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Population Status and Resin Quality of Frankincense Boswellia neglecta (Burseraceae) Growing in South Omo, Southwestern Ethiopia
Abstract
A study was conducted in South Omo Zone, Ethiopia with the aim of assessing the population status of the frankincense tree Boswellia neglecta and investigating its resin essential oil chemical composition. The status of populations of B. neglecta was assessed by examining the density, abundance, frequency, dominance, importance value index, and population structure. Resin sample was analyzed for the physicochemical properties. The composition of the essential oil was analyzed with Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. The high values of density, abundance, frequency, dominance, and importance value index for B. neglecta showed the potential of the tree for bulk resin collection. Boswellia neglecta had a bell-shaped diameter distribution indicating a hampered regeneration. The B. neglecta resin had a moisture content of 2.68%, ash content of 0.99%, pH of 5.7, and oil yield of 5.92%. The resin possessed good quality as compared to resins in other reports. The essential oil was optically active (−31.6° at 23.2°C). The essential oil contained several compounds, but 71.1% of the composition were formed mainly from methyl oleate, methyl linoleate, methyl palmitate, which have not been reported from B. neglecta. Sustainable management must be enacted since the agro-pastoralist mode of life hinders regeneration of the species and its resin resources.
... Hence, sale of gum-resin is the third livelihood option for the households next to sale of crops and honey. e findings obtained from this study on the sale of gum-resin agreed with what [10,[29][30][31] reported from Liban, Southeast Ethiopia, and Hamer and Bena-Tsemay district, Southwestern Ethiopia, respectively. Similarly, like societies in South Omo, societies living in the lowland parts of Tigray [32] and Amhara, North Gondar Zone [33], produce gum-resins for both home consumption and sale. ...
... is observation was in line with the reports of [34] that children and women are the main actors for the collection and selling of gum-resin products in Tigray region. Moreover, numerous studies from different parts of Ethiopia [29,31,[35][36][37] reported gum-resin production and/or extraction as local income source in woodland forest areas of Ethiopia. e estimated average annual income of gum-resin (5670 and 4571 ETB at Bena-Tsemay and Hamer study sites, respectively) was comparable to that from the natural gum-resin bearing species in Ethiopia [2,29,35] with mean annual income of Borana, Metema, and Somali study sites, respectively. ...
The social, economic, and ecological role of woodlands forests in dry and lowland areas are more imperative than anywhere else. Most of the dry lands of Ethiopia host woodlands that produce various commercial gum-resin products. The objective of this study was to investigate the social and economic importance of commercial gum-resin products focusing on their roles in the local livelihoods. Four kebeles, namely, Luka and Enchete from Bena-Tsemay district, and Erbore and Asele from Hamer district of South Omo Zone, were purposively selected for the collection of socioeconomic data. Semistructured questionnaire and checklists were used for households and key informant interviews and focus group discussions, respectively. In addition, market assessments and field observation were conducted to collect the primary data and supplemented with secondary data. A total of 80 households were randomly selected for one-to-one interviews from the total number of 425 households in the selected kebeles. A total of 10 key informant interviews with elders, forestry experts, local merchants, and enterprise members involved in gum-resins marketing and 4 focus group discussions with 12 members including men, women, and youth were conducted. Simple descriptive statistical tools were used for the data analysis. The results of the study showed that the mean annual income earned from the sale of gum-resins was 5670 and 4571 ETB per household at Bena-Tsemay and Hamer study sites, respectively. About 84% of the respondents indicated that gum-resin collection was the simplest and fastest means to earn income for school children and women. Gum and resin collection was the third most important livelihood option in the study area following animal husbandry and crop and honey production. The majority (84%) of respondents recognized the income made from gum-resin products as a safety net during recurring famine eras. Moreover, respondents recognized the benefit of gum arabic as food during famine time, as chewing gum, and as nutritious fodder. It was also used as folk medicine for both human and livestock diseases. Communities used this resource as a constituent to treat eye and skin infections, bleeding, wounds, ulcers, stomachache, gastrointestinal infections, etc. In addition, 88.33% of shrubs/trees were used as source of cash income for local communities and 11.67% as fodder for animal husbandry. Despite this significance, various constraints hindered the utilization of the resource in the study area, and these included lack of appropriate tapping techniques, market access, market information, cooperatives, infrastructure facilities, and appropriate institutions as well as poor local communities’ awareness of land management. The present investigation has provided valuable information for overcoming the major constraints by devising strategies to maximize gum-resin production and commercialization in the study area.
1. Introduction
Woodlands and forest’s social, economic, and biological role in both dry and lowland areas are more imperative than in any rangelands. Agroforestry parklands and trees/shrubs outside forests play decisive roles in the livelihood of societies in Africa’s woodlands [1]. For Ethiopia, there are many social, economic, ecological, and political details to enact sustainable management of its woodland forests. For example, processed and/or value-added commercialization of gum-resins produced from woodland forests would give access to extra income for the arid and/or woodland prone communities, in addition to the regional and national economy at large [2]. Discussion on the significance of woodlands and dry forests is highly dependent on lessons from the moist tropics, with scanty information on woodlands that cover large areas and host hundreds of millions of Africans [1, 3, 4]. Current studies reveal that development towards combination of woodland forests has been hindered partly by a lack of practically based information on their socioeconomic significance [1, 5].
About 75% of the Ethiopian total land mass was represented by dryland forests [6], which host woodlands that produce various commercial gum-resin products [2]. An annual production potential of 270,000 tons of gum-resins from more than 3.5 million hectares of woodlands and bushlands was estimated in Ethiopia [5]. Gum-resins are the most widely used and traded nontimber forest products (NTFPs) other than items consumed directly as food, fodder, and medicine [7]. They are important for various purposes in consumer goods such as detergents, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, perfumes, sweet food products, soft drinks, hard drinks, and insecticides [8].
In addition, as stated by [9], gum-resins are used in indigenous medicines for the management of different ailments such as wounds, arthritis, fractures, obesity, parasitic infection, and gastrointestinal diseases. Income at household level is significant. For example, the estimated income from gum-resin business is threefold higher than the contributions of crops [10]. Consequently, the economic importance of these resources as a government source of valuable foreign currency has been widely realized in Ethiopia [11]. Employment opportunities have also been generated throughout the year; for instance, Boswellia products subsector recruits several employees for activities such as tapping and collection, transportation, processing, marketing, and guarding of storage facilities [12]. Additionally, production of NTFPs helps to promote a better consolidation of dry woodlands and, thus, improves economic enhancement along with ecological maintenance [2].
