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Multi-and Inter-Disciplinary Approaches Towards Understanding the Sinkholes' Phenomenon in the Dead Sea Basin, SN Applied Sciences, Springer (March 2020)

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Hilmi S. Salem at SDRI
Hilmi S. Salem
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Abstract and Figures

Over the last few decades, thousands of sinkholes have developed at an increasing pace, with the majority along the western and eastern shores of the Dead Sea. Recent studies indicate that the number of sinkholes in the Dead Sea Basin (DSB) has reached more than 6000; each of them, on average, 1–10 m deep and up to 25–30 m in diameter. These sinkholes can open-up suddenly and swallow whatever exists above them, resulting in an area that looks like an earthquake zone. Sinkholes in the DSB are formed when a subterranean salt layer that once bordered the Dead Sea is dissolved by underground freshwater that follows the migration of the saltwater–freshwater interface, due to receding water level of the Dead Sea. Consequently, large areas of land are subsiding, causing the formation of sinkholes in the region. Also, based on the fact that the Dead Sea’s region is tectonically and seismically active, as being greatly affected by the Dead Sea transform fault system, sinkholes can also be evolved as a result of tectonic and seismic activities. This paper presents multi- and inter-disciplinary approaches towards understanding the occurrence of sinkholes in the DSB, with respect to geomorphology, geology, geophysics, tectonics, seismology, limnology, climatology, biodiversity, and socioeconomics, as well as the steady decline of the Dead Sea’s water level and the continuous shrinkage of its surface area and its water volume, at alarming rates. The occurrence of sinkholes in this region could be attributed to anthropogenic reasons and/or natural reasons.
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SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:667 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-2146-0
Research Article
Multi‑ andinter‑disciplinary approaches towardsunderstanding
thesinkholes’ phenomenon intheDead Sea Basin
HilmiS.Salem1
Received: 9 December 2019 / Accepted: 31 January 2020 / Published online: 16 March 2020
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
Abstract
Over the last few decades, thousands of sinkholes have developed at an increasing pace, with the majority along the
western and eastern shores of the Dead Sea. Recent studies indicate that the number of sinkholes in the Dead Sea Basin
(DSB) has reached more than 6000; each of them, on average, 1–10m deep and up to 25–30m in diameter. These sink-
holes can open-up suddenly and swallow whatever exists above them, resulting in an area that looks like an earthquake
zone. Sinkholes in the DSB are formed when a subterranean salt layer that once bordered the Dead Sea is dissolved by
underground freshwater that follows the migration of the saltwater–freshwater interface, due to receding water level
of the Dead Sea. Consequently, large areas of land are subsiding, causing the formation of sinkholes in the region. Also,
based on the fact that the Dead Sea’s region is tectonically and seismically active, as being greatly aected by the Dead
Sea transform fault system, sinkholes can also be evolved as a result of tectonic and seismic activities. This paper presents
multi- and inter-disciplinary approaches towards understanding the occurrence of sinkholes in the DSB, with respect to
geomorphology, geology, geophysics, tectonics, seismology, limnology, climatology, biodiversity, and socioeconomics,
as well as the steady decline of the Dead Sea’s water level and the continuous shrinkage of its surface area and its water
volume, at alarming rates. The occurrence of sinkholes in this region could be attributed to anthropogenic reasons and/
or natural reasons.
Keywords Sinkholes· Dead Sea Basin· Water level’s decline· Surface area’s shrinkage· Anthropogenic causes· Naturally
induced· Brine and freshwater· Tectonics and seismicity· Transform fault system
List of symbols
Vp Compressional wave velocity
Vs Shear wave velocity
Vp/Vs Ratio of compressional wave velocity to shear
wave velocity
k Permeability (hydraulic conductivity)
φ Porosity
τ Tortuosity
ρ Electric resistivity
Abbreviations
APC Arab Potash Company
BP Before present
BrO Bromide oxide
DSB Dead Sea Basin
DSF Dead Sea fault
DSFS Dead Sea fault system
DSTF Dead Sea transform fault
ERT Electric resistivity tomography
FDEM Frequency domain electro-magnetic
GIS Geographic information system
GPR Ground-penetrating radar
HSL Hyper-saline lake
InSAR Interferometric synthetic aperture radar
JRV Jordan Rift Valley
LiDAR Light detection and ranging
MCASW Multichannel analysis of surface waves
MODIS Moderate resolution imaging
spectro-radiometer
* Hilmi S. Salem, hilmisalem@yahoo.com | 1Sustainable Development Research Institute, Bethlehem, WestBank, Palestine.
