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The cost of saving our ocean - estimating the funding gap of sustainable development goal 14
Abstract
While there have been estimates for the overall funding needs of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and for specific SDGs, there has been no attempt to estimate the funding needs of SDG 14, life below water, despite an impressive mobilization of financial sources the last couple of years. This lack of resourcing estimates is likely the result of the absence of information mainly at the national level of funding devoted to SDG 14 targets and of the complexity of identifying standards and actions for measuring SDG 14 targets. Using information from the proceedings of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the 2017 UN Ocean Conference, this paper presents the first ever attempt to present a likely cost for saving our oceans and a likely estimate of the funding gap for implementing SDG 14 until 2030. This paper also presents an analysis of this funding gap and recommendations for bridging it. It concludes with an estimate of US$174.52 billion per year needed for the health of our oceans. Knowing the resourcing requirements, efforts can be further stepped up and better targeted by different stakeholders, contributing thus to better conservation and sustainable use of our oceans.
... A fundamental worry is that the lack of expertise of the blue economy in traditional investment communities hampers their potential involvement while also being a source of sustainability risks (Credit Suisse, 2020;Ecorys, 2020). Funding gaps for blue economy ambitions are not directly quantifiable but some studies have shown that at least 175 USD billion per year are requires just to fulfil the targets of Sustainable Development Goal 14 (Johansen and Vestvik, 2020). Although finance tracking initiatives incorporate varying degrees of detail and tracing capabilities, (Friends of Ocean Action, 2020), estimates suggest that SDG 14 remains the least funded SDG goal (Economist Impact, 2022). ...
... For example, attracting more philanthropic funding is essential to close the SDG 14 funding gap (Friends of Ocean Action, 2020) since 80 percent of the current funding comes from it is currently funded domestic and international public sources. (Johansen and Vestvik, 2020). While not exhaustive, a study of prominent marine philanthropies from 2010-2020 suggests that an increasing dependency on a limited group of core funders since 20 funders represented 64 percent of all identified marine grant-making (Our Shared Seas, 2021). ...
... Overarching criticism is comparable to critiques put forward against the use of green economy rhetoric, for example, that blue economy may serve as a tool to legitimize and conceal irresponsible ethical or environmental behaviour or uses through "greenwashing" (Johansen and Vestvik, 2020), or by masking the true performance of an activity (Marquis, Toffel and Zhou, 2016). Blue economy projects have been associated with land (or ocean) grabbing or displacement of Indigenous Peoples and vulnerable communities (Barbesgaard, 2017;Bennett, Govan and Satterfield, 2015). ...
Blue economy emerged as a policy trend over the last decade and is an increasingly influential concept on global, regional, and national policy agendas. While the blue economy concept inspires interdisciplinary and intersectoral policies and programmes, no commonly accepted definition of the blue economy, including its spatial or thematic scope, exists.
This report reviews and analyses how stakeholders apply the blue economy strategically and operationally in their policy and programming, with particular attention to the role of aquatic food systems, which is established as a vital blue economy sector among all stakeholders, regardless of their category or geographic scope. Aquatic food systems stakeholders are thus navigating a blue economy landscape irrespective of whether they are pursuing their own blue economy ambitions.
Ultimately, the report provides perspectives on the potential role of FAO amid identified blue economy trends, focusing on the role of its Blue Transformation Roadmap to advance and strengthen the role of aquatic food systems in a blue economy context and its potential as a pathway for the transformation of aquatic food systems.
... However, since developing countries are anticipated to show better performance in achieving SDG12 compared to developed countries, H4k, which proposed that the better institutional arrangements in developed countries help them perform better in achieving AI-based innovation and resultant better SDG12, is not supported. This is contradicted by the findings of Johansen and Vestvik (2020), who found that developed countries tend to have better institutional arrangements for promoting innovation, including financial support for research and development, intellectual property protection, and policies that encourage responsible consumption and production. ...
... Moreover, since developed countries are expected to outperform developing countries in achieving SDG13, H4l, which proposed that the better institutional arrangements in developed countries help them perform better in achieving AI-based innovation and resultant better SDG13, is supported. This is consistent with the findings of Johansen and Vestvik (2020), who reported that institutional factors in developed countries, such as congenial government support, innovation policies, and intellectual property rights, significantly influence the successful implementation of AI-based innovation for climate action-related sustainable development. ...
... Thus, H3e is not supported, as most countries do not support this hypothesis. This finding is in line with previous research (e.g., Johansen and Vestvik, 2020) that noted the challenges in achieving SDG14, particularly in developing countries where there may be limited resources and institutional arrangements. Moreover, since developed and developing countries are forecast to show almost similar performance in achieving SDG14, H4m, which proposed that better institutional arrangements in developed countries help them achieve better AI-based innovation and resultant better SDG14, is not supported. ...
... Ocean financing plays a critical role in maximizing the ocean's sustainability and mitigating the threats to the ocean's health (Sumaila et al. 2021). Despite the ocean's crucial importance for climate change mitigation and adaptation and the world's economy, ocean financing has not received adequate attention (Johansen and Vestvik 2020;Thiele and Gerber 2017). In 2019, SDG14 (Life below water) received the least funding among all SDGs. ...
... Furthermore, there is wide agreement that there is additional potential for privatesector investments in SDG14 (Johansen and Vestvik 2020). SDG14 is the least visible goal for the world's largest companies, and hence, limited private-sector commitments exist to contribute to SDG14 (Schatz 2017). ...
... As a result, current funding allocated to SDG14 is insufficient to meet the funding requirements estimate to achieve the SDG goals set by 2030. Johansen and Vestvik (2020) estimate that a total of USD 155.7B is required to implement SDG14 by 2030. However, as of now, only 2% of countries are on track to achieve this goal (Nash et al. 2020). ...
The blue bond market has emerged as one of the latest additions in the sustainable debt market. Its goal is to channel funding toward sustainable blue economy projects related to the ocean and freshwater. While the protection of hydric resources has gained importance within the problem of climate change, Sustainable Development Goals linked to water remain the most underfunded. Since the issuance of the first blue bond in the Seychelles in 2018, multiple public and private organizations have turned to the blue bond market to raise funds. However, unlike the green bond market, no comprehensive market overview exists, preventing stakeholders from judging whether this label has been effective in protecting water resources and drawing conclusions on its future potential. This paper draws on an extensive review of academic research and complements it with a unique and comprehensive analysis of blue bonds issued to date, providing a contribution to the literature on sustainable finance. Between 2018 and 2022, 26 blue bond transactions took place, amounting to a total value of USD 5.0 billion, with a 92% CAGR between those years. Currently, blue bonds represent less than 0.5% of the sustainable debt market. The use of proceeds has mostly focused on waste management, biodiversity, and sustainable fisheries, but also ranges across other areas of the sustainable blue economy. Only two-thirds of blue bond issuers report on impact metrics, providing further opportunity to add detail and rigor. We draw comparisons to the more mature green bond market and conclude that a lack of standardized definitions, metrics, and expertise by issuers and investors are significant barriers to the blue bond market. Resolving these barriers is crucial to attract corporations and ensure continued growth of the blue bond market.
... These grants can be sporadic in nature and allocated on timescales too short to fully achieve optimal conservation outcomes, or for the societal benefits of the conservation activities to be felt (Bos et al. 2015). To better conserve marine environments, greater security of funding sources and mechanisms is required (Bos et al. 2015;Fujita et al. 2013;Johansen and Vestvik 2020;Tirumala and Tiwari 2020). ...
... New financial mechanisms and frameworks will be required to scale up investment and ensure stable funding for marine conservation and sustainability, but must also be implemented transparently and with appropriate representation Tirumala and Tiwari 2020). This might include greater involvement of the private sector and a suite of financial mechanisms including, for example, biodiversity offsets, paying for use of ecosystem services, and blended finance (Deutz et al. 2020;Johansen and Vestvik 2020). ...
... Marine conservation may also be given a relatively low priority when compared to other development priorities. For example, recent research demonstrates that a majority of countries prioritise socio-economic SDGs over the marine environment-based SDG 14 and that efforts to achieve SDG 14 are allocated less funding than any other SGD priority (Custer et al. 2018;Johansen and Vestvik 2020). ...
