Richard H.
Thaler. Based on these ideas, in 2017, Richard H.
Thaler has been awarded by Nobel Prize in
Economic Sciences for his contributions to behav-
ioral economics by exploring the consequences of
limited rationality, social preferences, and lack of
self-control; he has shown how these human traits
systematically affect individual decisions as well as
market outcomes (The Royal Swedish Academy of
Sciences, 2017).
Two centuries after Adam Smith, in 1950,
Herbert Simon suggested the concept of ‘bounded
rationality’ (Simon, 1982) and stated that human
beings are not perfect information processors at
all. In spite of the fact that his ideas were dismissed
by many of his peers at that time, Simon later was
awarded by Nobel prize in 1978 (The Royal Swedish
Academy of Sciences, 1978). And in 1976, the
economist Gary S. Becker outlined some of his
ideas about economic approach to human behavior,
including social interactions, law and politics, crime
and punishment, marriage and family, competition,
democracy, and so on (Becker, 1976). He described
human being as creatures trying to maximize their
utilities within reasonable bounds. Human beings
can be egoist, altruist, masochist, compassionate,
or vindictive.
Today behavioral sciences is an ever-evolving
area in which many scientists and scholars like
Daniel Kahneman, Richard H. Thaler, Dan Ariely,
Gerd Gigizenger, Colin Camerer, George
Loewenstein, and so on, have been studying.
2Human Decision-Making and
Nudging
Human beings have complex decision-making sys-
tems. Behavioral Insights help us understand how
Table 1 Summary of nudge principles
Nudge principles Description Example
iNcentive Making incentives more salient to increase
their effectiveness
Telephones that are programmed to display the running
costs of phone calls
Understanding
mappings
Mapping information that is difficult to
evaluate to familiar evaluation schemes
Mapping megapixels to maximum printable size when
advertising a digital camera instead of pointing to
megapixels
Defaults Preselecting options by setting default
options
Automatic renewal of subscriptions
Giving feedback Providing users with feedback when they are
doing well and when they are making
mistakes
Electronic road signs with smiling or sad faces depending
on the driver’s speed
Expecting error Expecting users to make errors and being as
forgiving as possible
Requiring people at an ATM to retrieve the card before they
receive their money in order to help them avoid forgetting
the card
Structure complex
choices
Listing all the attributes of all the alternatives
and letting people make tradeoffs when
necessary
Online product configuration systems that make choices
simpler by guiding users through the purchase process
Source: Weinmann et al. (2016) based on Thaler et al. (2010).
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different aspects of human decision-making pro-
cesses lead people to achieve their desired results.
In the 1970’s, Daniel Kahneman and Amos
Tversky published a series of papers focusing on
human judgment. In their paper ‘Judgement
under uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases’ (Tversky
and Kahneman, 1974), they argued that human
beings rely on heuristics to ease their decision-
making process. Generally, these heuristics facilitate
the judgment, but in some cases, they may lead to
systematic errors. Their research is based mainly on
three types of heuristics, representativeness, avail-
ability, and anchoring.
Table 2 The process of digital nudging
The process of digital nudging
Define the goal Increasing donations
Increasing sales volume
Giving information
Reducing power consumption,
etc.
Define the channel e-mail, SMS, push notifications,
mobile apps,
social media, gamification,
e-commerce, e-government, etc.
Understand the
thinking
of the user
(and expect error)
Barriers, friction, heuristics,
biases, habits
Determine
the nudge
1
Default rules
Simplification
Use of social norms
Increase in ease and convenience
Disclosure
Warnings, graphic or otherwise
Precommitment strategies
Reminders
Eliciting implementation
intentions
Informing people of the
nature and
consequences of their own
past choices
Implement the
selected nudge(s)
Content and context
UX/UI design
Test the intervention Test the nudge(s) (A/B testing,
split testing, etc.)
Measure the results Measure and report the results
Table 3 Types of dark patterns, cataloged by Harry
Brignull
Types of dark
pattern
Explanation
Bait and switch You set out to do one thing, but a differ-
ent, undesirable thing happens instead.
Confirmshaming Confirmshaming is the act of guilting the
user into opting into something. The
option to decline is worded in such a
way as to shame the user into compliance.
Disguised ads Adverts that are disguised as other kinds of
content or navigation, in order to get you
to click on them.
Forced continuity When your free trial with a service comes
to an end and your credit card silently
starts getting charged without any warn-
ing. In some cases, this is made even
worse by making it difficult to cancel the
membership.
Friend spam The product asks for your email or social
media permissions under the pretense it
will be used for a desirable outcome (e.g.,
finding friends), but then spams all your
contacts in a message that claims to be
from you.