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
... (surface area of 635 km 2 ) to reach approximately 500 mbsl in 2050 (surface area of 520 km 2 ) [22]. Figure 3 shows the change in water level in the Dead Sea between 1972 and 2019. ...
... Changing in Dead Sea water level between 1972 and 2019[22]. ...
Erosion Rates in Dam Catchments in Jordan-Effects of Topography, Geology, and Urbanizations
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Erosion as a natural process produces soils, which are very important natural resources for the fest land plant-and animal kingdoms. Loss of the soil cover reduces agricultural production, biodiversity, and the role of soil as a filter for infiltrating water to replenish the groundwater. It also threatens the food supplies. The knowledge of erosion rates of rocks and terrains is important for developing proactive measures to protect soils from erosion and loss. In this study, erosion rates of catchment areas were calculated based on dams' catchment extensions and the sediment loads transported by flood flows into dams' lakes. The study results show that the chemically, via floodwater, transported quantities of materials are negligible compared to the solid materials transported by the water. It calculates erosion rates ranging from 0.013 to 0.212 mm/yr (13-212 m/10 6 yr) for the different catchment areas. Erosion rates in Jordan are, generally, higher than those calculated for the different parts of the world ranging from 2.5 to 60 m/10 6 yr. This fact can be explained by the very steep topography, calcareous rock cover of the catchment areas and the barren rock exposures.
View
... Information about naturally formed sinkholes has been distributed worldwide to attract diverse tourists and explorers. Even helicopter tours are being provided for tourists, despite temporary restrictions on exploration [38] . ...
Coping with Sinkholes: A Systematic Literature Review
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  • Oct 2024
Sinkholes have frequently occurred around soluble rock formations, but they have been indirectly related to imprudent human practices, based on long-standing recognition. The aim of this study was to explore how to improve sinkhole hazard management to decrease the extent of related risks. The main methodology was a systematic literature review that identified and synthesized the relevant information. The proposed analytical framework served as the basis for review criteria, and the scope of literature was mainly restricted to relevant text data. Analytical categories and analytical units were both used in the text synthesis process. Sinkholes were traditionally treated as natural events; however, major stakeholders started to pay attention to them as human-induced events under climate change. These players extensively included international organizations, sinkhole-prone countries (e.g., Venezuela, China, Saudi Arabia, etc.), and sinkhole-resistant countries (e.g., United Arab Emirates, Kenya, Australia, etc.) in this study. A key theme in the literature was that these stakeholders would no longer deal with sinkholes as natural events but as human-induced events, based on potential advantages (i.e., managing manmade sinkholes and implementing emergency operation plans). Similarly, as addressing emergency prevention, public awareness, technological application, social challenges, education, and training, the key tenet of study would be further achieved in terms of managerial implications. The results of this study suggested that human activities would act as negative factors in sinkhole occurrence more directly than were indicated previously. Hence, the understanding of sinkhole hazard management would be quite deepened via social environment, while policy makers were to proactively manage the issue with the sincere cooperation of local residents.
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... On the other hand, surface water depletion, such as the transfer of water from the Jordan River and Lake Tiberias (Galilee Lake) by Israel to coastal cities on the Mediterranean Sea and other cities in the southern parts of the country, has lowered the water level in the Dead Sea to alarming rates. The water level of the Dead Sea has decreased by more than 50 m (164 ft) in the past 50 years, falling at an average rate of one meter per year (m/yr), which has resulted in dissolving the salt layers in the Dead Sea and the surrounding geological environments, and thus led to the occurrence of thousands of sinkholes on both sides of the Dead Sea Basin [20][21][22]49,50] . Therefore, besides the devastating effects of climate change on water resources in the Arab region, there are also destructive anthropogenic (man-made) effects on them. ...