Despite the increasing realization of the social, economic, cultural, environmental, and other roles of gum-resin products worldwide, their critical significance has not been yet recognized and acknowledged generally in the country and specifically in South Omo Zone, South Ethiopia. This is due to, as stated by [13], the absence of information on the social, economic, and cultural importance. Communities in the study area pursue a pastoralist style of life strategy, whose sources of income are mainly relying on livestock rearing and crop and natural honey production [14]. Drought is one of the major reasons for natural resource degradation. For example, as stated by [15], compositions of gum-resin bearing species are facing challenges of degradation due to recurrent droughts, thereby leading to a decline in productivity. In addition, fuel wood collection and charcoal making are considered as alternative income sources especially for those who live around rural towns. This action led to minimizing the gum-resin productivity and loss of genetic diversity of the species [16]. Thus, the development of sustainable management options for this dry land resource is required for the benefit of local communities in particular and national and international communities in general.
The socioeconomic significance through value-added commercialization of gum-resins is considered as the basis for sustainable production and marketing of the products. Therefore, this study aims to assess the social and economic role of gum-resin products and identify main constraints on the production, marketing, and/or commercialization of gum-resin products in the woodlands of South Omo Zone, Southern Ethiopia.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area Description
This study was carried out in semiarid woodlands of Bena-Tsemay and Hamer districts of South Omo Zone, located in Southwestern parts of Ethiopia. The zone is unique in that it comprises 16 distinct ethnic groups within 8 districts of the zone in the country and is known as the heart of cultural diversity. The study area is geographically located between 36°09′25″E and 37°04′12″E longitude and 4°30′18″N and 5°44′06″N latitude (Figure 1). The total population of the study districts is 62,362 and 59,572, inhabiting 3754 km² and 5742 km² of total area of Bena-Tsemay and Hamer districts, respectively. The elevation of the area ranges between 371 and 2084 m.a.s.l in Bena-Tsemay and Hamer districts, respectively [14, 17]. The districts have a bimodal rainfall pattern with an average annual rainfall of 1400 mm and 764 mm in Bena-Tsemay and Hamer districts, respectively [17, 18]. The annual average minimum and maximum temperatures are in the range of 16°C–27°C and 40°C-41°C for Bena-Tsemay and Hamer districts, respectively [19]. Eutric Fluvisols are the dominant soil types in grasslands while Eutric and Chromic Cambisols are dominant in mountains areas [20].
... While Albizia schimpernia, Albizia amara, Acacia seyal, Calpurnia aurea, Grewia ferrugineae, Acacia nilotica, Acacia Senegal, Combretum aculeatum, Acacia seiberiana, Acacia albidia, Boswelia papyrifera and Diospyros abyssinica were bell-shaped structure ( Figure 4). The bellshaped diameter distribution indicates that the species' regeneration is under risky and the species is considered to be at high risk for its continued existence [35]. ...
The three main genera that produce gum and resin in Ethiopia's lowland forests are Acacia, Boswellia , and Commiphora. Boswellia papyrifera is mainly found in the degraded drylands that are dispersed across many regions of Ethiopia. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the resource status of the northern Ethiopian area of Burie Zuria, which is home to woods dominated by Boswellia papyrifera. Determining the district's Boswellia papyrifera-dominated woodland's regeneration status and quantifying the population structure of the existing species are among the objectives of the study. From 25mx25m, 5mx5m and 1mx1m size plots, tree, sapling and seedling were collected respectively and the collected data was analyzed through a descriptive statistics. According to the findings, the target species, Boswellia papyrifera, had a bell-shaped population structure and a fair regeneration status. Its population structure dominated woods in both the DBH and height class distribution, exhibiting an inverted "J" form. Some species such as Boswelia papyrifera (51.2%), Lannea schimperi (18.06%), and Erythroxylum fischeri (17.6%) had large important value index. The results conclude that the regeneration status and population structures of majority species indicate there is disturbances effect within the area. The finding showed that the population structure of large IVI species was bell-shaped so to sustain such species regular monitoring and conservation activities should be implemented and the finding revealed that the regeneration status of majority species within woodland were fair means there is an anthropogenic disturbance so to minimize such disturbances effect participatory forest management activities should be implement .
... Except for Acacia asak, the population structure of the dominant woody species lacks the density of individuals at the lower diameter class (particularly in the first and second classes), which indicates poor regeneration and recruitment. This pattern is consistent with previous studies in the lowland dry forest of Ethiopia (Adem et al., 2014;Hido et al., 2020). The results also showed that the vegetation resources of the study area are relatively less affected by urbanization and agricultural expansion, unlike the western and Northwestern lowland forests of Ethiopia. ...
Despite its ecological and socio-economic contributions, the lowland dry forests of Ethiopia have been experiencing severe deforestation and degradation challenges. It is, therefore, crucial to assess the status of the dry forest resources to formulate an appropriate management strategy and its sustainable utilization. This study was formulated to determine spatial distribution, species composition, structure, and regeneration of the gum and resin species bearing dry forests in the Somali regional state of Ethiopia. The recent Sentinel-2A image was procured and used to classify the area, using a supervised Random Forest Algorithm, into different land covers and vegetation types. Inside the two key vegetation types (Acacia dominated woodland and Mixed woodland), forest inventory was conducted by establishing 30 m x 30 m size quadratic sample plots. The results revealed that the study area was divided into settlement (0.2%), bare land (6.0%), undifferentiated forest (0.5%), acacia woodland (36.3%), mixed woodland (54.1%) and scrubland (2.9%). Thirty-four woody species were identified and recorded with a Shannon diversity of 3.03. The population structure showed a lack of sufficient natural regeneration. It is, therefore, imperative to say that the forest containing the gum and resin-bearing species is not replacing itself. On the other hand, the forest has the potential to produce Oleo-gum resin in various kinds and amounts. Thus, implementing appropriate restoration measures is urgent to enhance natural regeneration. Moreover, formulating sustainable utilization while creating product market of gum and resins are important considerations for the future development of the sector. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 6-13, Dec 2023
... The same distribution pattern is reported by Gelaye (2012) in Ethiopia. The pattern of diameter class distribution indicates the general trends of population dynamics and recruitment processes of a given species (Abyot et al. 2014), with a bell-shaped diameter distribution indicating a hampered regeneration (Hido et al. 2020). The considerable number of individuals of the species in the middle diameter classes could be managed sustainably to improve their regeneration and produce resins. ...
Dafa-Alla M, Abdelkari HA, Abuelbashar AI, Hassan MH. 2022. Boswellia papyrifera a tree of economic importance in dry land Sudan: Dendrometric parameters and tapping characteristics. Asian J For 7: 10-16. We conducted this research in Abugadaf Natural Forest Reserve (ANFR) located within Blue Nile state, Sudan. The objectives were to examine dendrometric parameters and to analyze tapping characteristics for frankincense production. We randomly distributed 97 sample plots; in each, we counted B. papyrifera trees, measured their diameter at breast height (dbh), total height, bole height, and crown diameter, and examined the correlation between crown diameter and dbh. We examined 116 tapping spots made on 13 randomly selected trees. In each tree, we measured upper and lower tapping heights, calculated potentially untapped bole height, counted the number of tapping spots, measured their dimensions, recorded their directions, and compared mean numbers of tapping spots at four directions using one-way ANOVA (?=0.05). Results revealed that the distributions of dbh and the total height of tapped B. papyrifera followed a bell shape, and that of bole height and crown diameter followed a bell-shaped skewed to the right. Results revealed a significant (P=0.000) correlation between crown diameter and dbh (N=499) that trees were tapped at the four directions without significant difference (P=0.427) between mean numbers of tapping spots at the four directions. The study concludes that current tapping practice doesn’t strictly adhere to recommended tapping guides, particularly with minimum lower tapping height and preference of concentration of tapping in east-west directions.