Hidden costs You get to the last step of the checkout
process, only to discover some unexpected
charges have appeared, e.g., delivery
charges, tax, etc.
Misdirection The design purposefully focuses your at-
tention on one thing in order to distract
your attention from another.
Price comparison
prevention
The retailer makes it hard for you to com-
pare the price of an item with another
item, so you cannot make an informed
decision.
Privacy Zuckering You are tricked into publicly sharing more
information about yourself than you really
intended to. Named after Facebook CEO
Mark Zuckerberg.
Roach motel The design makes it very easy for you to
get into a certain situation but then makes
it hard for you to get out of it (e.g., a
subscription).
Sneak into basket You attempt to purchase something, but
somewhere in the purchasing journey the
site sneaks an additional item into your
basket, often through the use of an opt-
out radio button or checkbox on a prior
page.
Trick questions You respond to a question, which, when
glanced upon quickly appears to ask one
thing, but if read carefully, asks another
thing entirely.
Source: Harry Brignull, https://darkpatterns.org/types-of-dark--
pattern (accessed 14 September 2018), tarih yok.
Digital nudges and dark patterns
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Established on former behavioral economists’
ideas on human decision-making, especially on
heuristics and biases, Thaler and Sunstein came for-
ward with the idea of ‘nudge’ with the argument
that knowing human beings’ heuristics, biases, and
habits may help them increase their well-being. In
their book, Nudge: Improving Decisions about
Health, Wealth, and Happiness, Thaler and
Sunstein explain nudging as:
‘A nudge, as we will use the term, is any aspect
of the choice architecture that alters people’s
behavior in a predictable way without forbid-
ding any options or significantly changing
their economic incentives. To count as a
mere nudge, the intervention must be easy
and cheap to avoid. Nudges are not mandates.
Putting fruit at eye level counts as a nudge.
Banning junk food does not’ (Thaler and
Sunstein, 2009, s. 6).
Nudging is mainly a behavioral economics con-
cept that defines how subtle changes in the
environment affect the outcomes of a decision-
making process. Some criticize nudging arguing
that it resembles marketing since it uses insights to
influence human behavior. However, it differs in
that the main intention of nudging is to increase
the people’s long-run welfare, as judged by
themselves.
As they mentioned in their book Nudge, know-
ing how people think helps us make/let them choose
what is best for them, and the society (Thaler and
Sunstein, 2009). The key point of nudging, as also
stated by Thaler and Sunstein, is ‘knowing how
people think’, which has long been searched by
scholars and scientist.
Policy makers and organizations always try to
guide people and alter their behavior towards the
desired options. Governments try to increase retire-
ment savings, decrease energy consumption, in-
crease organ donations, etc., NGO’s try to increase
the donations, charity events and funding, etc., and
companies try to increase their revenues, reduce
their wastes, increase loyalty, etc. In all these
Fig. 1 Screenshot of DriveOff, a digital nudging app that shuts off texting privileges for drivers when in motion
(Shamah, 2015)
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activities, together with some basic tools like reward,
punishment, and incentives, nudging is also a very
valuable and lucrative tool. In many cases, nudging
can also be named as ‘choice architecture’. As
Thaler, Sunstein, and Balz state:
‘Decision makers do not make choices in a
vacuum. They make them in an environment
where many features, noticed and unnoticed,
can influence their decisions. The person who
creates that environment is, in our termin-
ology, a choice architect. The goal of Nudge
is to show how choice architecture can be
used to help nudge people to make better
choices (as judged by themselves) without for-
cing certain outcomes upon anyone, a phil-
osophy we call libertarian paternalism. The
tools highlighted are: defaults, expecting
error, understanding mappings, giving feed-
back, structuring complex choices, and creat-
ing incentives’ (Thaler et al., 2010).
3Digital Nudging
When nudging is extended to the digital environ-
ments, it can be defined as ‘digital nudging’. Digital
nudging can briefly be described as ‘the use of user-
interface design elements to guide people’s behavior
in digital choice environments’ (Weinmann et al.,
2016). Seeing this definition a little lacking, Meske
and Potthoff propound their position and argument
on digital nudging as follows:
Fig. 2 Screenshot of Canary, an app that keeps an eye on all activities done by teens in a car, warns users against doing
them, and uploads information to parents about them (Shamah, 2015)
Digital nudges and dark patterns
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‘...this definition does not reflect the import-
ance of a free decision without coercion or a
fundamental change of options and the subtle
mode of action. Further, nudges are not ne-
cessarily limited to the design of user-inter-
faces only, since the form and content of
information or messages can also represent a
nudge. Hence, we define digital nudging as a
subtle form of using design, information and
interaction elements to guide user behavior in
digital environments, without restricting the
individual’s freedom of choice’ (Meske and
Potthoff, 2017).