Socioeconomic, environmental, and health impacts of reusing treated wastewater in agriculture in some Arab countries, including occupied Palestine, in view of climate change
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 2023
FOR CITATION: Salem, H.S. (2023). Socioeconomic, environmental, and health impacts of reusing treated wastewater in agriculture in some Arab countries, including occupied Palestine, in view of climate change. Natural Resources Conservation and Research, Volume 6, Issue 2. 22 Pages. “A special Issue: Climate-Adaptive Approaches to Risk Monitoring and Sustainable Water Resources Management." (Published online: 29 August 2023), EnPress Publisher, El Monte, CA, USA. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.24294/nrcr.v6i2.2229 https://systems.enpress-publisher.com/index.php/NRCR/article/view/2229 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/372317053_Socioeconomic_environmental_and_health_impacts_of_reusing_treated_wastewater_in_agriculture_in_some_Arab_countries_including_occupied_Palestine_in_view_of_climate_change ABSTRACT: The increase in water stress and shortage, facing many countries around the world, is one of the main difficulties confronting practical progress and sustainable development and management. Accordingly, managing the water assets of many countries around the world is nowadays a big challenge due to immense difficulties and vulnerabilities, including rapid industrialization and urbanization processes, population growth, geopolitical instability, and the effects of environmental changes, namely global warming and climate change. Because of global fresh waters scarcity and shortage, the demand for using non-conventional water resources, such as reusing treated wastewater for irrigation and industrial purposes, has become a nessitiy. However, the reuse of effluents for agricultural irrigation can have negative impacts on crop quality and soil conditions, as well as on public health and the environment. Moreover, improper management of agricultural irrigation with treated wastewater can also cause problems for plant production and soils’ physical and chemical propeties. This paper investigates the status of freshwater and wastewater in view of climate change, and socioeconomic, environmental, and health impacts of reusing treated wastewater for irrigation in the Arab region, with the focus on the Occupied Palestinian Territories (OPT), as an example. The paper concludes that: 1) Approximately 13.2 billion cubic meters (BCM) of wastewater is yearly produced in the Arab countries, of which 5.7 BCM (43.2%) is treated and 7.5 MCM (56.8%) is untreated and dumped in open environments; 2) Regarding the OPT, where more than 87% of its fresh water resources are controlled and forcefully taken by the Israeli occupation authorities, Palestinians discharge large amounts of untreated wastewater into open lands (as in the case of the occupied West Bank) and in the Mediterranean Sea (as in the case of occupied and besieged Gaza Strip); and 3) The reused portion of treated wastewater in the OPT is close to zero. Keywords: water shortage and scarcity; wastewater treatment and reuse; agriculture and irrigation; climate change impacts; Arab region, including the Occupied Palestinian Territories (OPT).
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... Effectively monitoring and providing early warnings for sinkhole formation is crucial, yet its timely detection remains a hurdle for ground-based, aircraft, and satellite techniques [9][10][11]. Prior studies in areas like the Dead Sea region [2,12,13] and the Republic of South Africa [14,15] have shown InSAR can reliably track sinkhole-induced land deformation patterns. Although InSAR has significantly enhanced the resolution of land movement monitoring, its full potential for investigating underlying processes of land movement remains untapped [11]. ...
Study on Sinkhole Formation Mechanism in Abandoned Mines
Conference Paper
Full-text available
  • Jul 2023
Sinkholes are a common phenomenon in many parts of the world [1]. They can be caused by a combination of natural [2,3] and anthropogenic processes [4,5] occurring both in the subsurface and on the land surface and driven by various factors. One of the main origins of sinkholes is underground mining activity [6,7]. Mining requires a huge lowering of the aquifer pressure head in the surrounding area. The unsustainable closure of a mine via flooding increases the pore pressure within the rock medium. As a result, land uplifts with damages to infrastructure occur. Additionally, the rapid piezometric rebound may result in unfavourable stress distribution, suffocating the rock mass and forming sinkholes. If these phenomena are not properly managed, they have the potential to endanger the lives of residents in susceptible areas. In this context, given global efforts to meet the Paris Agreement's targets that are currently focused on reducing greenhouse gas emissions, the majority of which are caused by coal combustion, the outcome of coal’s next chapter is critical for climate change mitigation. According to the IPCC, global unabated coal use must decline by 80% this decade if global warming is to be significantly limited [8]. Consequently, many countries that use coal intend to phase it out. Recently, the EU has seen the greatest decrease in coal production in the world. Nonetheless, Poland and Czechia continue coal exploration. Notably, the Upper Silesian Coal Basin (USCB), the largest hard coal basin in the EU, is situated in these two countries (Figure 1A). Although many coal mines have been already closed in Europe, little research has been conducted on the environmental consequences of this process. The cumulative environmental impact of coal mine closure is not fully understood. There is a knowledge gap regarding the mechanism by which piezometric rebound contributes to the formation of sinkholes. The role of horizontal land movement in aquifer system deformation is also unknown. Monitoring these processes and providing early warning of sinkhole formation is