Marine ecosystems and their associated biodiversity sustain life on Earth and hold intrinsic value. Critical marine ecosystem services include maintenance of global oxygen and carbon cycles, production of food and energy, and sustenance of human wellbeing. However marine ecosystems are swiftly being degraded due to the unsustainable use of marine environments and a rapidly changing climate. The fundamental challenge for the future is therefore to safeguard marine ecosystem biodiversity, function, and adaptive capacity whilst continuing to provide vital resources for the global population. Here, we use foresighting/hindcasting to consider two plausible futures towards 2030: a business-as-usual trajectory (i.e. continuation of current trends), and a more sustainable but technically achievable future in line with the UN Sustainable Development Goals. We identify key drivers that differentiate these alternative futures and use these to develop an action pathway towards the desirable, more sustainable future. Key to achieving the more sustainable future will be establishing integrative (i.e. across jurisdictions and sectors), adaptive management that supports equitable and sustainable stewardship of marine environments. Conserving marine ecosystems will require recalibrating our social, financial, and industrial relationships with the marine environment. While a sustainable future requires long-term planning and commitment beyond 2030, immediate action is needed to avoid tipping points and avert trajectories of ecosystem decline. By acting now to optimise management and protection of marine ecosystems, building upon existing technologies, and conserving the remaining biodiversity, we can create the best opportunity for a sustainable future in 2030 and beyond.
... Targets have been set for global ocean protection, mechanisms implemented and conservation programmes initiated, but these are overshadowed by the overarching lack of a coherent strategy. For example, UN Sustainable Development Goal 14 ("to protect the health of the ocean") is not fully on track to achieve all ten targets by 2030 (Johansen and Vestvik, 2020) and none of the Aichi targets have been achieved within the past UN Decade on Biodiversity (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2020). Progress continues this year (2021) to develop a legally binding instrument for conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction. ...
... What is certain, however, is that to prevent biodiversity loss and minimise stressors that impede marine ecosystem functioning and the ecosystem services that benefit humanity, ocean protection must be prioritised. Doubts that UN SDG14 may not be met fully by 2030 are of great concern -one estimate is that US$174.52 billion per year will be needed to be spent on, for example, conservation and research to achieve this one goal (Johansen and Vestvik, 2020). ...
The extraction of minerals from the seabed of the deep oceans is of increasing interest to investors, mining companies and some coastal states. To date, no commercial-scale deep seabed mining has taken place but there is considerable pressure for minerals mining to become an economic reality, including to supply the projected demand for metals to support a global transition to renewable energy. At the same time, the full environmental impacts of deep seabed mining are difficult to predict but are expected to be highly damaging, both within, and perhaps well beyond, the areas mined. Here, we reflect on the considerable uncertainties that exist in relation to deep seabed mining. In particular, we provide a perspective on: (1) arguments that deep seabed mining is needed to supply minerals for the green energy revolution, using the electric vehicle battery industry as an illustration; (2) risks to biodiversity, ecosystem function and related ecosystem services; and (3) the lack of equitable benefit sharing to the global community now and for future generations. We explore the justification for a global moratorium on deep seabed mining to ensure protection of marine ecosystems, the need to focus on baseline research, and how improved governance of targeted marine regions could be key to the preservation and conservation of the ocean biome.
... This causes environmental degradation and proses challenges to community livelihoods (Cañedo-Argüelles et al., 2019). This issue has direct links to the sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), specifically Goall 14 (Life below Water) and Goal 15 (Life on Land), as well various other SDGs targets related to natural resource management, community well-being and climate change mitigation (Cormier & Elliott, 2017;Griggs et al., 2014;Johansen & Vestvik, 2020;Krauss, 2022;Said & Chuenpagdee, 2019). Under the guidance of (Ferreira et al., 2021), the conservation initiative has been built on comprehensive research and community engagement (Germinario & Oguchi, 2021). ...
The coastal village of Kusamba in Bali has long relied on salt farming as an economic activity, but conventional methods have harmed the environment. The Tri Hita Karana-Based Conservation Initiatives were developed with community engagement to address this issue. Researchers collaborated closely with local stakeholders to establish an approach that combines tradition, ecological preservation, and economic prosperity. The main findings highlight the implementation of Tri Hita Karana in increasing salt production in order to preserve the traditional salt farming culture. The initiatives include training and mentoring programs on sustainable salt production methods and preserving traditional salt farming. These efforts have led to improved biodiversity, strengthened coastlines, increased income, and sustainable tourism. Challenges faced include resistance to change, which was overcome through dialogue. The initiatives have attracted global recognition and serve as a model for sustainable development. The community's active involvement, alongside scientific knowledge and eco-friendly technologies, contributed to a 30% increase in salt production yield. The initiatives align with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and highlight the significance of holistic conservation approaches. Although successful, challenges such as funding limitations and climate variability persist. In conclusion, the Tri Hita Karana-Based Conservation Initiatives in Kusamba demonstrate the potential of blending tradition and modernity to achieve a balanced and sustainable future, setting an example for other communities and researchers.
... Additionally, the SDGs have more precise targets and indicators [8]. Among the SDGs is SDG 14 (Life Below Water), which encompasses the conservation of marine life and oceans, with the mission of encouraging the protection of life in the oceans, conserving, and sustainably using the oceans, seas, and marine resources for sustainable development [9]. Like other SDGs, SDG 14 has targets that enable the assessment and monitoring of countries' progress towards the SDGs. ...
The oceans are a source of various essential resources for daily life, such as tourism and fishing. Brazil possesses thousands of kilometers of coastline, enjoying it with various activities such as fishing, tourism, and transportation. The importance of the oceans was highlighted by the United Nations (UN) with the creation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), one of which is dedicated to the oceans, SDG 14 "Life Below Water." However, there are numerous difficulties in achieving a reasonable level of progress in SDG 14 in Brazil, and these difficulties transform into multidisciplinary barriers. To overcome these difficulties, a methodology for identifying and prioritizing barriers that hinder the progress of SDG 14 in Brazil is presented. Through an extensive literature review, the barriers were identified and divided into three distinct categories: "Technical and environmental," "Policy and management," and "Socioeconomic." The methods fuzzy-DELPHI, Borda Method, Hesitant Fuzzy Sets (HFS), and Step-wise Weight Assessment Ratio Analysis (SWARA) were used to the prioritization of the barriers. The results indicated that the most important category is Policy and Management, with a weight of 43.68 %. The most prominent barrier is the Relaxation of the environmental licensing system for impactful activities (C2.1) with 15.07 % of the weights. Based on the discussion and qualitative analysis of the relationship between the barriers, some solutions were proposed to improve SDG 14 in Brazil. Future research can benefit from the methodology by applying it to new contexts. Finally, additional studies can focus on the impact of the proposed actions, as well as monitor and track the progress of SDG 14 in Brazil.
... Responsible consumption and production (SDG12), along with Life below water (SDG 14) captured the lowest levels of financing of the goals. The apparent financing gap is particularly striking in the case of protecting the oceans: over the most recent six years of data, SDG14 attracted 1.4 billion dollars, or 0.1 percent of SDG funding compared to the estimated 175 billion annually required (Johansen and Vestvik, 2020 ...
To realize Agenda 2030, aid agencies, private philanthropies, and their partners in the Global South need better data to monitor how official development finance (ODF) dollars advance the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and avoid missing the mark. In this report, we summarize the results of a novel effort to tag and analyze 2.7 million ODF projects between 2010-2021 using machine learning to understand their contributions to the SDG thematic areas at a goal and target level. This time frame is instructive: it compares the last six years of the Millennium Development Goals era and the first six years of the new SDG age, from early optimism to later uncertainty about the resilience of the agenda to drive collective commitments amid unanticipated global shocks..
... Many coastal and developing countries lack the financial and technical resources to implement sustainable ocean management practices effectively (20). ...
The significance of the SDGs lies in their holistic, global and interdisciplinary nature. But this nature at the same time poses significant challenges, as it is difficult to bridge the environmental with the socioeconomic aspects of SDGs, in theory, practical application and policymaking. SDG14 on "life below water" consists of these aspects, as it refers to a natural/environmental system, supporting several economic activities and values, and associated with strong social and cultural characteristics. The main challenges for the achievement of a sustainable life below water are analyzed, and ways forward are discussed. Holistic and well-coordinated approaches based on systems thinking are necessary. Moreover, we argue on the role of environmental economics, as tools that can bridge environmental and socioeconomic aspects, towards more accurate and insightful sustainability reporting. In particular, the potential of environmental valuation as a means to better inform SDG policies, is discussed, using the example of SDG14. The currently established frameworks for Country's Sustainability Reporting, lack metrics focusing on the economic impact of the environment and the ecosystem services' degradation or restoration rates, including ocean and marine ecosystems. Acknowledging and quantifying the costs and the benefits of ocean and marine ecosystems can lead to more effective interventions (ocean pollution prevention, climate change mitigation, fishing exploitation, biodiversity and coral reefs preservation), and to a better understanding of the human-environmental dynamics strengthening thus coordinated management and cooperation.
