Content uploaded by Nidhi Nagabhatla
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Nidhi Nagabhatla on Jan 31, 2020
Content may be subject to copyright.
UNU-INWEH
GLOBAL WATER CRISIS:
THE FACTS
UNU-INWEH is supported by the Government
of Canada through Global Affairs Canada.
© United Nations University
Institute for Water, Environment and Health
Authorship: Lisa Guppy and Kelsey Anderson
Contributing Authors: Mehta, P., Nagabhatla, N. and
Qadir, M.
Suggested Citation: Guppy, L., Anderson, K., 2017. Water
Crisis Report. United Nations University Institute for
Water, Environment and Health, Hamilton, Canada.
Cover image: Pixabay.com
Design: Kelsey Anderson (UNU-INWEH)
Download at: http://inweh.unu.edu
ISBN: 978-92-808-6083-2
UNU-INWEH
Executive Summary
Water is a foundation of life and livelihoods, and is key to sustainable development. Successful water manage-
ment will serve as a foundation for the achievement of many ofthe 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
as well as for SDG 6 - which is to ‘Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all’.
Despite this, water is becoming a pressing societal and geopolitical issue – in some regions, it is already of
critical national concern. ‘Business as usual’ will mean the world will miss water-related SDGs by a wide margin;
up to 40% of the world’s population will be living in seriously water-stressed areas by 2035; and the ability of
ecosystems to provide fresh water supplies will become increasingly compromised.
60% of fresh water comes from river basins that cross national borders. Transboundary water agreements need to
be robust enough to deal with increasingly uncertain environmental and climatic conditions, and the social and
demographic changes that will raise global population to 9.7 billion by 2050 and double the number of people
who live in urban areas.
Different conceptualisations of water can and have led to conflict. The perception of water as a human right and
a common public and environmental good is often opposed by the view of water as a commodity that needs
to be priced to ensure efficient and sustainable use. Not only nations but provinces and communities will need
to align water perspectives to allow for peaceful and effective integrated water resource management and
sustainable use.
Effective management will mean tackling neglected issues such as water wastage in current systems, which has
been estimated to be up to 30%; common institutional dysfunction, unethical practices, poor accountability, and
corruption in the water sectors of many countries.
This report highlights looming water crises from 6 inter-related contexts: water scarcity and insecurity, water-
related disasters, water, sanitation and health (WASH) crisis, water infrastructure deterioration and destruction,
unsustainable development, and ecosystem degradation.
UN agencies, governments and civil societies have made clear that radical new approaches to water are needed
to reverse these sobering water trends. Only by facing these crises in an intelligent and cohesive way will water
continue to support life, development and biodiversity for our children and our future.
1
UNU-INWEH
or more than 3 times the current level of capital investment is needed to achieve the Sustainable
Development Goal 6 targets on water supply, sanitation and hygiene (6.1 and 6.2). The amount of
money needed to meet the other targets of the “water goal” is currently unknown.
US$114 billion per year
12.6 million
deaths
112 million
people were affected by
floods 2005-2015
40% gap
between water demand
and water available
by 2030
30%
of global water
abstraction is lost through
leakage
80%
or more wastewater
returns to the environment
without adequate
treatment
were attributable to the
environment globally in 2012
people now use a source
of drinking water
contaminated by faeces
1.8 billion
2
UNU-INWEH
Water scarcity and insecurity
The notion that water is plentiful – it covers 70% of the planet – is false, as only 2.5% of all
water is freshwater. This limited resource will need to support a projected population of
9.7 billion in 2050; and by that date, an estimated 3.9 billion – or over 40% of the world’s
population - will live in severely water-stressed river basins².
It is not just population that is pressuring water resources. Excessive use is also
evident: the global population tripled in the 20th century, but the use of water increased
six-fold³. Between now and 2050, water demands are expected to increase by 400% from
manufacturing, and by 130% from household use⁴.
As water availability decreases, competition for access to this limited resource will increase. 60% of all
surface fresh water comes from internationally shared river basins⁵ and there are an estimated 592 transboundary
aquifers. Continuing cooperation and coordination between nations is crucial to ensuring water is available for
human, economic and environmental needs. Although hundreds of international water agreements have been
signed over time⁶, how countries will cooperatively manage growing resource pressures so that they do not lead
to more conflicts over water is not often clear.
Water insecurity can be exacerbated by drought. More people are affected by drought than any other disaster
type. In 2016, 411 million people in total were affected by disasters and 94% of those were drought affected⁷.
Droughts are also the costliest disasters, with significant impacts on agriculture in particular; droughts cause an
average US$6–8 billion worth of losses in agriculture in the USA annually⁸. In China, drought has resulted in an
annual grain production loss of more than 27 million tons over the last two decades; and from the 1950s to the
beginning of this century, the annual average crop area suffering from drought has expanded from 11.6 million
hectares to 25.1 million hectares, an increase of 116%⁹.