essential. However, effective, and timely detection of a developing sinkhole process remains a challenge for both ground-based, aircraft and satellite techniques [9-11]. While InSAR has significantly improved the resolution of land movement monitoring, its potential has not been fully realized yet [11]. Previous research conducted for instance in the Dead Sea region [2,12,13] and the Republic of South Africa [14,15] indicates that InSAR provides a reliable pattern of sinkhole-induced land deformation. Therefore, the objective of this study is to identify sinkhole precursors utilizing satellite radar images, as well as factors that may influence the deformation process of the aquifer system in abandoned mines due to piezometric rebound. The study was carried out in the abandoned underground hard coal mine “Siersza” in the USCB, Poland (Figure 1A). The “Siersza” mine was one of the oldest in the USCB, dating back to 1854. Since 1949, the mine had been intensively developed, gradually increasing its exploitation area to approximately 40 km2. The development of the mine was accomplished by the deposition of Carboniferous formations directly beneath Quaternary strata. This resulted in shallow mining at depths of several tens of meters. The mine was closed by flooding at the end of 2002. Since then, there has been evidence of piezometric rebound and land uplift [16]. Sinkholes first occurred in the study area in early 2021. By the end of 2022, more than 20 sinkholes had been developed, the largest of which was approximately 20 m in diameter and 10 m deep [17]. Considering the sinkhole occurrence period, the research was conducted between 2020 and 2022. The ESA's Copernicus program's Sentinel-1 satellite radar images were combined with geological and meteorological data from the Polish Geological Institute and the Institute of Meteorology and Water Management of Poland, respectively. In the “Siersza” mine, PSInSAR provides land movement velocities ranging from -4 mm/year to +16 mm/year (Figure 1B). The centre of this area is estimated to have the highest land movement values. Sinkholes have started to develop to the east of the region. In addition, they are all located within several hundred meters of of one another along the boundary of the shallow mining voids. As the sinkholes develop in the region with the steepest slope, their occurrence might be associated with the emergence of land uplift. Consequently, the characteristics of the displacement field, such as the slope or distribution of compressive and tensile strains, may be crucial for identifying sinkhole precursors. Furthermore, a time series analysis reveals that land movement in the sinkhole region is highly seasonal (Figure 2). This can range from +10 mm in the summer to -10 mm in the winter. Nonetheless, an examination of the time series of land movement near the sinkhole region reveals no clear signals indicating the onset of a deformation process. Regardless, the seasonality of land movement is linked to precipitation. Sinkholes form a few months after periods of increased precipitation. The conducted research allowed for the identification of a group of variables that may influence the formation of sinkholes in the “Siersza” mine. Although these are preliminary studies, they may pave the way for future investigation. For instance, since combining InSAR-derived properties with numerical modelling studies remains a research challenge, land movement time series covering a longer time horizon and larger spatial coverage would be beneficial in evaluating storage coefficient and calibrating hydrogeological models of abandoned underground mines. These models could provide a more reliable assessment of piezometric rebound, stress distribution, and crack development within the aquifer system, and therefore a more accurate prediction of land uplift and sinkhole formation in post-coal mining regions.
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... The DS coastal areas have been dramatically hit by the sinkhole phenomenon occurring since the late 1990s (figures 3.1) (Salem 2020). Most researchers relate the sinkhole phenomenon with the formation of dissolution cavities within the salt layers with the consequential gradual collapse of surface sediments (Ezersky 2006, Frumkin 2013. ...
Chapter 3. Dead Sea evaporite karst, its features, and methods of investigation
Chapter
  • May 2023
More than six thousand sinkholes have been opened during the last 30 years along the Dead Sea (DS) coastal areas in Israel (DS sinkhole database 1998–2016, Abelson et al 2006, 2017, Yechieli et al 2016) and Jordan (Closson and Abou Karaki 2009, Abou Karaki et al 2016) (Figure 3.1). Generally, sinkholes are a subaerial manifestation of karst or pseudokarst. The term karst is commonly used to describe a wide range of surface and subsurface landforms that develop by the dissolution of the soluble rock (Ford and Williams 2007, De Waele et al 2011, Frumkin 2013, Benson and Yuhr 2016). On the other hand, some sinkholes resemble or act like karst but were not formed by the natural dissolution of rock. Those are termed ‘pseudokarst’ (Grimes 1975, Eberhard and Sharples 2013, Benson and Yuhr 2016). Pseudokarst processes include a variety of mechanical agencies in which material is removed in solid-state, together with the effects resulting from the changes of phase and removal of liquid material. They are also known as ‘false karst’ or are sometimes referred to as ‘analogous karst’. Thus, karstic sinkholes require soluble rocks in the subsurface (limestone, dolomite, gypsum, salt, etc.), whereas pseudokarst sinkholes require underground flow and physical erosion. Site characterization is carried out to avoid problems in agriculture, industry, tourism, etc. It is the process of successive understanding of the geomorphological, geological, hydrological, and engineering properties at the site, including the soil, rock, groundwater, and, in many cases, man-modified conditions in the subsurface (e.g., utilities, structures, mines, and tunnels) that can impact site conditions (Benson and Yuhr 2016).