... Currently, US$174.52 billion per year is needed to conserve our oceans (Johansen & Vestvik, 2020). Whilst the average cost to restore 1 ha of marine coastal habitat is US$1,600,000 (Elisa et al., 2016), the real total costs are likely to be two-to-four times higher, principally due to high failure rates and the largely unaccounted role of volunteers in most major programmes. ...
Societal Impact Statement
Seagrass meadows are a globally important habitat subject to significant loss. As efforts to restore these sensitive habitats are hampered by their high cost and low levels of reliability, rigorous guidance is required to improve effectiveness and ensure they are cost‐effective. Here, we define 10 golden rules for how we can undertake seagrass restoration. We do this by considering that for seagrass restoration to be successful, it needs to take place with people and not against people. The framework we present aims to direct efforts for seagrass restoration that are holistic and achieve broad goals for people, biodiversity and the planet.
Summary
The world has lost a significant proportion of its seagrass, and although glimmers of hope for its recovery exist, losses and degradations continue. First and foremost, evidence highlights the need to put the world on a global pathway to seagrass net gain. Achieving this outcome requires that conservation of what remains is a priority, but reaching net gain requires seagrass coverage to increase at rates unlikely to be achieved naturally; large‐scale active restoration is required to fill this gap. Novel finance mechanisms aligned to the climate emergency and biodiversity crises are increasingly leading to larger scale restoration projects. However, no clear framework exists for developing or prioritising approaches. With seagrass restoration expensive and unreliable, rigorous guidance is required to improve effectiveness and ensure it is cost‐effective. Building on evidence from terrestrial and marine sources, here, we apply the ‘10 golden rules’ concept, first outlined for reforestation and later applied to coral reefs, to seagrass restoration. In doing so, we follow international standards for ecological restoration and view seagrass restoration in a broad context, whereby regeneration can be achieved either by planting or by enhancing and facilitating natural recovery. These rules somewhat differ from those on reforestation and coral reef restoration, principally due to the relative immaturity of seagrass restoration science. These 10 golden rules for seagrass restoration are placed within a coupled social‐ecological systems context, and we present a framework for conservation more broadly, to achieve multiple goals pertaining to people, biodiversity and the planet.
... Currently, US$174.52 billion per year is needed to conserve our oceans (Johansen and Vestvik, 2020). While the average cost to restore 1 ha of marine coastal habitat is US$1,600,000 (Elisa et al., 2016), the real total costs are likely to be two-to-four times higher. ...
It is unequivocal that the world has lost a significant proportion of its seagrass, and although glimmers of hope exist, losses continue with many ongoing negative trajectories. First and foremost, we need to put the world on a global pathway to seagrass net gain. Conservation of what remains must be a priority, but we need to increase coverage at rates unlikely to be achieved naturally; large-scale active restoration is required to fill this gap. Novel finance mechanisms aligned to the climate emergency and biodiversity crises are increasingly leading to larger-scale restoration projects. However, no clear framework exists for developing or prioritising approaches. With seagrass restoration expensive and unreliable, rigorous guidance is required to improve effectiveness and ensure it is cost-effective, so that projects can begin to transform whole coastlines. Building on current evidence from both terrestrial and marine sources, here we apply the ‘10 golden rules’ concept, first outlined for reforestation and later applied to coral reefs, to seagrass restoration. In doing so, we follow the International Principles and Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration and view seagrass restoration in a broad context, whereby regeneration can be achieved by either planting or by enhancing and facilitating natural recovery. These rules somewhat differ from those on reforestation and coral reef restoration, principally due to the relative immaturity of seagrass restoration science compared to these comprehensively researched ecosystems. These 10 golden rules for seagrass restoration are placed within a coupled social-ecological systems (SES) context and we present a framework for conservation more broadly, to achieve multiple goals pertaining to people, biodiversity and the planet.
... Assistance, and funding requirements for compliance with SDG 14 and the scope of a sustainable Blue Economy, the Ocean Panel (Stuchtey et al., 2020) carried out cost-benefit analyses for returns on investment, proposing a ratio of 5:1. This same Ocean Panel report based data on the IPCC report (Pörtner et al., 2019) ODA? Need of 174 billion USD per year (Johansen et al. 2020) Bene t/cost ratio: > 5:1 (Stuchtey et al. 2020) BE GDP: 1.5-6 trillions USD per year (CITI, 2023) RBE GDP? value of OCEAN Assets Figure 15). Regional socio-economic and environmental analyses of policies and instruments to implement the Blue Economy at the country or regional level: Bond, 2019;Wenhai et al., 2019;Okafor-Yarwood et al., 2020;Benzaken et al., 2022;Morgan et al., 2022;Voyer et al., 2022;March et al., 2023;Pouponneau, 2023; ...
I am very happy to announce the release of a new report of the @IUCN in which I directly contributed, Towards a Regenerative Blue Economy.
How do we visualise a “Regenerative” Blue Economy? What does it look like?
In this new report, @IUCN and the two authors (François Simard and myself, Raphaëla le Gouvello) state that through an economic lens, the Regenerative Blue Economy (RBE) would seek robust sustainability, prioritising preservation of blue natural capital. And -that the RBE model would be based on the principles of the ecosystem approach, respecting the rights of nations and coastal communities. Also -that an RBE must be inclusive, advocating for ‘blue justice’, being based on a participatory, transparent, and inclusive governance model.
This new technical report defines and puts down a framework for the #RegenerativeBlueEconomy, laid down by the France-IUCN Partnership, through the support of the Agence Française de Développement (AFD).
In our next steps, we will explore the aquaculture sector through this RBE framework, in various emerging countries, following our work on Aquaculture and Nature-based Solutions. We suggest that other sectors of the Blue Economy should also be explored under this RBE lens. In concrete terms, how can we enter the time for an Ocean+ economy, a Regenerative Blue Economy? We need it for the sake of the Ocean and coastal communities, in particular for small islands developing states (SIDS). And we also need if it for the future of our planet.
Thanks to the IUCN team, who helped us in publishing this work.
#RegenerativeBlueEconomy #BlueEconomy #NatureBasedSolutions #Aquaculture #RestorativeAquaculture #SIDS
... Public and private investment in a sustainable blue economy is still insufficient, which has led to a significant finance gap [5]. The World Economic Forum estimates that USD 175 billion of Blue Finance is required annually to achieve Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14: Life Below Water by 2030. ...
The Seychelles blue bond is an innovative finance mechanism that has played a pivotal role in shaping the global landscape of blue bonds. Seychelles leadership in the blue economy sets a significant precedent. However, this precedent has also raised concerns among various stakeholders. This study evaluates of Seychelles’ sovereign blue bond, which was co-developed by the government of Seychelles and the World Bank. Three themes are explored, how the blue bond relates to other actors and donors in the blue economy space of Seychelles; how the blue bond contributes to advancing the national agenda and blue economy of Seychelles; and the key strengths, enablers and weaknesses of the blue bond. A series of considerations for future blue financing and blue bond mechanisms are presented, based on the findings of this study, to ensure that financing extends beyond blue washing and contributes meaningfully to the holistic transition to a sustainable blue economy. Our findings imply significant considerations for stakeholders in sustainable finance, suggesting ways to enhance the efficacy of blue bonds and emphasising the need for further research on their long-term impact and integration with other financial instruments.
... Additionally, it adversely impacts other vital ecosystem services, such as recreation and coastal protection. Global endeavors for Sustainable Development Goal 14 (SDG 14)-Life Below Water-are primarily centered on confronting challenges and enhancing the well-being of the world's oceans, seas, and ma-rine ecosystems [8,9]. The achievement of SDG 14 relies heavily on advancements made in other interconnected goals [10]. ...
The paper contributes to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) targeting Life Below Water by introducing user-friendly modeling approaches. It delves into the impact of abiotic factors on the first two trophic levels within the marine ecosystem, both naturally and due to human influence. Specifically, the study examines the connections between environmental parameters (e.g., temperature, salinity, nutrients) and plankton along the Romanian Black Sea coast during the warm season over a decade. The research develops models to forecast zooplankton proliferation using machine learning (ML) algorithms and gathered data. Water temperature significantly affects copepods and “other groups” of zooplankton densities during the warm season. Conversely, no discernible impact is observed on dinoflagellate Noctiluca scintillans blooms. Salinity fluctuations notably influence typical phytoplankton proliferation, with phosphate concentrations primarily driving widespread blooms. The study explores two scenarios for forecasting zooplankton growth: Business as Usual, predicting modest increases in temperature, salinity, and constant nutrient levels, and the Mild scenario, projecting substantial temperature and salinity increases alongside significant nutrient decrease by 2042. The findings underscore high densities of Noctiluca scintillans under both scenarios, particularly pronounced in the second scenario, surpassing the first by around 70%. These findings, indicative of a eutrophic ecosystem, underscore the potential implications of altered abiotic factors on ecosystem health, aligning with SDGs focused on Life Below Water.