... Population structure of a species may provide insight into past disturbances to the environment and hence, used to forecast future trends in the species' population and composition of the ecosystem it inhabits (Hido et al., 2020;Pokhriyal et al., 2010;Young et al., 2017). It is also very important for planning and implementation of conservation strategy of the forest community (Dereje and Duguma, 2019; Mishra et al., 2013;Teketay, 2005). ...
... However, this requires information on past dynamics in the population (Tolera et al. 2013). While knowledge about stand structure assists in understanding forest ecosystems changes (Su et al. 2010), also it may provide insight into ecosystem responses to past disturbances hence, used to forecast future trends in the species' turnover and richness (Young et al. 2017;Hido et al. 2020). Tree species inventory and diversity studies help to understand the species composition and diversity status of forests which also determine the information for forest conservation (Yakubu et al. 2020) and management of forest resources (Teketay 2005;Mishra et al. 2013). ...
The study aims to examine population indices of mature trees in Jebel Elgarrie forest, Blue Nile State, Sudan. We used remote sensing techniques to stratify the forest into vegetation classes depending on tree density. We distributed 97 circular sample plots (0.1 ha) proportionally to the area of the vegetation classes. In each sample plot we identified, counted and recorded all mature trees (DBH ≥10 cm). We calculated frequency, density, abundance, richness, evenness and diversity for each species and we drew abundance rank curve of mature trees. We used One-Way ANOVA to test for differences (=0.05) in mean density (No./ha) of mature trees between vegetation classes. Results revealed that the forest was conveniently subdivided into high density (C1), medium density (C2), low density (C3) and bare farm land (C4) classes. We identified fifteen tree species that belong to 10 families and 14 genera. Combretaceae and Fabaceae were the common families while Anogeissus leiocarpa was the most frequently occurring species. While species diversity varied between vegetation classes, diversity of the forest as a whole is low. While mean density of mature trees in C1, C2, C3 and C4 it was 100, 74, 10, and 0, respectively, it was 54 for the whole forest indicating low stocking, Following One-Way ANOVA, multiple comparisons revealed significant differences in mean density of mature trees between C1 & C3 and C2 & C3. The study provided empirical results on population indices of mature tree species, which would be of importance for successful management and conservation of the forest.
This paper examined the potential of dry north western woodlands of Ethiopia (Adi Goshu, Lemlem Terara, and Gemed) for carbon stocks. Allometry equations were used to determine the aboveground, below-ground, and dead woods biomasses; litter and herbaceous biomasses were determined using direct harvesting method. The result showed the estimated mean carbon stocks of the aboveground, belowground, and the dead wood biomass for the Untapped Boswellia Papyrifera Woodland (UW) in Lemlem Terara site were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than that of the Adi Goshu site. In the Gemed site, the mean Herb Biomass Carbon (HBC) stock was 1.2 Mg ha −1 , which is significantly highest (P < 0.05) than the other two study sites (Lemlem Terara, 0.42 Mg ha −1 and Adi Goshu, 0.45 Mg ha −1) for the Tapped Boswellia Papyrifera Woodland (TW). In UW, the mean soil carbon stock of the Lemlem Terara site (58.19 Mg ha −1) was significantly (P < 0.05) higher than that of Adi Goshu (33.61 Mg ha −1). In the case of the total carbon stocks in UW stratum, for the Adi Goshu site, the carbon stock was estimated to be about 55.26 Mg ha −1 while 96.74 Mg ha −1 for Lemlem Terara. Therefore, Carbon stock in different carbon pools (aboveground and belowground biomass, dead wood, litter, herbaceous biomass, and soil) has a potential to decrease the rate of enrichment of atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide.
Fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) were obtained from vegetable oils of soybean, corn and sunflower. The current study was focused on evaluating the antifungal activity of FAMEs mainly against Paracoccidioides spp., as well as testing the interaction of these compounds with commercial antifungal drugs and also their antioxidant potential. FAMEs presented small IC50 values (1.86-9.42 μg/mL). All three FAMEs tested showed antifungal activity against isolates of Paracoccidioides spp. with MIC values ranging from 15.6-500 µg/mL. Sunflower FAMEs exhibited antifungal activity that extended also to other genera, with an MIC of 15.6 μg/mL against Candida glabrata and C. krusei and 31.2 μg/mL against C. parapsilosis. FAMEs exhibited a synergetic effect with itraconazole. The antifungal activity of the FAMEs against isolates of Paracoccidioides spp. is likely due to the presence of methyl linoleate, the major compound present in all three FAMEs. The results obtained indicate the potential of FAMEs as sources for antifungal and antioxidant activity.
The genus Boswellia is one of the 17 genera belonging to Burseraceae family. In
this study resin of Boswellia neglecta was collected or purchased from Konso or Adama
town from Natural Gum Processing and Marketing Enterprise for chemical analysis. The
essential oil of the resins of Boswellia neglecta was hydro-distilled and some of the
components were identified by GC/MS. The major components of the hydro-distilled oil of
Boswellia neglecta were incensole acetate (BNK6) (39%), n-octyl acetate (19%),
neocembrene A (7%), verticillol (8%), biformene (8%) and nerolidylpropionate (27%). In
this work two compounds were isolated from the hexane extract of the resin of Boswellia
neglecta. The first compound was identified as a diterpene, incensole acetate, and structural
elucidation of the second compound (BNK2 white crystalline solid) was in progress.
Besides, this study reported evaluation of biocides against Odontotermes obesus (termites),
Blattela germanica (cockroach), Rhipcephalus pulchellus (ticks), E. coli and S. aureus. The
biopesticidal study showed that 10% oil caused 100% mortality in 72 hrs, 108 hrs and 132
hrs against cockroach, ticks, and termite, respectively. Antibacterial assay for 10%
concentration of essential oils determined by critical dilution method presented zone
inhibition of 2.5 mm and 2.1 mm against E. coli and S. aureus, respectively. The use of the
crude oils at the concentrations provided satisfactory results at the laboratory level against
these pathogens, and needs further evaluation in field trials.