View
... A large cavity, visible within the Bimmah sinkhole, continues at more than 100 m and extended laterally into the subsurface [22,23] (Figure 3). The cavity system in the area consists of two parts. ...
Integration of Geophysical Methods for Doline Hazard Assessment: A Case Study from Northern Oman
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  • Jun 2022
Subsurface formations with low compaction, often, due to the presence of underlying cavities, are potential sources of hazards. Thus, understanding the occurrence, properties, and extension of these weak zones poses a major concern in engineering geophysics. In this study, we examine the ability of geophysical methods to map weak areas over carbonates in Northern Oman. The weak zones are known to cause surface depression in many areas. The geophysical methods examined involve Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR), Seismic Refraction Tomography (SRT), and Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT). This integrated geophysical survey was conducted near the Bimmah sinkhole, in the Quriya area, Northern Oman. The survey covers both an area with ground truth (low compaction sediments overlaying a cave) and a part with unknown subsurface properties. GPR velocity analysis using selected diffraction’s fitting helped to identify high-velocity anomalies that were attributed to the cavity. The GPR interpretation was calibrated with SRT and ERT. The former showed a clear drop in P-wave velocity and low ray coverage at the cavity zone, while the latter demonstrated high resistivity anomalies caused by the air filling the cavity. The scope was to examine the geophysical methods response, especially the GPR, and utilize the results of this preliminary approach for a wider exploration investigation in the area. The results from the study indicated that the GPR is capable to serve as a pioneer method in detecting the cavities. Hence, the GPR will cover large area in the site and the other two methods will be used as complementary for the final subsurface conditions’ evaluation.
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... Σύμφωνα με τον Πίνακα (1) από το 1810 μέχρι το τέλος του 19 ου αιώνα παρατηρείται μια αύξηση της στάθμης κατά 8,39 μέτρα, γεγονός που υποδηλώνει μια βροχερή περίοδο, ειδικά στο δεύτερο μισό του 19 ου αιώνα. Κατά τη διάρκεια του 20 ου αιώνα, το επίπεδο της Νεκράς Θάλασσας μειώθηκε κατά 22,62 μέτρα, ενώ από τις αρχές του 21 ου αιώνα μέχρι σήμερα, η πτώση της στάθμης φτάνει τα 20,13 μέτρα.Παράλληλα, εκτός από την εκτροπή των υδάτων του Ιορδάνη, οι δραστηριότητες εξόρυξης ποτάσας που πραγματοποιούνται από Ισραηλινές και Ιορδανικές εταιρείες στις δυτικές και ανατολικές ακτές της Νεκράς Θάλασσας, κατά μήκος της νότιας λεκάνης, συμβάλλουν στη δραστική μείωση της στάθμης των υδάτων της, καθώς και στη μείωση της επιφάνειάς της και, συνεπώς, στη συρρίκνωση της έκτασής της(Salem, 2020). Οι εν λόγω βιομηχανίες μαζί διοχετεύουν 600 εκατομμύρια κυβικά μέτρα (MCM) άλμης από τη Νεκρά Θάλασσα στις λίμνες εξάτμισης (αλυκές), που βρίσκονται στη νότια λεκάνη, και επιστρέφουν πίσω στη λίμνη περίπου 270 MCM συμπυκνωμένης άλμης(TAHAL Group, 2011). ...
Διαχρονική παρατήρηση των μεταβολών της Νεκράς Θάλασσας / Observation of the over-time changes of the Dead Sea.
Thesis
Full-text available
  • Sep 2020
The purpose of this thesis is the observation of the over-time changes of the Dead Sea for the years 1972 – 2019, with the utilization of Geographic Information Systems and the use of satellite and other data. Particularly, the problem of the shrinking of the water surface, which is a global environmental problem, is being addressed. The core of the methodology is based on the digitization of the Dead Sea level using satellite imagery, and the utilization of ArcGIS software for the extraction of the results. The satellite images that were used belong to the Landsat Satellite Program of National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Specifically, false color images were used for the digitization process, which were exported using ArcMap. These images include infrared bands, because water bodies absorb the radiation of these bands, so the boundary between land and water is more distinct. Moreover, in order to help analyze the study area a series of maps was created, such as a geological map, a land cover map and a digital elevation model. Based on the results obtained from the digitization, maps were produced showing the shrinkage of the Dead Sea for the entire study period and for every decade. In conclusion, it turned out that within 47 years the level of the Dead Sea has decreased by 38 meters and its area by 375 km2, which corresponds to a 38% reduction from the original area. It is important to note that the level of the lake continues to decline at a rate of 1 m/year, which negatively affects its environment and requires measures to be taken by the competent authorities.