Based on Thaler et al., (2010) study, Weinmann,
Schneider, and vom Brocke summarize the ‘choice
architecture tools’ by presenting digital nudging ex-
amples (Table 1).
Digital nudges utilize many online technologies
and channels like e-mail, SMS, push notifications,
mobile apps, social media, gamification, e-com-
merce, e-government, location services, etc. One
of the most important advantages of digital
nudges is it’s being relatively inexpensive, and its
ability to spread quickly. They also facilitate data
production and increases measurability. Some digi-
tal nudging examples are given in Figs 1–7.
Shlomo Benartzi explains the advantages and
usage of digital nudging as:
‘The advantages of digital nudging are
two-fold. First, the digital space allows us to
conduct research much faster, as we test out
multiple designs to see which one works best.
Instead of waiting years to see if an
Fig. 3 Freeletics users are motivated by showing benefits
of paid subscription in here and now (The Power of Now)
(Google Play)
Fig. 4 Freeletics users are offered a ‘gift’ of knowledge
(Reciprocity) (Google Play)
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intervention is effective, we can often get re-
sults in days or weeks. Second, the digital
world offers unprecedented scale: by fixing a
single website or app, we can potentially help
millions of people make better financial
decisions.
In recent years, my colleagues and I have done
more research to explore the enormous poten-
tial and cost-effectiveness of digital nudging.
From the use of Big Data to improve retire-
ment outcomes to small tweaks to the screens
of a leading robo-saving app, we’ve shown that
improving the design of the online world can
have a big impact on our financial well-being’
(Benartzi, 2017).
Fig. 5 Peak App used visuals to draw attention to the
content and features rather than cost (Salience) (Google
Play)
Fig. 6 Peak App used visuals to draw attention to the
App’s Popularity rather than cost, creating FOMO
2
feel-
ing (Social Proof) (Google Play)
Digital nudges and dark patterns
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3.1 Digital nudging process
The most important points in digital nudging are
understanding human thinking and starting the
process by taking where the end-user starts into ac-
count. To give an example; in a study steered by
Google Play and The Behavioural Architects
(Google Play) to convey the value of paid app sub-
scriptions (of Peak and Freeletics Apps); first the
barriers to paid app subscriptions are defined as:
(1) ‘User relationships with apps are often fleet-
ing: People are downloading, deleting,
moving between, and reinstalling apps all
the time. This can create a reluctance to
invest and make a long-term commitment.
(2) Users are anchored to free sources: Already
accessing what users perceive to be similar
content for free creates a reluctance to pay.
For example, the research found that Peak
users were often using a range of free
games and free versions of other brain-train-
ing apps (e.g., Luminosity and Elevate), and
Freeletics users might seek out free content
from other sources (e.g., fitness videos on
YouTube).
(3) Free versions can be ‘good enough’: The
Peak free users in this study already
received four randomized games a day.
The unlimited access to 41 Pro games
offered with a paid subscription, therefore,
didn’t always feel like a compelling enough
benefit for signing up; in fact, some users
felt they simply wouldn’t have the time to
play more than four games in a day
anyway.
(4) Users don’t always understand the benefit of
subscription: Crucially, users are not always
clear on what the subscription actually offers
and why they should bother signing up and
paying. For example, some users that we
spoke to were not completely sure what the
Freeletics subscription offering (the ‘Freeletics
Coach’) really was, so struggled to imagine
what benefits upgrading would give them’.
(Google Play).
In the digital nudging process, the behavioral in-
sights concepts used in the project are as flows:
‘The power of now: Bring longer-term goals and
intentions into the present
Reciprocity: Human beings are conditioned to
respond in kind, meaning that we respond to
positive actions with similar positive actions
Salience: When something is prominent relative
to its surroundings. Salience plays to our subcon-
scious mind by automatically focusing our atten-
tion on certain messages
Fig. 7 Peak App used a ‘Decoy Option’ to anchor the
price (Anchoring) (Google Play)
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Authority bias: Our tendency to alter our opin-
ions or behaviors to fit those we consider to be
an authority on a given subject
Social norms: Common tendency for humans to
adopt the opinions and follow the behaviors of
the majority
Anchoring: Common human tendency to rely
too heavily on the first piece of information
offered (the ‘‘anchor’’) when making decisions’.