If water were secured for irrigated agriculture, the potential global welfare gain for reduced risk in 2010
would have been US$94 billion. Findings also show that enhanced water security can help stabilise food crop
production and prices. In a water secure scenario, the probability of global wheat production falling below 650
million tons per year is reduced from 83% to 38%¹⁰.
There has been a
drop
in globally
available fresh
water per capita
since 1960¹¹
55%
By 2030,
global demand for
water is expected
to grow by
50%¹²
Water scarcity currently
affects more than
40%
of the
global
population¹³
By 2050, an additional
2.3 billion
people can be expected to be living in
areas with severe waterstress, especially
in North and South Africa and South and
Central Asia¹⁴
Worldwide, the total cost of water
insecurity to the global economy is
estimated at
US$500 billion
annually. Including environmental
impacts, this figure may rise to 1%
of global gross domestic product
(GDP)¹⁹
Agriculture accounts for
of all water
withdrawals
globally and for over
in the
majority of Least
Developed Countries
(LDCs)...¹⁵
and
more food will be
needed by 2050¹⁶
Water scarcity, exacerbated by climate
change, could cost some regions up to
6% of their GDP
¹⁷
The 5th assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) projects that for each
degree of global warming, approximately 7%
of the global population will be exposed to a
decrease of renewable
water resources of at least 20%¹⁸
70%
90%
70%
40% gap
between water demand
and water available
by 2030¹
3
UNU-INWEH
Water-related disasters
It is vital to protect investments in water-related infrastructure from shocks and
stresses. In 2009, the World Bank estimated that by 2030, around half the Bank’s
water sector portfolio – which was then US$8.8 billion committed and US$11.3 billion
in pipeline – would be at high to medium risk of exposure to climate change impacts²¹.
In addition, hydrologic hazards are leading to significant deaths, displacements and
injuries. Up to 90% of all disasters are water-related, and over the last two decades,
floods have been the most frequent global natural disaster²²; in 2016, 50% of all
recorded events were related to flooding. The total value of all assets that are at risk from
flooding by 2050 is predicted to be US$45 trillion: a rise of over 340% from 2010²³.
Between 1970 and 2010 the world’s population increased by 87%, from 3.7 billion to 6.9 billion. During the same
period, the annual average population exposed to flood increased by 112% - from 33.3 to 70.4 million per year²⁴.
By 2050, rising populations in flood-prone lands, climate change, deforestation, loss of wetlands and rising sea
levels can be expected to increase the number of people vulnerable to flood disaster to 2 billion²⁵.
The UN was prompted to release warnings about urban flash floods after hundreds died in Guatemala, the USA
and southern France in 2015 – stating that under a changing climate, intense rainfall and urbanisation have made
these disasters more common in the last two decades²⁶.
Water-related ecosystems can mitigate water-related disasters. Every hectare of mangrove and coastal marsh is
worth up to US$15,161 a year in disaster-related services²⁷, and coastal wetlands helped to avoid more than $625
million in damages from Hurricane Sandy in 2012²⁸. Coral reefs act as wave barriers, and as an example of their
effectiveness in risk reduction, spending US$1 million a year on restoring reefs at the Folkestone Marine Park on
the west coast of Barbados could lower annual storm losses there by US$20 million²⁹.
Despite these risk reduction benefits, water-related ecosystems globally are in decline. In parts of Asia and the
Americas, up to half of all coastal mangrove ecosystems have been degraded or destroyed³⁰.
Water-related disasters account for
70% of all deaths
related to natural disasters³¹
Worldwide flood damage
amounted to over
US$50 billion
in 2013 and is increasing³²
Several studies estimate that by 2050 between
150 and 200 million people
could be displaced as a consequence of phenomena, such as
desertification, sea level rise and increased
extreme weather events³⁴
Floods and landslides have
cost an estimated
US$453,000,000
between 2000 and 2016³⁵
More than
107,000 people
died due to hydrological
disasters (floods and landslides)
between 2000 and 2016³³
112 million
people were affected by
floods 2005-2015²⁰
4
UNU-INWEH
Water, sanitation and health (WASH) crisis
Although progress has been made in supplying drinking water to more
people year on year, 663 million people still lack ‘improved’ drinking
water sources in 2015³⁷ - and for many people, this ‘improved’ water is not
always safe, reliable, affordable or accessible with equity. For example,
around 45 million people in Bangladesh drink water that contains arsenic
concentrations greater than WHO standards allow³⁸.
Sanitation and hygiene have made less progress, with 2.4 billion people
lacking improved sanitation facilities³⁹. Equity in sanitation and hygiene
access is of particular concern. Seven out of ten people without improved
sanitation facilities, and nine out of ten people still practicing open defecation, live in rural areas; and a lack of
these services often disproportionately affect women and girls, who can not only suffer health repercussions but
personal danger when services are not available and not secure. Diarrheal diseases, long associated with poor
water and sanitation, account for 1 in 9 child deaths worldwide, making diarrhea the third leading cause of death
among children under the age of 5⁴⁰. Poor water, sanitation and hygiene are major contributors to neglected
tropical diseases like schistosomiasis, trachoma and intestinal worms, which affect more than 1.5 billion people
every year⁴¹.