... The financial gap needed to meet the Sustainable Development Goals is expected to be several trillion dollars annually, even in developing nations (Johansen and Vestvik, 2020). Significant investments are required to make the switch to a low-carbon economy, and they can only be made with substantial private sector involvement. ...
Green finance is a method of financing that supports investments with a positive impact on the environment, such as the acquisition of eco-friendly goods and services as part of sustainable development or the building of eco-friendly infrastructure. Green finance has started to occupy a very important place in the literature in recent years due to the increasing sensitivity towards the environment. In this literature review, the relations of green finance with fields such as green economy, sustainable development, environmental protection, green manufacturing, and risk assessment have been examined in all aspects with the help of tables and figures. In addition, a bibliometric analysis of green finance studies’ authors, publication sources, institutions, countries, subject areas, document types, and funding sponsors is presented with graphical analyses. The most widely publishing journals in the field of green finance, the most cited studies, conferences in this field, and books published on green finance are presented in tables. Instruments and components of green finance are also reviewed in detail by graphical illustrations.
... Many coastal and developing countries lack the financial and technical resources to implement sustainable ocean management practices effectively [27]. ...
The significance of the SDGs lies in their holistic, global and interdisciplinary nature. But this nature at the same time poses significant challenges, as it is difficult to bridge the breadth of different aspects included in the SDGs, such as the environmental and the socio-economic, both in theory, practical application and policymaking. SDG14 on “life below water” is quite a holistic concept as it refers to a natural/environmental system (seas), supporting several marine economic activities and ecosystem values, and associated with strong social and cultural characteristics of the local populations, affecting the ways they manage marine areas. The main challenges for the achievement of a sustainable life below water are analyzed, and ways forward are discussed. Holistic and well-coordinated approaches considering the complex nature of SDG14 are necessary. Moreover, we argue on the role of economic instruments that can bridge environmental and socio-economic aspects, towards more sustainable life below water. In particular, the potential of environmental valuation as a means to better inform SDG policies, is discussed, using the example of SDG14. The currently established frameworks for Country’s Sustainability Reporting, lack metrics focusing on the economic impact of the environment and the ecosystem services’ degradation or restoration rates, including ocean and marine ecosystems. Acknowledging and quantifying the costs and benefits of ocean and marine ecosystems can lead to more effective interventions (such as ocean pollution prevention, climate change mitigation, fishing exploitation, biodiversity and coral reef preservation) and a better understanding of human-environmental dynamics. This, in turn, strengthens coordinated management and cooperation.
... By applying rather traditional and sector-specific approaches, SDG 14 tends to reproduce a narrow understanding of ocean governance and discourses in which oceans are framed as natural capital, good for business and integral to the economies of Pacific small island developing states and small-scale fishery livelihoods (Silver et al, 2015). Regrettably, this is not the only problem with SDG 14. Scholars have pointed to a lack of engagement with the financial cost of actually implementing SDG 14 (Johansen and vestvik, 2020), social considerations such as labour conditions on vessels (Rudolph et al, 2020;Haward and Haas, 2021) and poverty eradication (Ntona and Morgera, 2018). While these may all be valid points, they tend not to go far enough and fail to unscramble the deeper philosophical and theoretical implications of SDG 14's framing of the ocean. ...
... By applying rather traditional and sector-specific approaches, SDG 14 tends to reproduce a narrow understanding of ocean governance and discourses in which oceans are framed as natural capital, good for business and integral to the economies of Pacific small island developing states and small-scale fishery livelihoods (Silver et al, 2015). Regrettably, this is not the only problem with SDG 14. Scholars have pointed to a lack of engagement with the financial cost of actually implementing SDG 14 (Johansen and vestvik, 2020), social considerations such as labour conditions on vessels (Rudolph et al, 2020;Haward and Haas, 2021) and poverty eradication (Ntona and Morgera, 2018). While these may all be valid points, they tend not to go far enough and fail to unscramble the deeper philosophical and theoretical implications of SDG 14's framing of the ocean. ...
... Human pressures, including climate change, increasingly threaten the health of the global oceans, demanding increases in marine conservation initiatives, which requires more extensive resources and financing. While in 2017 roughly $25.5 billion USD was committed to Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 which relates to conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, (Thompson, 2022;United Nations, 2022), an estimated US$174 billion annually will be required to adequately address the current level of ocean degradation (Johansen and Vestvik, 2020). But ocean financing is complicated, and actionable programs include a suite of political and social implications which will vary by program and by nation. ...
In the face of the threats posed to the oceans by a changing climate, the need for marine conservation programs grows rapidly. Scaling with this need demands sufficient funding to support ambitious conservation projects. This funding must be obtained from increasingly varied and innovative sources since private grants and government allocated funds has proved insufficient. Debt-for-nature swaps are a financial mechanism seeking to improve debt burden while setting up environmental programs. This method of debt restructuring has existed for decades, but is seeing a resurgence of use and interest in recent years. Here we present an exploratory case study of a Seychelles debt-for-nature swap which examines this financial mechanism’s ability to fund impactful conservation projects, particularly in marine Economic Exclusion Zones (EEZ) of Small Island Developing States (SIDS). The Seychelles finalized a conversion of their sovereign debt with Paris Club creditors and The Nature Conservancy as a broker in 2015 with the goal of creating a robust marine spatial plan (MSP). They received notable recognition for multiple novel aspects of this deal as well as the sheer scale of the marine space protected (400,000 sq. km), and thus serves as a robust case study to analyze if debt-for-nature swaps have evolved since its theoretical conception in 1984. Our research favors qualitative data by employing a case study approach which draws on semi-structured interviews with key informants, content analysis of online resources, and a literature review. This research suggests that while the model has yet to be cemented, the Seychelles case study is representative of a coming evolution in debt-for-nature swap practices. By examining the critical governance factors that were employed in the Seychelles, this research reveals key takeaways for future implementation and establishing national candidacy. The findings highlight debt status relative to the economy, political willpower, funding streams utilized, and the use of co-production practices. We show how the Seychelles case study demonstrates marked progress from the historical standard regarding sovereignty concerns and governance, but not concerning timescales and low converted sum. However, we note that this innovative debt-for-nature swap suggests that a new standard is possible and provides a new framework and set of best practices. In doing so, the Seychelles MSP can potentially lead the way for additional marine debt-for-nature swaps.
... SDG 14 will not only be difficult to achieve due to the inequitable sharing of conservation costs but also due to the lack of available funding. A study by Johansen and Vestvik (2020), calculated that "there is a financial gap of US$ 149.02 billion per year" to achieve SDG 14 (p. 1). ...
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14—life below water—significantly elevated global awareness of the importance of the oceans. It is also a key SDG for achieving the other 16 goals and targets. However, the global community is a long way off achieving this goal and serious equity concerns have been raised in the context of SDG 14. This perspective paper provides a summary of the overall progress, or the lack thereof, in achieving SDG 14 and examines some of the obstacles which might undermine the achievement of this goal, such as weak indicators and a lack of recognition of Indigenous and traditional knowledge. This paper also provides recommendations on how countries and stakeholders could take a step closer to achieving SDG 14. Overall, reiterating the calls of global experts, it is imperative that SDG 14 is implemented in an equitable and just way, without further discriminating against developing countries and vulnerable communities.
... Governments have the authority to impose fines on polluting investments. The private sector is more sensitive to losses than equal earnings because they are "economic agents" [100]. Second, the maritime industry is supported by blue bonds, blue loans, and other financial instruments [101]. ...