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Latest (Most Recent: March 2024 - March 2025) Citations to Some of Hilmi S. Salem’s Publications (PhD, MSc, BSc. - Prof. Dr.) - 2024 - 20 March 2025
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Latest (Most Recent: March 2024 - 20 March 2025) Citations to Some of Hilmi S. Salem’s Publications (PhD, MSc, BSc – Prof. Dr.) Cited by academicians, research scientists, researchers, and postgraduate students at universities, research institutions, and companies in the following countries: Iran, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, United States of America (USA), Japan, Vietnam, Taiwan, China, Palestine, Turkey, Qatar, United Arab Emirates (UAE), India, Australia, Maldives, Mozambique, Philippines, Croatia, Oman, Malaysia, Ethiopia, Sudan, Iraq, Mexico, Nigeria, Brazil, Algeria, Egypt, Czech Republic, Jordan, Portugal, Norway, Ghana, United Kingdom (UK), Germany, Austria, Thailand, Indonesia, Italy, Botswana, South Africa, Canada, Russia A few Examples of Hilmi S. Salem’s Published Research in: Civil, Environmental, and Petroleum Engineering; Aquifer and Reservoir Characterization; Renewable (Solar and Wind Energies and Technologies); Industrial Air Pollution; Water Strategies and Water-Energy-Food (WEF) Nexus; Agriculture and Irrigation; Sustainable Water Resources’ Management (Fresh Water and wastewater), Energy Efficiency; Women, Water, Agriculture, and Development, Particularly in Rural Areas; Drought, Pest Management, Biology, Biochemistry, and Biotechnology; Climate Change Impacts, and Mitigation and Adaptation Mechanisms; Carbon and Ecological Footprints; Mining; Cancer, Medical, and Health Research; Computer and Machine Learning; Conflicts and International Law; Sustainable Development; and the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDGs)
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A PRE-FEASIBILITY STUDY ON WATER CONVEYANCE ROUTES TO THE DEAD SEA
Book
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  • Jun 2013
A pre-feasibility study on water conveyance routes to the Dead Sea
View
Salt storms, sinkholes and major economic losses: Can the deteriorating Dead Sea be saved from the looming eco crisis? ‫והערבה‬ ‫המלח‬ ‫ים‬ ‫הנגב,‬ ‫מחקרי‬ ‫מחקר‬ ‫מאמר‬
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  • Jul 2015
The Dead Sea continues to shrink with an annual drop of over one meter in its sea level paving a road to a new reality; the environmental consequences of this phenomenon are clear, most notably, the significant numbers of sinkholes that have appeared on the Dead Sea shores. While the sinkholes problem is deteriorating in the Dead Sea, there are several other case studies of similar salt lakes from all around the world, ranging from Aral Lake (between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan), Lake Urmia in Iran and Lake Mono in the United States. These examples can provide invaluable information for the research to save the Dead Sea. These cases have highlighted the devastating environmental impacts of drying seas, causing salt storms and drop in ground water levels, thus endangering human lives. The case of saving the Dead Sea has not yet been lost. The potential options to mitigate this catastrophe have been studied in the past decades, but so far no solution has been implemented. At the end of the day, it seems that out of several alternatives, a seawater conveyance to the Dead Sea-such as the Mediterranean Dead Sea project-is one of the major feasible options.
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Monitoring the Snowpack Volume in a Sinkhole on Mount Lebanon using Time Lapse Photogrammetry
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Lebanon has experienced serious water scarcity issues recently, despite being one of the wealthiest countries in the Middle East for water resources. A large fraction of the water resources originates from the melting of the seasonal snow on Mount Lebanon. Therefore, continuous and systematic monitoring of the Lebanese snowpack is becoming crucial. The top of Mount Lebanon is punctuated by karstic hollows named sinkholes, which play a key role in the hydrological regime as natural snow reservoirs. However, monitoring these natural snow reservoirs remains challenging using traditional in situ and remote sensing techniques. Here, we present a new system in monitoring the evolution of the snowpack volume in a pilot sinkhole located in Mount Lebanon. The system uses three compact time-lapse cameras and photogrammetric software to reconstruct the elevation of the snow surface within the sinkhole. The approach is validated by standard topographic surveys. The results indicate that the snow height can be retrieved with an accuracy between 20 and 60 cm (residuals standard deviation) and a low bias of 50 cm after co-registration of the digital elevation models. This system can be used to derive the snowpack volume in the sinkhole on a daily basis at low cost.