The greatest extent of Afromontane environments in the world is found in Ethiopia. These areas support exceptional biodiversity, but forest cover and ecological integrity have declined sharply in recent decades. Conservation and management efforts are hampered in part by an inadequate understanding of the basic ecology of major tree species. We investigated population structure and inferred population dynamics from size frequency distributions of 22 forest tree species encountered in montane forests of Ethiopia. We collected new empirical data from four sites in the Bale Mountains, where some of the country's most extensive and least disturbed forests remain, and conducted a systematic review and analysis of all such studies that reported population structure for one or more of these species in Ethiopia. Thirteen widespread montane tree species showed a reverse-J size distribution, indicating a relatively stable population structure. Six other species had size-frequency distributions that indicate episodic recruitment and/or removal of certain size classes. Specific causes of these patterns are uncertain: they may involve timber harvesting, herbivory, fire, or natural disturbances, but patterns were inconsistent and locality dependent. For three other tree species, existing data are inadequate for any interpretation of population structure and dynamics. A species of particular conservation concern that emerged from this analysis was Hagenia abyssinica, which was found in all areas to consist only of larger individuals with no recent recruitment. For management and conservation purposes, the species in most urgent need of new research are those with inadequate or inconsistent data, and H. abyssinica.
The study was conducted in Hammer district, Southern Ethiopia, to provide empirical evidence on economic contribution to local livelihoods and households dependency on dry forest products. One agropastoral and two pastoral kebeles were purposively selected, and data was collected through household survey, group discussions, market assessments, and field observation. A total of 164 households, selected based on a random sampling procedure, were interviewed using structured questionnaire. The study found that income from forest products contributes 21.4% of the total annual household income. The major dry forest products include honey, fuel wood, gum and resin, and crafts and construction materials, contributing 49%, 39%, 6%, and 6% of the forest income, respectively. Households of the pastoral site earned more forest income and were relatively more dependent on forest products income than those in the agropastoral study site. Significant variation was also found among income groups: households with higher total annual income obtain more forest income than those with lower income, but they are relatively less dependent on forest products than the lower counterpart. Besides, various socioeconomic and contextual factors were found to influence forest income and dependency. The findings of the study provide valuable information up on which important implications for dry land forest development and management strategies can be drawn.
The essential oil obtained by hydrodistillation of frankincense from Boswellia papyrifera was analyzed using GC, GC-MS and NMR. n-Octyl acetate (56%), octanol (8%) and limonene (6.5%) were found to be the major components.
The genus Boswellia encompasses a number of species which produce oleo-gum-resin. The name Boswellia goes back to the scotch botanist Boswell. Gums of this genus are known as [1] Frankincense and Olibanum (English), Weihrauch (German), Luban (Arabic), Durtu (Fur). In the Sudan, the tree is known as Taragtarag, Rutrut and as Gafal in the eastern Sudan. In Dar Fur Boswellia occurs around Zalingei, Rodom and Jebel Marra, where it is found on piedmont and massifs 1170-1830 m. a. s. l., dominant on the upper hill slopes forming pure stands on the crests of the basement complex hills or stony soils, usually on quartz pebbles of the clay plains. The study investigated the effect of stump [19] diameter and height on the sprouting capacity of Boswellia papyrifera in Jebel Marra area. The systematic circular line plot sampling method was used to determine the growing stock in terms of diameter and height class distribution. Based on the findings of the reconnaissance survey, completely randomized design was used in the experiment where tree stumps and heights were divided into four categories. Thirty two Boswellia papyrifera trees were felled for this research. The results revealed that Boswellia papyrifera coppice at a rate of 53.1 and 59.4 % and the sprouting process needs about 37 to 40 days on the average. The results indicated insignificant difference between treatments with respect to sprouting, however, the study revealed that the annual growth of the sprouts in the second year is about three times more compared to the average annual growth of sprouts in the first year. The results also showed that the sprouts had survival rate of 58.8 per hectare. This research gives clues that factors other than stump diameter and height might have effects on the sprouting of Boswellia papyrifera.
Kakamega forest is a tropical rain forest ecosystem while Saiwa Swamp National Park (SSNP) is a riverine ecosystem. A study was conducted to determine plant species diversity of the grasslands in both the ecosystems with emphasis on herbs and grass species, and the structure of the ecotones. The objective of study was to compare the plant species richness of these two ecosystems with an aim of proposing some conservation strategies. Species diversity was determined using inverse Simpson Index. The sampling sites were determined using stratified random sampling. The random quadrats (1x1M), line intercept, and nested quadrat sampling methods were used to collect data from the clear grassland. A 5x5M sampling plot was used to collect data from the bushed-grassland community of both ecosystems. All plants species present were identified and recorded. The density, frequency, foliage cover, importance value indices and relative values were calculated. Temperature and relative humidity were determined. Results clearly show that Kakamega forest grassland community had the highest species diversity of 0.9 and an abrupt ecotone compared to Saiwa National Park of species diversity of 0.8 and a blending ecotones These results confirmed that, there is great variation in species diversity in both ecosystems and discontinuity of ecotones due to influence of environmental conditions.
A gum resin was isolated from Commiphora africana. In order to assess its application to industry, it was subjected to rheological, moisture and ash content studies. For rheological studies, a rotational viscometer which had the ability to characterize both Newtonian and non-Newtonian systems was used. The gum resins from C. africana exhibited low shear stress even at high concentration of the gum resins. The change in shear stress with temperatures produced almost a linear graph with a gradient of 0.06. In addition, the gum resin from this plant species was affected by the addition of salts and would have little application in formulations that contain salts. The moisture content obtained was 10.6 ± ± ± ±0.04% % % %.The low level of moisture in this gum resin appeared to be desirable since it will attract little bacterial or fungal growth in the formulation. The ash content was 3.64± ± ± ±0.01% % % %. The present study has demonstrated that this gum has potential as a product for the cosmetic, pharmaceutical and food industries provided further studies are carried out to identify the phytoconstituents in the gum as well as toxicity studies.
The present research was conducted to discover antimicrobial compounds in methanolic leaf extracts of Jatropha curcas and Andrographis paniculata and ethanolic leaf extract of Psidium guajava and the effectiveness against microbes on flower preservative solution of cut Mokara Red orchid flowers was evaluated. The leaves were analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. A total of nine, 66, and 29 compounds were identified in J. curcas, P. guajava, and A. paniculata leaf extracts, with five (88.18%), four (34.66%), and three (50.47%) having unique antimicrobial compounds, respectively. The experimental design on vase life was conducted using a completely randomized design with 10 replications. The flower vase life was about 6 days in the solution containing the P. guajava and A. paniculata leaf extracts at 15mg/L. Moreover, solution with leaf extracts of A. paniculata had the lowest bacterial count compared to P. guajava and J. curcas. Thus, these leaf extracts revealed the presence of relevant antimicrobial compounds. The leaf extracts have the potential as a cut flower solution to minimize microbial populations and extend flower vase life. However, the activities of specific antimicrobial compounds and double or triple combination leaf extracts to enhance the effectiveness to extend the vase life need to be tested.