This article is a case study of the blue finance mechanism (BFM) in China and makes use of evolutionary game theory and numerical simulation to show how the BFM plays a critical role in promoting the sustainable development of China’s marine economy, society, and environment. To ensure the perpetuation of the BFM, it is necessary for the Chinese government to attract private sector investment in the marine sector (PSIMS). By intervening in the BFM, the government can create a more favorable investment environment, which can then lead to greater private sector investment and contribute to the overall sustainability of the ocean. The goal of this article is to create an analytical model based on public finance and government management to examine the efficiency of Chinese governmental involvement in the BFM in order to boost the maritime industry by attracting private sector investment for funding the BFM. The results revealed the following: First, governmental involvement can have significant positive effects in promoting the sustainable development of the BFM in China. Second, the timeliness of governmental intervention in China can affect the private sector’s incentive to invest in the marine sector. Third, the Chinese government’s intervention in subsidizing costs can have significant impacts in engaging the private sectors to expand capital injection into marine investments. The minimization of potential risks of investment in the marine sector is critical to enhancing investor confidence and trust. The early intervention of the Chinese government is therefore crucial. Additionally, to further incentivize PSIMS, the Chinese government must make a concerted effort to increase subsidies and provide non-monetary rewards. This will help achieve sustainable development in the country’s economy, society, and environment.
... Science diplomacy is somewhat particular for ocean affairs: Ocean Science Diplomacy, the interplay between marine science and foreign policy, is characterized by a complex set of conditions and trends, which among others are: The connectedness of systems, the high mobility of resources in the water column and across large areas, a lack of regulatory frameworks, or the unknowns of the deep sea including its seabed. Furthermore, the ocean is becoming a new economic frontier (Jouffray et al. 2020; World Bank; United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs 2017), yet SDG 14 is underfunded (Johansen and Vestvik 2020) and investments in a sustainable Blue Economy are lacking, which will make sustainable use of our oceans nearly impossible (Sumaila et al. 2020). Another emerging market could be seen in "blue carbon", i.e., capitalizing on the ability of the ocean to take up carbon from the atmosphere, with ocean diplomacy becoming part of climate strategies partly as a result (Macreadie et al. 2021). ...
The Leibniz Centre for Tropical Marine Research (ZMT) in Bremen, Germany, has three decades of experience in collaborative research projects in close partnership with institutions in the Global South. With its mission to provide the scientific basis for the sustainable use and management of tropical marine resources, it has a unique position with an applied outlook, aiming for societal impacts, and an inter-and transdisciplinary approach. In this chapter, we use the example of the ZMT to provide insights from the perspective of an institute in the Global North that is focused in its work beyond its national borders, yet acts within its particular national academic and political environment. We provide an overview of the political and institutional background and history of the institute’s establishment and development over the past decades, and describe several of the instruments and key projects the institute uses and has been involved in. We then discuss the implications of ZMT’s mission and outlook for the institute, its partners, and staff, and reflect on the potential future role and approach of the institute in light of a changing international landscape in terms of global challenges, research policy, funding, academic structures, and collaboration.
... The sustainable use of ocean resources is a priority for the blue economies of WIO countries (WIOMSA, 2018). This importance was emphasized at the UN Ocean Conference of 2022, which builds upon the first Ocean Conference of 2017, and mobilised global commitments towards funding and actions for SDG 14. Globally, the progress towards achieving SDG 14 is lagging, compared to other goals (Sturesson et al., 2018;Salvia et al., 2019), and there remains a substantive funding gap ( Johansen and Vestvik, 2020). Despite progress on some of the different targets of SDG 14, none are close to being achieved (United Nations, 2019). ...
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) intend to "achieve a better and more sustainable future for all people in the world" 1. They have become a key driver for policy and decision-making in many regions, including in the Western Indian Ocean (WIO) region. This paper analyses national and regional progress towards achieving SDG 14 in the WIO. Progress of four of the SDG 14 targets that were due in 2020 are analysed. SDG 14 has influenced regional and national policy agendas but current tools to measure this progress fail to provide a detailed picture of achievement towards each target for countries in the WIO. The paper highlights that the region has shown limited success in achieving the targets and SDG 14 targets are unlikely to be reached by 2030. The WIO region lags behind with regard to marine conservation related targets. More than half of the countries have low to average progress on SDG 14.2 on marine areas being covered by area-based management tools. Even more countries are far from achieving the 10 % coverage of marine protected areas under SDG 14.5. The region is performing better with regards to fisheries management targets with most countries classified as making average to good progress towards SDG 14.4 on sustainable stocks and SDG 14.6 on addressing harmful subsidies and IUU fishing. The diversity of the socioeconomic and governance contexts in the WIO countries contributes to different levels of progress. The fairly positive ecological state of the WIO supports progress towards SDG 14. Understanding barriers to progress is fundamental to help with the prioritisation of the actions needed to meet the SDG 14 targets by 2030. Regional actors and policy-makers will need to increase their ambitions to meet the SDG 14 targets and ensure a healthy ocean and improved prospects for the region and its citizens. To account for barriers in progress towards SDG 14, the WIO region needs appropriate reporting and monitoring mechanisms and it should follow a holistic regional approach of ocean governance integrating conservation and sustainable resource use. It needs to build capacity and knowledge sharing for implementation of SDG 14 and ocean governance at various levels. Improved implementation of SDG targets will have social, economic and environmental benefits within the region.
... The successful implementation of this agreement will require investment. Achieving SDG 14 alone by 2030 has been estimated to require resources of US$174.52 billion per year (current annual expenditure is only US $25.5 billion), of which $87.3 billion per year is required to combat marine pollution [135,136]. ...
Assessing three interlinked issues, plastic pollution, climate change and biodiversity loss separately can overlook potential interactions that may lead to positive or negative impacts on global ecosystem processes. Recent studies suggest that threatened species and ecosystems are vulnerable to both plastic pollution and climate change stressors. Here we consider the connectivity and state of knowledge between these three environmental issues with a focus on the Global South. Nine out of top ten Long-Term Climate Risk Index (CRI) (2000–2019) ranked countries are located within the Global South, yet research is focused in the Global North. A literature search for the top ten Long-Term Climate Risk Index (CRI) (2000–2019) ranked countries matched a total of 2416 (3.3% of global publications) search results on climate change, with 56 (4% of the global publications) on plastic pollution, and seven (7.7% of the global publications) on both climate change and plastic pollution. There is a strong correlation between the Global South and high biodiversity hotspots, high food insecurity and low environmental performance. Using Bangladesh as a case study, we show the erosion rates and sea level rise scenarios that will increase ocean-bound plastic pollution and impact high biodiversity areas. Poverty alleviation and promoting renewable energy and green practices can significantly reduce the stress on the environment. We recommend that these connected planetary threats can be best addressed through a holistic and collaborative approach to research, a focus on the Global South, and an ambitious policy agenda.
... If implemented elsewhere such mechanisms could also fund marine protected areas (MPAs), the provision of bycatch reduction technologies or more sustainable fishing gears for communities who otherwise could not afford it, and/or a range of other activities such as beach cleans and habitat restoration (Bladon et al., 2016;Gjertsen et al., 2014;Pakiding et al., 2020;Sykes et al., 2018;Vianna et al., 2018). Since Indonesia hosts an estimated 18 million reefassociated tourists per year, with around 70 million globally (Spalding et al., 2017), at least US$ 180 million (based on a WTP of US$ 10 per person, as the lower-bound of the WTP estimate) could be generated for marine conservation in Indonesia, and over US$ 700 million globally, which could contribute considerably towards financing MPAs and closing marine biodiversity financing gaps (Balmford et al., 2004;Johansen and Vestvik, 2020). Moreover, such investments could not only deliver biodiversity and well-being improvements in SSFs but would help to maintain valuable natural assets upon which marine tourism companies and the blue economy depend. ...
Marine tourism is promoted as a substitute economic activity to unsustainable fishing, which is compatible with conservation. However, benefits of marine tourism do not typically accrue in small-scale fisheries (SSFs), which often bear the costs of conservation; they accrue to tourists and tourist-focussed businesses. We explored how marine tourism levies could operationalise the beneficiary-pays principle and address these cost-benefit inequities using an online contingent valuation (CV) survey to measure international tourists' willingness-to-pay (WTP) towards community-based shark conservation (N = 1033). Levies were widely supported (96%), with median and Turnbull mean WTP of US22.02 per person per day, respectively. We combined these results with data from two marine tourism hotspots in Indonesia – Lombok and Pulau Weh – to explore the feasibility of implementing tourism levies to incentivize pro-conservation behaviour in local SSFs. Our conservative estimates indicate that marine tourism levies in Lombok and Pulau Weh could respectively generate US 300,000–1.3 million annually – several times greater than the estimated costs of conservation incentives in local SSFs. The marine tourism industry offers an under-utilised revenue stream for marine conservation, which could support policy aspirations such as ‘a sustainable and equitable blue economy’.
... Globally, it has been found that SDG 14 is one of the most difficult goals to achieve (Salvia et al., 2019). Despite the critical role of SDG 14, funding and research towards SDG 14 has also been limited (Johansen and Vestvik, 2020). ...