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Sinkholes of the Dead Sea Basin: A Result of Anthropogenic Disturbance to Nature and Sign for More and Greater Hazards
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2019
  • SED
Over the last few decades, thousands of sinkholes have developed at an increasing pace along the western and eastern shores of the Dead Sea. Recent studies indicate that the number of sinkholes in the Dead Sea Basin (DSB) has reached more than 6,000, with 1–10 m deep and up to 25–30 m in diameter, on average, each. These sinkholes can open-up suddenly and swallow whatever found above them, resulting in an area that looks like an earthquake zone. Sinkholes in the DSB are formed when a subterranean salt layer that once bordered the Dead Sea is dissolved by underground freshwater that follows the migration of the saltwater–freshwater interface, due to receding water level of the Dead Sea. Consequently, large areas of land are subsiding, causing the formation of sinkholes in the region. Also, based on the fact that the Dead Sea’s region is tectonically and seismically active, as it is greatly affected by the Dead Sea Transform Fault System in the region, sinkholes can also be evolved as a result of tectonic and seismic activities. Nevertheless, sinkholes, as geomorphologic features occurring in the DSB, represent the most remarkable evidence of the brutal interferences of humans in the Dead Sea, especially sinkholes started to appear remarkably and frequently in the last half a century only. They present a serious problem to the Dead Sea’s region, as they have led to damages in the infrastructures, and have threatened the safety of humans. Large coastal areas along the Dead Sea shores on both sides of the Sea have already been totally closed to access, because occurrence of more sinkholes is continually developing and rapidly increasing in number. This paper investigates and discusses the occurrence of sinkholes in the Dead Sea Basin, geomorphologically, geologically, seismically, limnologically, and socioeconomically, as well as with respect to the steady decline, at alarming rate, of the Dead Sea’s water level and the continuous shrinkage of its surface area, as the Dead Sea’s water level has been declining, on average, one meter per year just during the last 50 years or so. Also, the sinkholes’ occurrence in the DSB is investigated and discussed, with respect to tectonics and seismicity affecting the region. The results indicate that more attention should be paid to this phenomenon – the rapid and intensive occurrence of sinkholes in the Dead Sea’s region – since it is a serious and dangerous disaster, affecting the Dead Sea Basin itself and its surrounding environment. Unfortunately, this disaster is predominantly caused anthropogenically, as a result of the decline of the Dead Sea’s water level caused by humans’ activities. So, this problem can be avoided or possibly reduced if man would think about nature’s protection rather than about his own interests.
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Inventory data on the sinkhole occurrences from Proterozoic Cuddapah Basin, India
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Full-text available
  • May 2019
This data article provides the inventory data on sinkhole occur-rences for thefirst time from Proterozoic Cuddapah Basin, India.Unexpected ground subsidence incidents are taking place withground breaking sounds and forming in the Cuddapah Basin since2007 and their frequency increasing from 2015 to 2017 (15 sink-holes over night in and around Buggavanka River). Such incidentsare creating panic situations in the general public of this areawhich was not experienced in this region ever before. It is inter-esting to note that majority of sinkholes are forming subsequent toheavy rains and sudden recharge, especially in and around Bug-gavanka and Chitravati River beds. Hence, there is a strong needfor the data on the sinkhole occurrences for detailedfield in-vestigations in future. Since, sinkhole inventory is a vital andpioneering step in sinkhole hazard analysis, the consistency ofsinkhole hazard and vulnerability maps and the efficiency of themitigation measures chiefly rely on the accuracy, completeness,andfidelity of the sinkhole inventories. Geospatial technologiesplayed a major role in this inventory in terms of data collection,editing and analysis of various thematic maps.