Drylands of Borana Zone, southern Ethiopia, are endowed with different woody species that produce commercial gums and resins, which support the Livelihoods of pastoral and agro-pastoral communities. The objectives of this study were to: (i) assess the role of gum and resin production and marketing in the livelihoods of the pastoral and agro-pastoral communities; (ii) identify major challenges and constraints that hinder sustainable production; (iii) analyze the existing opportunities related to future gum and resin production and commercialization; and (iv) understand the perception of the local communities and the overall future prospects of sustainable gum and resin development, production and commercialization. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to a total of 80 households, randomly selected from two representative Districts (Arero and Yabello) in the Borana Zone. Group disscussions were also held with 12 key informants. Additional information was also collected from District and Zonal officials, local merchants and enterprises engaged in businesses involving gums and resins. The results revealed that the pastoral and agro-pastoral communities in Borana Zone have intimate attachments with the woody species that provide gums and resins, and that collection and marketing of gums and resins are among the three major sources of livelihoods of local communities, along with livestock and crop production. The average annual household income generated from the sale of gums and resins was estimated at about 2,674 and 2,403 Ethiopian Birr (about 311.00 and 279.00 USD) at Arero and Yabello, respectively. Collection and sale of gums and resins represented the sole source of income for the disadvantaged groups in the local communities, i.e. women, school children and poor households with neither livestock nor land resources. The majority of respondents identified the income generated from the sale of gums and resins as a safety-net safeguarding the communities during recurrent drought periods. Gums and resins are also sources of food, chewing gum, traditional medicine, fodder, traditional soap, insect repellents, fragrance for smoking houses and other cultural practices. Several challenges and constraints are discussed, which affect the sustainable use of the vast woodlands for enhanced livelihoods and reduced household vulnerability in Borana.
Drylands of Ethiopia, including those in the Rift Valley, host good potential for commercial production of natural gums such as gum arabic. However, little researches have assessed the qualities of these gums for their commercial and industrial promotions. The objectives of this study were to assess the (i) quality of gum arabic collected from naturally grown Acacia senegal trees in the Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia and (ii) evaluate these quality characteristics against reported quality attributes of the same kind of gum from known destinations such as the Sudan and with international specifications. Gum samples were collected from randomly identified 10 trees of A. senegal in the study area and composited into one big sample by putting all in one plastic bag. The characteristics analyzed included: color, odor, moisture content, ash content, viscosity, pH, specific rotation, N and tannin contents, and concentration of several metals using standard laboratory procedures. The results yielded moisture content of 15%, ash content of 3.56%, intrinsic viscosity of 1.19mlg−1, pH on 25% solution of 4.04, specific rotation of −32.5, nitrogen content of 0.35%, protein content of 2.31% and with no tannin content. Mineral contents of the gum arabic (g/100g) are Ca 0.7, Mg 0.2, Na 0.01, K 0.95, Fe 0.001, P 0.6 and non-detectable traces of Pb, Co, Cu, Zn, Ni, Cd, Cr and Mn. These values agree well with values of same quality characteristics of gum arabic reported from Sudan and other exporting countries, and also conform well to international standards in all aspects. Indeed, it is possible to utilize the gum arabic resource of the Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia for commercial and/or industrial purposes.
Nineteen samples of Rosmarinus officinalis were e xtracted by steam distillation in a p ilot plant and evaluated in terms of chemical compositions and physico-chemical characteristics. The v olatile oil yields ranged from 0.37% (1999 harvest) to 0.49% (1998 harvest). Twenty components were identified in the oils. The major components were alpha-pinene (40.55 to 45.10%), 1,8-cineole (17.40 to 19.35%), camphene (4.73 to 6.06%) and verbenone (2.32 to 3.86%). The physico-chemical parameters averaged 0.8887 g/cm 3 for specific gravity, 1.4689 for refractive index, and +11.82° for optical rotation, and there were no significant variations in either the c hemical or physico- chemical data in the different years.
The objectives of this study were to determine the composition, density and spatial distribution of the soil seed bank of woody species, as well as their regeneration pattern in two different land use systems, controlled (ranch) and open grazing, in an Acacia woodland of the Rift Valley in Ethiopia. We also compared the species composition of the soil seed bank and the above-ground vegetation to find out if differences exist in the soil seed bank and advance regeneration between the two land use systems. The germination requirements of seeds of the woody species were also investigated under laboratory conditions. Acacia senegal, Acacia seyal, Acacia tortilis, Dichrostacys cinerea and Balanites aegyptiaca were encountered in the above-ground vegetation in both systems. Seeds of only A. tortilis (90±32 seeds m−2) from the ranch, and A. senegal (5±3 seeds m−2) and A. tortilis (72±34 seeds m−2) from the open system were found in the soil seed bank along transects with patchy horizontal pattern. The two systems were not significantly different in density of soil seed banks of A. senegal andA. tortilis . Jaccard's similarity index showed that only a few woody species were common in the soil seed flora and above ground vegetation. However, all of the species accumulated seeds (58±43–331±130 seeds m−2) in/on the soil under the canopy. Very large numbers of seeds of A. tortilis (19382±9722 seeds m−2) and D. cinerea (1278±494 seeds m−2) were also found in barns. Most of the seeds recovered from the soil samples (60–80%) were found in the litter layer. Acid and mechanical scarification improved legume germination (36–99% and 60–99%, respectively) over boiling water (0–48%). Treatment means differed significantly for all the legumes (p
The properties of Boswellia plants have been exploited for millennia in the traditional medicines of Africa, China, and especially in the Indian Ayurveda. In Western countries, the advent of synthetic drugs has obscured the pharmaceutical use of Boswellia, until it was reported that an ethanolic extract exerts anti-inflammatory and antiarthritic effects. Frankincense was commonly used for medicinal purposes. This paper aims to provide an overview of current knowledge of the volatile constituents of frankincense, with explicit consideration concerning the diverse Boswellia species. Altogether, more than 340 volatiles in Boswellia have been reported in the literature. In particular, a broad diversity has been found in the qualitative and quantitative composition of the volatiles with respect to different varieties of Boswellia. A detailed discussion of the various biological activities of Boswellia frankincense is also presented.
The effect of arabica coffee management intensity on composition, structure, and regeneration of moist evergreen Afromontane forests was studied in three traditional coffee-management systems of southwest Ethi-opia: semiplantation coffee, semiforest coffee, and forest coffee. Vegetation and environmental data were collected in 84 plots from forests varying in intensity of coffee management. After controlling for environmental variation (altitude, aspect, slope, soil nutrient availability, and soil depth), differences in woody species composition, forest structure, and regeneration potential among management systems were compared using one way analysis of variance. The study showed that intensification of forest coffee cultivation to maximize coffee production negatively affects diversity and structure of Ethiopian moist evergreen Afromontane forests. Intensification of coffee productivity starts with the conversion of forest coffee to semiforest coffee, which has significant negative effects on tree seedling abundance. Further intensification leads to the conversion of semiforest to semiplantation coffee, causing significant diversity losses and the collapse of forest structure (decrease of stem density, basal area, crown closure, crown cover, and dominant tree height). Our study underlines the need for shade certification schemes to include variables other than canopy cover and that the loss of species diversity in intensively managed coffee systems may jeopardize the sustainability of coffee production itself through the decrease of ecosystem resilience and disruption of ecosystem services related to coffee yield, such as pollination and pest control.