Since the adoption of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals in 2015, the world oceans, to which a specific goal was assigned, have been high on the global agenda. At the national level, the ocean has received increasing consideration, with many coastal states and islands adopting blue economy strategies and frameworks, and putting the ocean at the centre of development. SDG 14: Life Below Water includes ten targets, four of which (14.2, 14.4, 14.5 and 14.6) expired in 2020. This paper presents the state of progress on these four targets that address marine protection and fisheries management. The study is based on an assessment of the indicators established by the United Nations for each target, using publicly available databases allowing to measure the achievement of the targets. The analysis shows that achievement of these four targets is meagre. Only two countries achieved three of the four targets, while no country achieved all four. Most countries were classified as far from achievement or having made low progress. Across the four targets, SDG 14.5 on marine protected areas saw the highest number of achievers but also a high number of countries still far from achievement. Europe and Oceania had the highest number of countries having performed well in terms of achievement while Africa and the Middle East showed the most countries with limited achievement. These results indicate that there is still a long way to go to achieve these four targets in 2030. To move towards achievement, more investment is needed towards priority countries that have seen limited achievement but also some adaptation might be needed in terms of monitoring processes. Finally, it seems useful at this point to reflect on what has been achieved and how countries, especially those facing various socio-economic and political challenges, can fully benefit from current processes towards implementing SDG 14.
... There is a well-known and significant gap between the public funding currently available and the funds that are needed to address the twin challenges of climate change and biodiversity decline [32]. In the UK alone, it has been estimated that it will cost £1.8M to meet Achai biodiversity targets [33], and the cost of reaching net zero GHG emissions by 2050 has been estimated at between £50-70 billion [33]. ...
Ecosystem markets are proliferating around the world in response to increasing demand for climate change mitigation and provision of other public goods. However, this may lead to perverse outcomes, for example where public funding crowds out private investment or different schemes create trade-offs between the ecosystem services they each target. The integration of ecosystem markets could address some of these issues but to date there have been few attempts to do this, and there is limited understanding of either the opportunities or barriers to such integration. This paper reports on a comparative analysis of eleven ecosystem markets in operation or close to market in Europe, based on qualitative analysis of 25 interviews, scheme documentation and two focus groups. Our results indicate three distinct types of markets operating from the regional to national scale, with different modes of operation, funding and outcomes: regional ecosystem markets, national carbon markets and green finance. The typology provides new insights into the operation of ecosystem markets in practice, which may challenge traditionally held notions of Payment for Ecosystem Services. Regional ecosystem markets, in particular, represent a departure from traditional models, by using a risk-based funding model and aggregating both supply and demand to overcome issues of free-riding, ecosystem service trade-offs and land manager engagement. Central to all types of market were trusted intermediaries, brokers and platforms to aggregate supply and demand, build trust and lower transaction costs. The paper outlines six options for blending public and private funding for the provision of ecosystem services and proposes a framework for integrating national carbon markets and green finance with regional ecosystem markets. Such integration may significantly increase funding for regenerative agriculture and conservation across multiple habitats and services, whilst addressing issues of additionality and ecosystem service trade-offs between multiple schemes.
... In the last 10 years, less than 1% of the total value of the ocean has been invested in sustainable projects through philanthropy and official development assistance 329 and SDG 14 ('Life Below Water') remains the least financed goal, both globally and for SIDS and LDCs (Figure 8). While an estimated USD175 billion per year is needed to fund SDG 14 330 , it received just below USD10 billion in total over the period 2015-2019 331 . It is therefore critical to bridge the current finance gap 332 by creating the right enabling environment and enhancing investor confidence. ...
The prospect of a new era of blue growth poses unprecedented sustainability and governance challenges for the ocean, as marine ecosystems face cumulative pressures from local human impacts, global climate change and distal socioeconomic drivers. Driven by increasing consumption patterns, land-based sources decline, and technological progress, the hopes and expectations for the ocean as an engine of future human development are increasing and have become ubiquitous. Consequently, the prospect of a new era of blue growth is increasingly finding its way into policy documents and depicting the marine realm as the next economic frontier, resulting in considerable investments and the emergence of new ocean-based industries with a diversity of interests.This new phase in humanity’s use of the ocean, dubbed the “Blue Acceleration”, exhibits a phenomenal rate of change over the last 30 years, with a sharp acceleration characterising the onset of the 21st century, in stark contrast to the slow pace at which new policy is being developed. With two-thirds of the ocean lying beyond national jurisdiction and a fragmented ocean governance landscape, this poses great challenges and calls for a rapid transformation towards improved sustainability. But this scramble for the seas also poses issues of equity and benefit sharing: if there is a rush for the ocean, then who is winning? And who is being left behind?
Through a synthesis of peer-reviewed and grey literature, empirical data, and case studies from SIDS and LDCs, this report describes ut this show issues of equity and benefit sharing are playing out in the Blue Acceleration, highlights how SIDS and LDCs are at particular risk to stranded assets, and explores the role that finance, public or private, can play in assisting transformation towards an equitable and sustainable Blue economy.
... Actions should be ecosystem-based and should be coordinated holistically on a larger scale (Gjerde and Vierros, 2021). While the achievement of the UN SDG 14 has been estimated to be costly (Johansen and Vestvik, 2020), it is unfortunate that some of that largest challenges related to the ocean (such as loss of biodiversity) is to be found in the EEZ of developing states, of which many are highly reliant on the ocean to sustain livelihoods (Techera and Appadoo, 2019). This further emphasizes the importance of having a global and holistically coordinated effort, for which MSP could be a helpful tool. ...
Ecosystems all over the world are under increasing pressure from human uses. The UN Sustainable Development Goal 14 (UN SDG 14) seeks to ensure sustainability below water by 2020; however, the ongoing biodiversity loss and habitat deterioration challenge the achievement of this goal. Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) is a developing practice with a similar objective to the UN SDG 14, albeit research shows that most MSP cases prioritize economic objectives above environmental objectives. This paper presents an assessment of how MSP can contribute to achieving the UN SDG 14. Results are presented in three steps. First, a representative definition of MSP is presented. Secondly, activities that can be addressed through MSP are laid out. Lastly, results are used to assess how MSP can contribute to the achievement of the UN SDG 14 targets and indicators. This assessment shows great potential for MSP to play a role in the achievement of the UN SDG 14.
... Looking ahead, costs to expand terrestrial area-based conservation by 30% range around US$100 billion per year (certainly a minimal estimate; Dinerstein et al. 2019). Marine protected areas may require an additional US$174.2 billion per year to 2030 (Johansen and Vestvik 2020). We also know that lands outside formally protected areas will play pivotal roles in post-2020 conservation, but there are no cost estimates specific to embedding biodiversity protection within management of these areas. ...
Accelerating declines in biodiversity and unmet targets in the Convention on Biological Diversity's 2010–2020 Strategic Plan for Biodiversity are stimulating widespread calls for transformative change. Such change includes societal transitions toward sustainability, as well as in specific content of the CBD's draft Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework. We summarize research on transformative change and its links to biodiversity conservation, and discuss how it may influence the work of the CBD. We identify five steps to inject transformative change into the design and implementation of a new post-2020 framework: Pay attention to lessons learned from transitions research, plan for climate change, reframe area-based conservation, scale up biodiversity mainstreaming, and increase resources. These actions will transform the very nature of work under the CBD; a convention based on voluntary implementation by countries and facilitated by international administrators and experts must now accommodate a broader range of participants including businesses, Indigenous peoples, and multiple nonstate actors.
Microbial fouling poses significant challenges in healthcare and maritime industries and impacts more significantly on human health with the spread of drug‐resistant bacteria. Mechanical biocidal strategies using nano‐scale structures have emerged as a promising antimicrobial approach over the past decade. However, the durability and structural requirements for optimal biocidal performance remain unexplored. Herein, a rationally designed mechano‐photocatalytic antimicrobial strategy is reported by systematically optimizing inorganic nanowire (NW) architectures. It is demonstrated that close‐packed NWs with diameters less than 100 nm achieve high mechanical biocidal efficiency. The synergistic mechano‐photocatalytic approach eliminates >99% of bacteria within 30 mins and inhibits >94% of marine algal fouling. The fabricated NWs exhibit robust durability, retaining 80% bactericidal efficacy through repeated fouling cycles. Even without photocatalytic activation, mechanical disruption alone inactivates >90% of bacteria and prevents >70% of algal attachment. Intriguingly, ultraviolet photostimulation unexpectedly stimulates marine algal growth without the photoactive NWs, contrasting sharply with its inhibitory effect on pathogenic bacteria. These findings advance the rational design of durable mechano‐photocatalytic nano‐architectures, emphasizing their dual‐action antimicrobial potential. The work underscores the viability of inorganic nanostructures in combating microbial fouling across diverse environments, from medical settings to marine infrastructure, while addressing critical gaps in durability for real‐world applications.