(Google Play)
A summary how a digital nudging process
should be designed was given in Table 2 (as pro-
posed by the author).
4Dark Patterns
Dark patterns can simply be described as a user
interface or user experience that is crafted to trick
its users into doing things that are not in their best
interests. They generally direct the user towards the
processes or results which the users do not intent.
They are rather being manipulative than being per-
suasive since they serve sinister purposes.
Dark patterns can be observed in many forms.
The mostly used dark patterns created by Harry
Brignull, who has a PhD in Cognitive Science, are
listed in Table 3.
In spite of the fact that in many countries there
are severe consumer and data protection legisla-
tions, dark patterns can very frequently be found
in many interfaces. In the digital world, data are,
probably, the most valuable thing. Besides cash
transfers or e-trade, which are one of the digital
services’ main sources of income, most of the digital
services chase the data to use and/or to sell targeted
advertising.
Apart from consumer and data protection legis-
lations, which are definitely and unfortunately not
enough to protect the users from dark patterns,
there are other kinds of efforts, too. To give an ex-
ample, Google Chrome 71 notify users of unclear
subscription pages (Schechter, 2018). The reason
why Google is doing so is to inform users about
whether the billing information is visible and obvi-
ous, the customer can see the costs before they
accept the terms, and the fee structure is easily
understandable or not.
The fact that human beings have many heuristics,
biases, and habits, is also known by the digital ser-
vice providers and used by them deliberately to
deceit the users. Dark patterns are ethically prob-
lematic since they misdirect the end-users into
making choices that are not in their best interest.
Fig. 8 MedID in the iPhone Health App; Donate Life
Texas organ donation digital intervention to increase
organ donation rates
Digital nudges and dark patterns
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Thus, while planning a UX/UI design, using dark
patterns must strictly be avoided.
4.1 Digitally nudged by government
In all over the world, the number of nudge units has
been increasing constantly. Currently, there are
more than 200 nudge units in the world. Nudging
is very popular among the governments since it gen-
erally offers lucrative and relatively cheap solutions,
and is a good alternative to reward (subsidies,
grants, loans, etc.) and punishment (taxes, penalties,
prohibitions, etc.). As Benartzi et al. mention that ‘A
warning is a nudge; so is a reminder (for example,
that a bill is coming due). Automatic enrollment in
retirement plans, or in green energy, also count as
nudges, so long as people are allowed opt out’
(Benartzi et al., 2017a). In many countries, it is
seen that many different types of nudges have
been used to increase the effectiveness of public
policy.
According to a recent study of Benartzi et al.
(2017b) in multiple areas, nudges have a bigger
impact, per dollar spent than more traditional
tools like punishment and rewards.
Some examples of digital nudging executed by
governmental institutions are shown in Figs 8–11.
5. Conclusion
Like in everyday life, in digital environments, people
make automated and fast decisions. The environ-
ment where decisions are made, and particularly
heuristics, biases, and habits have high influence in
decision-making process. While nudging has been
widely studied and discussed in the literature, it is
inevitable to work through digital nudging in detail.
So, in this study, the background, the concepts,
some cases, and examples from around the world
have been investigated and useful schemas are
offered.
Today, more than ever, human beings have
access to digital tools and millions of people make
transactions in digital environments. In this context,
Fig. 9 Nudge Turkey, Ministry of Trade, ‘Easy Support’ Intervention to facilitate export incentives, March 2018.
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digital nudges can be a very useful, effective, and
lucrative tool to encourage people to make the
right decision for them and/or for the society.
As for dark patterns, they can be described as
malicious UI designs that lead users to perform
unintended actions. Both nudges and dark patterns
aim to lead users into certain actions but there is a
very distinctive property which separates nudges
from dark patterns that nudges are generally de-
signed to make people better off, as judged by them-
selves (Sunstein, 2018), while dark patterns trick
users. In this regard, in digital environments dark
patterns can be a major threat.
In conclusion, first, while designing nudges one
should refrain from using ‘dark patterns’ since it is
not nudging but manipulating. Second, while design-
ing a nudge, the procedure proposed in this article
can be followed. And third, before implementing the
real-life application, pre-testing is strongly proposed
in order to increase the effectiveness of the nudge
application and to abstain from dark patterns.
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Fig. 11 Intervention for increasing the effectiveness of
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Digital nudges and dark patterns
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Notes
1 Sunstein’s ‘‘Ten Important Nudges’’ (Sunstein, 2014).
2 FOMO—Fear of Missing Out.
S .O
¨zdemir
12 Digital Scholarship in the Humanities, Vol. 0, No. 0, 2019
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