The essential oils obtained by hydrodistillation of resins of Boswellia neglecta, B. pirottae, B. rivae, Commiphora myrrha (myrrh) and C. guidottii (opopanax or scented myrrh) were analysed using GC–MS. α-Thujene (19.2%), α-pinene (16.7%) and terpinen-4-ol (12.5%) were found to be the major components in B. neglecta; limonene (14.8%) in B. rivae; trans-verbenol (15.5%) and terpinen-4-ol (14.6%) in B. pirottae; (E)-β-ocimene (33%) in gum opopanax and furanoeudesma-1,3-diene (34%) in myrrh. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The vegetation and some associated environmental variables were investigated at Key Afer-Shala Luqa and Southwest of Lake Chamo, in the Gamo Gofa Zone, southern Ethiopia. To determine the species richness and classify the plant community types, analyze the species richness, evenness and diversity of the identified plant community types, and relate the plant community types with the environmental factors, 71 quadrats (size = 20 x 20 m = 400 m2) were sampled at both sites. In each quadrat, data on the identity and cover abundance of species, altitude, slope and aspect as well as soil samples were collected. The pH, sand, silt, clay, potassium, sodium and phosphorus contents of the soil were analyzed in the laboratory. Two hundred sixteen plant species representing 58 families were recorded. The Fabaceae family was represented by the highest number of species (33 spp. = 15%), followed by Poaceae (22 spp. = 10%) and Capparidaceae (12 spp. = 7%). Seven plant community types were identified. Post-hoc comparison of means among the community types showed significant variation in altitude indicating that altitude was the most important factor in determining community type. The Hyparrhenia filipendida-Combretum molle dominated community was richer in species and higher in diversity than others, while the Commiphora cyclophylla-Actiniopteris radiata-Sansevieria ehrenbergii dominated community exhibited the least species richness and diversity. Recommendations for the sustainable utilization of the vegetation resources at the study sites are discussed.
Frankincense, an aromatic exudate obtained from several Boswellia species, is an important commodity with the potential to invigorate economic development of the drylands of Ethiopia. Local people have been producing and trading frankincense for centuries to diversify their income sources. However, local people's involvement in the production of frankincense varies considerably among the producing dryland regions of the country. The objectives of this study were to investigate: (i) the potential of frankincense production, (ii) socio-cultural, economic and policy factors affecting the involvement of local people in the production of frankincense, and (iii) the current status of Boswellia woodlands in Metema district, which is one of the major frankincense producing areas in Ethiopia. The results showed that Boswellia papyrifera comprised 51% of the species composition of the vegetation of the district with 253.5 kg/ha/year production potential. The total annual frankincense production potential of the district was estimated to be 79,168 tons. However, almost all inhabitants do not benefit economically from the species due to: (i) cultural influence (67%), (ii) unattractiveness of income from frankincense compared to other economic activities in the area (38%), property tenure (27%), government policy on incense production (20%), poor knowledge on frankincense production (19%) and unawareness of the potential of frankincense as a source of income (5%). The absence of direct economic benefits for the local people from the woodlands is triggering their widespread degradation mostly from human induced fire, improper forest use and agricultural land expansion.
Objective of the book Biopolymers have the potential to cut carbon emissions, reduce the quantity of CO2 in the atmosphere and represent a sustainable and renewable resource for the manufacturing, agricultural and medical industries. Non-toxic industrial, agricultural and consumer products are dependent upon polymers employed in their fabrication. The renewability of biopolymers is driving research into the development of new biopolymers. This book will discuss new applications for biopolymers in industrial, medical, food, consumer and pharmaceutical applications. Examples of how natural extracts have the potential to outperform synthetics in their functionality will be provided. The creation of new bio-composites, bio-derived plastics, bio-foams, molded structures and other innovations in new biopolymer products will be highlighted. The book will also provide an overview of the production of biopolymers using conventional chemical processes such as polylactic acid, and of the production of biopolymers directly in microorganisms or genetically modified organisms. The book's audience will be microbiologists, genetic engineering experts, horticulturists, and chemical engineers. We encourage the submission of papers outlining developments and research findings in the development of new biopolymers.
The essential oil compositions of four botanically certified and commercially available samples of Omani lubans (oleo-gum resins of Boswellia sacra Flueck.), locally known as Hoojri, Najdi, Shathari, and Shaabi in Jibali Arabic, obtained from plants growing in four different geographic locations of the Dhofar region of Oman, were analyzed by GC-FID, GC/MS, and (13) C-NMR spectroscopy. The market price of these four grades of lubans differed considerably, according to their color, clump size, and texture. However, this study revealed that Hoojri, the first grade luban, and Shaabi, the fourth grade luban, which greatly differed in their price, closely resembled each other in their essential oil composition, yield, and physicochemical characteristics, except the color and texture. The composition, yield, and specific rotation of the oils of Najdi and Shathari, the second and the third grade lubans, respectively, were different from those of Hoojri and Shaabi, but they both had high limonene contents. Najdi oil was different from the other three oils in terms of its high myrcene content. α-Pinene was the principal component in all the oils and can be considered as a chemotaxonomical marker that confirms the botanical and geographical source of the resins. All the oils showed pronounced activity against a panel of bacteria, and the trend in their bioactivity and their mode of action are discussed.
‘Scotch’ (Mentha x gracilis Sole) and ‘Native’ (Mentha spicata L.) spearmints are grown in the northern United States, but have not been evaluated in the Southeast. Two-year field studies were conducted in Mississippi at two locations (Verona and Stoneville) to evaluate the effects of N application rate and cut (harvest time) on yields, essential oil contents, compositions, and the yield of individual oil constituents [(–)-carvone, (R)-(+)-limonene, and eucalyptol] in Scotch and Native spearmints. Application of N at 80 and 160 kg/ha increased herbage and oil yields in Scotch, suggesting that commercial Scotch plantations should be provided with 160 kg N/ha. Native spearmint provided similar herbage yields when fertilized with 80 or 160 kg N/ha, but the higher N rate increased oil yields. The essential oil yields in this study were higher than the average oil yields for spearmint grown in the United States during 2008. The essential oil composition of Scotch and Native spearmints grown in Mississippi were similar to the oil produced in other states and other regions in the world. At the Verona site, the average (–)-carvone concentration in the essential oil of Scotch was 68 to 75%, whereas the concentration of (–)-carvone in Native oil ranged from 59 to 62%. At Stoneville, the average (–)-carvone concentration in Scotch oil was 74%, whereas (–)-carvone in Native oil was 68 to 74%. Both Scotch and Native spearmints could be grown as essential oil crops in Mississippi and possibly in other areas of the southeastern United States.