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Exposure of tourism development to salt karst hazards along the Jordanian Dead Sea shore
Article
Full-text available
The Dead Sea shore is a unique, young and dynamic salt karst system. Development of the area began in the 1960s, when the main water resources that used to feed the Dead Sea were diverted towards deserts, cities and industries. During the last decade, the water level has fallen by more than 1 m per year, causing a hydrostatic disequilibrium between the underground fresh waters and the base level. Thousands of underground cavities have developed as well as hectometre-sized landslides. Despite these unfavourable environmental conditions, large tourism development projects have flourished along the northern coast of the Jordanian Dead Sea. In this work, which is based on a multi-method approach (analyses of radar and optical satellite data, in situ observations, and public science), we show that a 10 km long strip of coast that encompass several resorts is exposed to subsidence, sinkholes, landslides and flash floods. Geological discontinuities are the weakest points where the system can re-balance and where most of the energy is dissipated through erosional processes. Groundwater is moving rapidly along fractures to reach the dropping base level. The salt that fills the sediments matrix is dissolved along the water flow paths favouring the development of enlarged conduits, cavities and then the proliferation of sinkholes. The front beaches of the hotels, the roads and the bridges are the most affected infrastructure. We point out the importance for the land planners to include in the Dead Sea development schemes the historical records and present knowledge of geological hazards in the area.
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Degradation processes along the new northeastern shores of the Dead Sea
Article
Full-text available
  • Feb 2019
  • ENVIRON EARTH SCI
Since about 6 decades the Dead Sea shore has been retreating, exposing herewith shore sediments consisting of alluvial deposits underlain by muds. Enhanced erosional processes by flood and base flows as a result of increasing gradients of slopes have incised deep gorges in the black mud sediments which have resulted in land collapses, landslides and shrinking fractures. Erosion has exposed structures resembling seismites and subaquatic fossil slidings. In this article, the degrading geology of the northeastern shore of the Dead Sea is described and the underlying geo-mechanical, mineralogical and chemical properties of the black mud sediments composed of silt and clay, partly covered by gravel and sand, are evaluated. Attention is also paid to the impacts of the degrading geology on the infrastructure of the area and remediation measures are recommended.
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SAR Interferometry for Sinkhole Early Warning and Susceptibility Assessment along the Dead Sea, Israel
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2019
During the past three decades, the Dead Sea (DS) water level has dropped at an average rate of ~1 m/year, resulting in the formation of thousands of sinkholes along its coastline that severely affect the economy and infrastructure of the region. The sinkholes are associated with gradual land subsidence, preceding their collapse by periods ranging from a few days to about five years. We present the results of over six years of systematic high temporal and spatial resolution interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) observations, incorporated with and refined by detailed Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) measurements. The combined data enable the utilization of interferometric pairs with a wide range of spatial baselines to detect minute precursory subsidence before the catastrophic collapse of the sinkholes and to map zones susceptible to future sinkhole formation. We present here four case studies that illustrate the timelines and effectiveness of our methodology as well as its limitations and complementary methodologies used for sinkhole monitoring and hazard assessment. Today, InSAR-derived subsidence maps have become fundamental for sinkhole early warning and mitigation along the DS coast in Israel and are incorporated in all sinkhole potential maps which are mandatory for the planning and licensing of new infrastructure.
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Salt densities and velocities with application to Gulf of Mexico salt domes
Conference Paper
  • Oct 2015
We study the densities and elastic properties of rock salt from benchtop ultrasonic measurements, log data analysis in the Gulf Coast regions, and seismic survey designs, acquisition and interpretations over salt domes. In the lab, we analyzed the composition, density, velocity, and stress effects of a variety of rock salt samples. The tested samples are from very different environment. Salt samples from the Gulf of Mexico region are largely isotropic with mixed orientations of micro-cracks and crystal aggregates. The Zi-paquirá, colombia samples show velocity and density variations from their lamination of alternating layers of relatively pure halite and argillaceous halite. The Goderich, Canada halite crystals display distinct cubic anisotropy, with the elastic constants calculated as: C 11 =48.7, C 44 =13.1 and C 12 =11.9. From a study of 142 log suites from boreholes drilled through salt in the Gulf of Mexico, we found that P-wave velocity V p (km/s) increases with depth D(km) of the salt as: V p = 4.41 + 0.0104 · D, with the average standard deviation of 0.10 km/s. The salt electron density readings concentrate at 2.06 ± 0.1g/cm 3. These lab measurements and log data analyses provide further information on the elastic properties of salt to assist with velocity model building, synthetic seismogram generation , and understanding the elastic properties of halite. A southwest-northeast trending gravity line was collected in the Pierce Junction salt dome, TX. The 2D and 3D velocity model is proposed by combining that with earlier seismic surveys , topography surveys as well as a east-west gravity profile. Both 2D and 3D seismic surveys can be designed based on such velocity model for the purpose of full coverage of the target zones. Gravity and elastic measurements complement each other to produce a more constrained subsurface picture.
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