The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) proposed by the United Nations (UN) have become a global mission and task. However, with the SDG process now halfway through, the evaluation of SDG 14 has yet to be initiated. The study presents an evaluation system based on Pressure-State-Response and SDG 14, which evaluated the trend and spatial characteristics of CMSD in China from 2012 to 2021. In addition, the investigation
estimated the scores of SDG 14 targets for 11 coastal provinces and analyses the synergies and trade-offs among SDG 14 targets. Finally, the trajectories of the CMSD and SDG 14 targets were simulated for different future scenarios. The main findings are as follows: 1) CMSD increased by 3.24 % from 2012 to 2021, accompanied by a decline in Response subsystem and an increase in both Pressure and State subsystems. 2) CMSD exhibited improvement in Zhejiang, Guangdong, and Hainan Provinces, while the most significant decline was observed in
Liaoning Province. All coastal provinces in China were dominated by the subsystem of Pressure subsystem. 3) In terms of the scores of SDG 14’s targets, the largest gap was found in the scores of SDG 14.5 which indicates that there are significant differences in the development of MPAs in different coastal provinces; and the smallest gap was found in SDG 14.1, which demonstrates their general concern for marine pollution management and reduction of pollution discharges in coastal areas. 4) The synergy-tradeoff analysis of the SDG 14 targets reveals four pairs that have consistently maintained synergy at the 5 % significance level, while only one pair has maintained trade-offs at the 5 % significance level. 5) The results of the scenario simulation suggest that SDG 14.2 and SDG 14.4 should follow the Management Strengthening Pathway, while other targets performed better under the Green Development Pathway. This study conducts a marine sustainable development assessment using China as a case study. It not only clarifies the development status of SDG 14 targets at both the national and
regional levels in China but also offers valuable insights for international efforts to evaluate SDG 14.
In the recent past, mangrove ecosystems have undergone significant transformation, necessitating precise classification, the assessment of ecological changes, and the identification of suitable sites for urgent replantation. Therefore, this study aims to address three key objectives: first, to map the current extent of mangroves; second, to assess the ecological changes within these ecosystems; and third, to identify suitable areas for replantation, ensuring their sustainability across coastal Asir. The mangrove classification was conducted using an ensemble of machine learning models, utilizing the key spectral indices from Landsat 8 data for 2023. To analyze the ecological trends and to assess the changes over time, Landsat 5–8 data from 1991 to 2023 were used. Finally, a generalized additive model (GAM) identified the areas suitable for reforestation. The EC identified the mangrove area as 14.69 sq. km, with a 95.6% F1 score, 91.3% OA, and a KC of 0.83. The trends in the NDVI and LST increased (p = 0.029, 0.049), whereas the NDWI showed no significant change (p = 0.186). The GAM model demonstrated a strong fit (with an adjusted R² of 0.89) and high predictive accuracy (R² = 0.91) for mangrove priority reforestation suitability, confirmed by a 10-fold cross-validation and minimal bias in the residual diagnostics. The suitability varied across groups, with Group (e) showing the highest suitability at 77%. Moran’s I analysis revealed significant spatial clustering. This study provides actionable insights for mangrove reforestation, supporting the for sustainable development through targeted efforts that enhance ecological resilience in coastal regions.
This paper uses time-frequency domain techniques to study the dynamic spillover relationship among oil price, climate risk, sustainable development, and US dollar in an era of global conflict. The findings demonstrate a high overall spillover level, indicating that the risk transmission is prone to occur among the variables. The dynamic investigation indicates that the spillover influence is thus frequency-dependent and higher at high frequencies. The findings of the net dynamic spillover reveal that geopolitical risk has a certain degree of spillover risk to other variables, and the majority of this risk transmission occurs in the near run. In addition, oil prices and sustainable development are major net recipients of the US dollar, playing an important role in preventing inflation risks. This study makes a more comprehensive and systematic discussion of geopolitical risks. It presents different risk impacts on crude oil markets, climate policy making, sustainable development, and US dollar on multiple time scales. These conclusions can prevent and resolve the cessation of climate cooperation and oil price shocks induced by geopolitical risks, and provide valuable enlightenment for realizing sustainable development. Countries should attach importance to the multi-faceted impact of geopolitical risks, pay more consideration to the global environment for oil and climate policy, and jointly contribute to sustainable development.
The loss of biodiversity and climate change are frequently mentioned as two of the greatest hazards confronting mankind today. The built environment should lead the fight against climate change towards a low carbon and sustainable future by playing a significant part in enhancing ecological values since the sector has been identified as a key factor of biodiversity loss. Biodiversity loss and climate change are often cited as two of the greatest risks facing the world today, but the relative attention and action they have both received in recent times are vastly different. The chapter examines the role of biodiversity conservation in the built environment towards the realisation of the sustainable development goals. A biodiverse built environment with trees, forests, and green spaces have been increasingly recognised as important components of more liveable, healthy, and resilient cities. Biodiversity should be integrated into the planning, management and the legislation process of our cities and key infrastructure delivery.
Global environmental outcomes, productivity, inclusion, and equality aspects are already beginning to be impacted by artificial intelligence (AI), both immediately and over time. AI is expected to have both beneficial and detrimental effects on Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Nevertheless, there is a lacuna in the literature regarding systematically forecasting `AI's impact on different facets of SDGs over time in various countries. Moreover, though existing literature has reported a correlation between AI and innovation, no prior studies have forecast the influence of AI-based innovation on SDG Outcomes. To fill these significant research gaps, this study forecasts the impact of AI-based innovation on achieving SDGs over nine years, extending from 2022 to 2030 in 22 countries (including both developed and developing countries) across five continents via system dynamics modeling-based simulation and grounded in Institutional Theory (Technology Enactment Framework). The findings exhibit varying impacts on different SDGs. This study enriches the AI, innovation, and sustainable development literature by providing forecasts of the intricate relationship between AI, innovation, and SDGs, thereby offering valuable insights to the reader.
Le 3 mars 2023 se sont conclues les négociations relatives au troisième accord d'application de la Convention des Nations unies sur le droit de la mer, dite de Montego Bay, dont l'objet est la protection de la biodiversité en haute mer et l'encadrement des activités qui se déploient dans cet espace. Cet accord dit BBNJ ( Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction ) a été formellement adopté le 9 juin suivant par consensus, et doit maintenant être signé et ratifié par les futurs États parties. Se fondant sur la classification développée par Elinor Ostrom faisant de la haute mer et des ressources biologiques qu'elle contient des common-pool resources (biens communs), cet article a pour objet d'analyser les conséquences de l'adoption de ce traité en matière de gouvernance d'un bien commun dont l'exploitation a vocation à produire une ressource financière encore difficilement quantifiable. Classification JEL : D07, F64, H04, Q01, Q56.
The major goal of this research is to perform a thorough examination of Malaysia's present legislative and regulatory framework governing seabed mining. This report includes a comprehensive review of pertinent legislation, regulations, policies, and international agreements. The analysis indicates a significant challenge: Malaysia lacks specialized laws addressing seabed mining. To rectify this gap and ensure the sustainable management of potential seabed mining activities, it is recommended that Malaysia establish a comprehensive and clear legal framework dedicated solely to seabed mining. Despite not having ventured into seabed mining activities yet, having a specialised legal framework in place would enable effective monitoring both nationally and internationally. This proactive step would be instrumental in facilitating responsible and sustainable management of any future seabed mining endeavours in Malaysia. The absence of dedicated legislation is a significant concern, particularly as seabed mining gains global attention. Malaysia's proactive response would involve formulating a regulatory structure that aligns with international best practices. By enacting specialised legislation, Malaysia would be better prepared to address the complexities of seabed mining, should the country choose to explore this domain in the future. Implementing a dedicated legal framework demonstrates foresight and responsibility. It ensures that any potential seabed mining activities are conducted with rigorous adherence to environmental standards, minimising ecological impact. Additionally, such legislation would promote transparency and accountability, bolstering Malaysia's reputation as a conscientious participant in international maritime endeavours. In essence, the study's recommendation underlines the importance of bridging the legal gap in Malaysia's seabed mining landscape. Establishing a tailor-made legal framework would
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serve as a vital instrument for shaping Malaysia's prospective engagement in seabed mining. It would set the stage for a sustainable and ethically sound approach, aligning with global conservation efforts while safeguarding the nation's interests. By proactively addressing the regulatory void, Malaysia positions itself as a responsible steward of its marine resources and reinforces its commitment to a balanced and progressive maritime future.