Ethiopia is one of the countries well endowed with various species of Acacia, Boswellia and Commiphora that are known to produce gum arabic, frankincense and myrrh, respectively. Over 60 gum and resin bearing species are found in the country. The total area of oleo-gum resin bearing woodlands cover about 2.9 million ha of land in the country, with over 300,000 metric tons of natural gum production potential. Boswellia papyrifera is a chief gum resin producing tree species in Ethiopia. The total area covered by the species is estimated to be more than 1.5 million ha. Frankincense and myrrh are used in medicines, beverages and liqueurs, cosmetics, detergents, creams and perfumery, paints, adhesives and dyes manufacturing. Gum Arabic is used as stabilizing, in food and drink industries; in pharmaceuticals, in printing and textile industries. Despite the enormous socio-economic importance of these natural products, the species are declining at an alarming rate due to degradation resulted from agricultural expansion, overgrazing, fire, poor incense harvesting practices, etc. Therefore, research and development efforts and international collaborations could have strong potentials to the conservation, production and commercialization for the benefits of the local, national as well as the international communities.
The yield of hydrodistillation of a botanically certified Oleogum Resin of Boswellia sacra essential oil (5.5%); and its chemical constituents were determined. The GC/MS technique was used for the analysis of the oil. Several oil components were identified based upon comparison of their mass spectral data with those of reference compounds published in literature or stored in a computer library. The oil was characterized by the high content of the monoterpenes (34) which constituted 97.3% in which E-beta-ocimene and limonene were the major constituents. The remaining 2.7% was accounted for the sesquiterpenes (16) in which the E-caryophyllene was the major constituent. The analysis proved the complete absence of the diterpenes.
Oleo-gum resin of Boswellia serrata Roxb ex Colebr. (Burseraceae) called Kundur in Unani system of Medicine is a prime ingredient in modern quality perfumes. The gum is popularly used in Indian Systems of Medicine (Unani, Ayurvedic & Sidha) for the last several centuriesin curing various aliment especially rheumatism and skin diseases. Kundur is one of the popular drugs for various ailments such as dysentery, dyspepsia, lung diseases, haemorrhoids, rheumatism, urinary disorders and corneal ulcer in Unani system of medicine for the last several years. It is also an ingredient in certain compound formulations viz: Majoon Kundur, Majoon Murawwah-ul-Arwah, Dawa-ul-Kibrit and HabbeSuzak of Unani medicine used in renal disorders. The studies carried out on Kundur (Boswellia serrata Roxb) reveal that Oleo-gum resin exhibits potent Anti-fungal, Anti-complementary, Juvenomimetic and Anti-carcinogenic properties. Investigations on Kundur also revealed its beneficial effects in Immunomodulation, Bronchial asthma, Polyarthritis, Hepatitis C-virus, Colitis and Crohn's disease. Phytochemistry andpharmacology on Kundur (Oleo-gum resin) of Boswellia serrata Roxb has been reviewed in this paper with the view to justify its recorded uses in Unani System of Medicine on scientific lines.
Boswellia papyrifera (Del.) Hochst, is a deciduous multipurpose tree growing in different parts of Ethiopia that provides oleo-gum—frankincense—from its stem. The species holds great actual and potential socio-economic, cultural and environmental importance locally, nationally and internationally. Despite its importance, various anthropogenic and natural factors are causing heavy pressure on the welfare of its populations and hampering regeneration. This study, which was carried out at two sites in North Gonder Zone, northern Ethiopia reports on:• its socio-economic importance: as a source of employment, income, revenue, and other goods and environmental services;• the status of its populations: soil seed bank, density, frequency, DBH. height and population structure; and• factors threatening its populations: human-induced fire, clearing of trees for crop cultivation, browsing and trampling.Recommendations to address the problems include:• making an inventory of the woodland resources with emphasis on the gum and resin producing species;• disseminating information and encouraging gum and resin collection in areas as yet untapped;• improving the harvesting and marketing of the produce.
Oleo-gum resins such as frankincense and myrrh are some of the economically and culturally valuable products obtained from trees and shrubs of the genera Boswellia and Commiphora, respectively. They are important natural plant products used in several industries that include pharmacology, food, flavour, liqueur and beverage, cosmetics, perfumery and others. Moreover, frankincense and myrrh have several local applications in medicinal, hygienic, and insecticide areas that could be developed through research. They are widely used in traditional medicines ofseveral countries for treatments of a wide variety of ailments from embalming to cancer, leprosy, bronchitis, diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid, mouth ulcers, inflammatory complaints, viral hepatitis, female disorders, infections/wounds, coughs, tumour, and others. Although Ethiopia is one of the few countries that are endowed with large frankincense and myrrh resources, little proper exploitation of these resources has been made so far. In this paper a review is presented on pharmacological and industrial applications of these valuable resources. The information is expected to prompt the enormous economic opportunity that these resources could provide both at national and local levels. Concurrently, this opportunity, if properly exploited, will contribute significantly towards the conservation and management of the vegetation resources that yield frankincense and myrrh as well as their ecosystems.
A meeting on chromosome 9 was held on Tuesday, 27 October 1998 in Denver, with 38 participants (see appendix). Since the last meeting several of the positional cloning efforts on chromosome 9q have come to fruition, and the most detailed discussion was on 9p. Dr Ian Dunham from the Sanger Centre explained the strategy to be used for sequencing chromosome 9, and encouraged collaboration in the preparatory mapping. He indicated that some priority could be given to those regions where people in the field had a strong interest and could identify relevant PAC clones.
At this short meeting it was clearly not possible to construct a comprehensive map of chromosome 9, and it was decided that efforts should be made to maintain links to sources of information on the chromosome 9 web page (http://www.gene.ucl.ac.uk/chr9/). The discussions at the meeting are summarized in four sections: 9p, 9cen–q31, 9q32–9q34 and comparative mapping.
Many of the posters presented at the meeting were also presented at the ASHG meeting (28–31 October 1998). They are listed here and are published in The American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 63 (supplement). Abstracts for posters presented only at this meeting are appended to this report.
Pulicaria undulata (L.) C.A. Mey is a medicinal plant used to treat inflammation. It is also an insect repellent and herbal tea. In this study, concentration of macro minerals (that is, Ca, K and Mg) and micro minerals (major and trace elements) (that is, Fe, Cu, Na and Mn) and P, were estimated in Pulicaria undulata from the Sistan and Baluchestan province. Sample preparation using microwave digestion was used for mineralization of this plant. Atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS) and UV-Visible spectrophotometry were used to quantify metal levels and Phosphorus, respectively. Essential oil from aerial parts of P. undulata was obtained by hydrodistillation. The chemical constituents of essential oil of aerial parts were analyzed by GC-FID and GC/MS techniques. The main components identified in the oil were 4-Terpineole (20.12%), alpha terpinene (4.02%), gamma terpinene (7.00%), cis-sabinene hydrate (8.29%), Linalool (5.60%), 1S-cis-calamenene (13.37%) and Junipene (8.66%). In addition, antioxidant activity of ethanolic extract was evaluated by 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging method.