Attaining an equitable Blue Economy requires reconsidering historical extractive usages of natural ocean capital in favor of more sustainable activities. Scuba diving is an expanding industry, and several examples illustrate how the diving sector has assisted with transitions to sustainable economic activities. In certain countries diving tourism generates revenues comparable with fishing industries, yet the sector remains underrepresented within marine conservation efforts. Therefore, we present five actions tailored to enhance the diving sector’s participation in the Blue Economy: i) Organize the fragmented sector via international associations and federations; ii) Recognize usage rights for natural capital equal to extractive activities; iii) Modernize the sector using technology to improve connectivity and data sharing; iv) Invest in the sector by engaging private and public funding and subsidizing critical infrastructure to enable equitable access; v) Foster a sense of community by training and supporting local leaders, thereby ensuring more equitable participation by including women, indigenous people, and the youth. Diving represents one of the only endeavors that enables citizens to actively support the Blue Economy and help to achieve the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 14, “Life Below Water”; therefore, the diving sector is uniquely poised to help address conservation goals and sustainable development.
Ecosystem-based fisheries management (EBFM) calls for adequate indicators to measure and support its performance of achieving optimal integrated social, environmental, and economic outcomes. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially SDG 14, Target 14.7 and Indicator 14.7.1, are expected to contribute to EBFM with their multidimensional measurability, international comparability, and emphasis on inclusiveness. However, this article finds that there are two substantial challenges of using SDG Indicator 14.7.1 for EBFM. The first is the ambiguity of what this indicator exactly measures due to its dual-dimensionality and missing details of definitions and measurements. The second challenge is the data gap as a result of disparity in statistical capacity across countries. Further reasons for these two challenges include insufficient statistical considerations in the development of the SDGs due to strong political influences, the under-representation of small island developing states and least developed countries, and also the difficulty in encompassing different aspects of EBFM in one indicator. A number of practical implications to improve the use of SDG Indicator 14.7.1 for EBFM are generated. In particular, it is recommended to further clarify the exact definitions and measurements of SDG Indicator 14.7.1 and enhance the national statistical capacity to produce data for this indicator and use it for EBFM.
The number of research papers published by three countries from Asia, Singapore, Malaysia, and Sri Lanka as per the SCOPUS database has been considered as an indicator of their research output. The countries have similar periods of a modern research career. The backwardness of the developing world, known as the South, has been detailed with examples taken from the number of scientific papers published by several other countries as well. Science, technology and innovation (STI) diplomacy has been highlighted as the way of gaining scientific recognition for the countries in the South by boosting their outputs through regional and international collaboration. The sooner the South promotes STI diplomacy among its scientific and technocratic communities the greater the opportunities that it gets in reaching the heights of the scientific world. Based on the analysis, five important procedures that a government of a developing country should adopt, have been proposed. This paper will be an eye-opener for relevant government officials to pay extra attention to boosting STI diplomacy so that each country could achieve pre-determined scientific goals collectively and individually in an efficient manner.
Increased interests in oceans for food, energy, transportation, recreation, and other economic activities over the time have put pressure on ocean ecosystems. These economic activities are also amplifying the threat of climate change, loss of ocean biodiversity, and pollution. Oceans play an important role in many countries’ GDP and employment generation. The need for better ocean governance for ocean usage has widely been recognized in recent years for their sustainability and is also included in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. For this purpose, an integrated ocean management approach is the key for sustainable and resilient ocean ecosystems.
Amid funding shortfalls to address ongoing ocean degradation, blue bonds are being designed to finance sustainable development and conservation projects in ocean and coastal areas via private sector investment. Blue bonds seek to deliver both positive environmental and/or social impact alongside a financial return on investment to investors. However, there has been limited academic scrutiny of these early initiatives to evaluate whether this rhetoric is justified. This article leverages 15-years of scholarship on green bonds to develop an analytical framework that is applied to five of the world’s first blue bonds. A comprehensive content analysis of sources such as blue bond project documents and secondary interviews is used to synthesise their characteristics, and consider trends related to their thematic scope, geographical scope, environmental impacts, and financial returns. Thematically, blue bond proceeds are channelled towards projects aligned with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 ‘Life Below Water’, the Blue Economy, and policy discourse around the ‘blue recovery’ from covid-19. These projects range from marine protected area (MPA) creation, to improved fisheries management, and potentially, oil and gas exploration. However, greater explanation of the logic through which project activities are expected to deliver impact and returns is warranted. Equally, impact measurement is often underwhelming, with many bonds targeting easy-to-measure outputs (e.g., area conserved) rather than outcomes and impacts (e.g., increases in fish abundance). While an alluring and useful financial innovation, greater disclosure on the individual projects and enterprises that blue bonds finance is necessary to validate their sustainability credentials and inform investor decision making.
The book has been a culmination of joint efforts and initiatives by Konrad Adeanuer Stiftung India office, The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), National Maritime Foundation (NMF) and Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) to nurture and encourage a holistic discourse on Blue economy in India. FICCI, NMF and TERI with the partnership of KAS India collaborated to bring together eminent voices and thinkers on blue economy with six webinars and a hybrid national conference focusing on establishing synergies, a multidisciplinary approach and augmenting discussions for a cohesive perspective on blue economy. The focus of the book has been to build a collective dialogue on the three pillars of blue economy – maritime security, economic growth and sustainable development.
The book has several chapters written by different experts from varied facets of blue economy. As the Editor and Coordinator of the Book, I am immensely thankful to all authors for their contributions.
Marine tourism is promoted as a substitute economic activity to unsustainable fishing, which is compatible with conservation. However, benefits of marine tourism do not typically accrue in small-scale fisheries (SSFs), which often bear the costs of conservation; they accrue to tourists and to tourist-focussed businesses. We explored how marine tourism levies could operationalise the beneficiary-pays principle and address these cost-benefit inequities using an online contingent valuation (CV) survey to measure international tourists’ willingness-to-pay (WTP) towards community-based shark conservation (N = 1,033). Levies were widely supported (96%), with a median and Turnbull mean WTP of US22.02 per person per day, respectively. We combined these results with field data from two marine tourism hotspots in Indonesia – Lombok and Pulau Weh - to explore the feasibility of implementing tourism levies to incentivise pro-conservation behaviour in local SSFs. Our conservative estimates indicate that conservation levies in Lombok and Pulau Weh could respectively generate US 300,000 – 1.3 million annually – several times greater than the estimated costs of conservation incentives in local SSFs. The marine tourism industry offers an under-utilised revenue stream for marine conservation, which could support policy aspirations such as ‘a sustainable and equitable blue economy’.
The issue of potentially polluting wrecks is relatively unstudied in the UK despite the potential threat presented by hundreds of shipwrecks in UK waters that contain oil, chemicals and other hazardous materials. As these wrecks degrade they will inevitably release their cargoes and fuel stores into the marine environment.
While there have been studies elsewhere that examine the risk from polluting shipwrecks, the limited work that has been undertaken on this topic in the UK is restricted to a number of government commissioned reports. These have attempted to quantify and risk assess the shipwrecks that pose a pollution threat in UK waters in order to inform ongoing management of these shipwrecks. However, there remain significant uncertainties about the nature of the threat from polluting shipwrecks in the UK. The existing studies also fail to take into account social and political influences that affect wreck management.
This research therefore critically examines the state of research and the current management of polluting shipwrecks in the UK. It does this through examination of the legal requirements to remediate wrecks and to determine who is responsible for managing these shipwrecks. It presents a critical analysis of the existing risk assessments, wreck databases and the data that underpins them to reveal the high level of uncertainty in existing studies. Finally it demonstrates that through spatial assessment of open source socio-economic datasets we can determine with more certainty the potential consequences of wreck pollution and its impacts on the UK.
The results of this research highlight issues relating to data availability and reliability which limits our ability to adequately risk assess and make decisions to pro-actively manage these wrecks. This research provides an alternative method for prioritising mitigation measures based on the spatial analysis of the socio-economic impact of wreck pollution rather than through traditional risk assessment. This allows us to examine these wrecks in a new manner and to make decisions despite high levels of uncertainty. It also allows for greater stakeholder engagement and integration into the management process. Ultimately this research presents the first holistic assessment of the management of potentially polluting wrecks in the UK.
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