1. Resins are highly valued non-timber forest products (NTFP). One of the most widely traded resins is frankincense, tapped from several Boswellia tree species (Burseraceae). Exploited Boswellia populations often show poor regeneration, but the demographic consequences of these bottlenecks are unknown. Here we report on the first large-scale demographic study of frankincense-producing trees.
2. We studied 12 populations of Boswellia papyrifera in northern Ethiopia, varying in altitude and productivity. Six of these populations had been tapped before and were tapped during the study. Survival, growth and fecundity were determined for 4370 trees and 2228 seedlings, in 22.8 ha over a 2-year period. We also studied a remote population where no grazing and tapping took place. Matrix models were used to project population growth and frankincense production under four restoration scenarios.
3. Population structures of both tapped and untapped populations showed clear gaps. Small seedlings were abundant in all populations, but none developed into persistent saplings. Such saplings were only present in the remote population. Fire and grazing are the likely causes of this regeneration bottleneck.
4. Adult mortality was high (6–7% per year) in both tapped and untapped populations, probably caused by beetle attacks and fire. Unexpectedly, tapped populations presented higher diameter growth rates and fecundity compared to untapped populations. These differences are probably caused by non-random selection of exploited populations by tappers.
5. Under the ‘business as usual’ scenario, population models projected a 90%decline in the size of tapped and untapped populations within 50 years and a 50% decline in frankincense yield within 15 years. Model simulations for restoration scenarios revealed that populations and frankincense production could only be sustained with intensive management leading to full sapling recruitment and a 50–75%reduction in adult mortality.
6. Synthesis and applications. Regeneration bottlenecks and high adult mortality are causing rapid decline in frankincense-producing tree populations in Ethiopia. This decline is unlikely to be a consequence of harvesting and is probably driven by fire, grazing and beetle attacks. Fire prevention and the establishment of non-grazing areas are needed. Our results show that other factors than exploitation may seriously threaten populations yielding NTFP.
Oleo-gum resins, hardened resinous plant exudates obtained from some Acacia, Boswellia and Commiphora species in the lowlands of Ethiopia, have been traded for centuries both on the international and domestic markets. However, their economic contribution to the rural households is little documented. A reconnaissance survey was carried out in Liban, one of the administrative zones in the Ethiopian Somali National Regional State, to investigate major oleo-gum-resins collected for commerce and their economic contributions to rural households. The results showed that five types of oleo-gum-resins are collected for commerce in Liban. These are gum arabic obtained from Acacia Senegal, gum talha obtained from A. seyal, frankincense obtained from Boswellia neglecta and B. ogadensis, myrrh obtained from Commiphora myrrha (syn. C. molmol), C. truncata and C. borensis and hagar obtained from C. africana. The average annual cash income generated per household was estimated to be US$ 80.00. This income contributes to 32.6% of annual household subsistence, and ranks second after livestock in the overall household livelihood. The contribution from crop farming was estimated to be 12%, which is about one-third of the contribution from oleo-gum resins. These results show that oleo-gum resins obtained from the vegetation resources play a significant role in the economy of rural households in Liban. The vegetation resources and their oleo-gum resins also provide various goods and services for the rural households in Liban. Fodder for livestock, traditional medicines for human and livestock disease treatments, incense for fumigation, cultural and religious rituals, and emergency foods during droughts are among the most common. Opportunities and constraints for oleo-gum-resin-based development in Liban and other similar areas in Ethiopia are discussed. The results could be used as baseline information for evaluating the potential of the arid and semi-arid land vegetation resources of the country, to plan for extensive studies of their management, conservation and proper utilization.
A survey was conducted in Hamer and Benna-Tsemay districts of the South Omo zone of Ethiopia, with the objectives of assessing the range-livestock management practices and perceptions of the different pastoral groups (Hamer, Benna, and Tsemay) towards rangeland degradation. This information is considered to be vital to future pastoral development planning and interventions. The information was gathered through group discussions, personal observations, and using a structured questionnaire where each household was taken as a unit of analysis. The average family size per household was for Hamer = 7.05 for Benna = 7.93 and for Tsemay = 7 with nearly 98.1% of the respondents without any kind of education. All pastoral groups derived their main income from the sale of animals, which was followed by the sale of honey as in the case of Hamer and Tsemay pastoralists. The average livestock per household was 25.7, 10 and 2.8 tropical livestock unit (TLU) cattle, goat and sheep, respectively. The major livestock production constraints were drought, feed and water shortage and animal health problems. The different pastoral groups have the opinion that the condition of their rangeland is poor, mainly due to overgrazing, drought and increase in human population. Furthermore, there was also a problem of bush encroachment which is an indicator of rangeland degradation. There are no range improvement practices undertaken to improve the condition of the rangelands. Mobility is the first measure taken to solve shortage of livestock feed and water but many of the pastoralists replied that they face many problems during migrations. Because of the unfavorable climatic condition for cultivation, most of the respondents of Hamer and Tsemay pastoralists and about 35% from Benna still prefer communal land tenure, where resources are shared. In conclusion, the indigenous knowledge of the pastoralists about range-livestock management and their environment should be incorporated while planning range-livestock development projects for the study districts.
Zugl.: Göttingen, University, Diss., 2003.
A protective glycolipid antigen (PAg) was extracted from Leptospira interrogans serovar canicola with chloroform/methanol/water (1:2:0.8, by vol.) and partially purified by silica gel column chromatography. The PAg elicited a protective response in hamsters and in cyclophosphamide-treated mice subsequently challenged with homologous Leptospira. The PAg band was detected as a single smear-like band, corresponding to a protein of 23-30 kDa, by silver-staining in SDS-PAGE. In immunoblots, this band reacted with a monoclonal antibody, A5, which agglutinated serovar canicola and recognized a serovar-specific antigen. Furthermore, the PAg did not migrate on silica gel TLC, but was detected at the origin as a ninhydrin- and naphthol-positive spot. This suggests that PAg is a hydrophilic molecule with a carbohydrate chain that contains amino groups, possibly as amino sugars.
The chemical composition of Boswellia carteri (Somalia), B. papyrifera (Ethiopia), B. serrata (India) and B. rivae (Ethiopia) oleogum resin essential oils was investigated using GC-MS to identify chemotaxonomy marker components. Total ion current peak areas gave good approximations to relative concentrations based on GC-MS peak areas.
B. carteri and B. serrata oleogum resin oils showed similar chemical profiles, with isoincensole and isoincensole acetate as the main diterpenic components.
Both n-octanol and n-octyl acetate, along with the diterpenic components incensole and incensole acetate, were the characteristic compounds of B. papyrifera oleogum resin oil. Hydrocarbon and oxygenated monoterpenes were the most abundant classes of compounds identified in the B. rivae oleogum resin oil.
The antimicrobial activities of the essential oils were individually evaluated against different microorganisms including fungi, Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria strains.
The essential oils with the best activity against fungal strains were those obtained from B. carteri and B. papyrifera with MIC values as low as 6.20 μg/ml. The essential oil of B. rivae resin showed the best activity against C. albicans with a MIC value of 2.65 μg/ml.
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