It is not only households that lack adequate services: in low and middle income countries (LMICs), workplaces,
schools and health facilities also lack WASH. In a 2015 survey of LMICs, 38% of health facilities did not have an
improved water source, 35% did not have soap and water for handwashing and 19% did not have improved
sanitation⁴². The lack of universal WASH in schools costs an estimated 1863 million days of school attendance
globally⁴³.
The WASH crisis does not only affect low income countries. In Canada, there are approximately five thousand
homes in First Nations communities that lack basic water and sewage services⁴⁴. Compared to other Canadians,
First Nations’ homes are ninety times more likely to be without running water⁴⁵.
If radical change is not affected, universal water, sanitation and hygiene – as described in SDG targets 6.1 and
6.2 - will not be reached. A World Bank report⁴⁶ found that capital investments must increase by approximately 3
times to achieve the water supply, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) targets globally. Another study has estimated
that WASH efforts will need to exceed current trends by almost four times to achieve SDG 6.1 and 6.2 by 2030⁴⁷.
Unsafe water, poor sanitation
and hygiene cause approximately
3.5 million
deaths worldwide; the latter
estimate represents 25 per cent
of the deaths of children
younger than 14⁴⁸
2.4 billion people
- more than one third
of the global population –
do not use improved
sanitation facilities⁴⁹
One in ten people
has no choice but to
defecate in the open⁵⁰
Globally, approximately
US$260 billion
is lost each year to the effects of poor
sanitation and unsafe water on many
aspects of the economy, but most
significantly on healthcare⁵¹
In India, the time spent looking for a
toilet or finding somewhere to go in
the open costs the economy over
US$10 billion
every year in lost productivity
– 20% of GDP⁵²
1,000 children
die each day due to preventable
water and sanitation-related
diseases⁵³
people now use a source
of drinking water
contaminated by faeces³⁶
1.8 billion
52
UNU-INWEH
Water infrastructure deterioration and destruction
Under the Millennium Development Goals, many populations counted as being
'served' by water supply actually were allocated to systems that had failed. Although
there may be as many as 60,000 new handpumps being constructed in Africa every
year⁵⁶, a 2007 study found 36% of hand pumps across 21 countries in sub-Saharan
Africa were not functional⁵⁷. This represents a loss of between US$1.2 and 1.5 billion in
investments.
The total cost to water utilities worldwide caused by ‘non-revenue water’ – a
combination of physical and commercial losses - has been conservatively estimated
at US$141 billion per year. In developing countries, approximately 45 million cubic
meters per day are lost through water infrastructure leakage — enough to serve nearly 200
million people⁵⁸. This problem will only get worse if water infrastructure is not
maintained properly, even for high income countries; for example, the capital
investment needed to maintain aging water infrastructure in the USA will reach an
estimated US$195 billion in 2040, but if current funding trends continue, needs will be
underfunded by US$144 billion⁵⁹.
Until the SDGs began in 2015, there was far less international focus on
infrastructure and processes for wastewater treatment, water recycling, and water
efficiency, with significant negative impacts in many areas. For example, poorly
treated wastewater is used for agriculture in many low income countries, but children (8-12 years) in areas using
wastewater have been shown to have a 75% prevalence rate for gastroenteritis, compared to 13% in areas using
freshwater, bringing a 73% higher health cost per child in areas using wastewater⁶⁰.
The failure of water systems is often considered a governance issue. In the water sector, the fragmentation of
actors and of accountabilities hinders and undermines transparency and economic efficiency and opens doors
for corruption. Institutional dysfunction, unethical practices, opaque decision-making, poor accountability, and
corruption are reportedly common, but difficult to quantify⁶¹.
Water infrastructure that is damaged deliberately can also have tremendous local impacts. For example, one air
strike in December 2016 in Syria cut water supplies for 3.5 million people and, while some pumping was restored
relatively quickly, 1.4 million had continued reduced supply⁶². Since 2011, water and water infrastructure have
been used as a military target in Syria, Ukraine, India, Israel, Yemen, Libya, Afghanistan, Somalia, the Democratic
Republic of Congo, South Sudan, Sudan and Iraq⁶³.
80%
or more wastewater
returns to the environment
without adequate
treatment⁵⁴
In low-income countries, only
8% of industrial and
municipal wastewater
undergoes treatment of any kind⁶⁴
In lower-middle-income countries, only
28%
of wastewater is treated⁶⁵
Globally, it has been estimated that between
5 and 20 million hectares
of land are irrigated with untreated
wastewater⁶⁶
30%
of global water
abstraction is lost through
leakage⁵⁵
6
UNU-INWEH
While the effectiveness of water management varies dramatically
between countries, a rapid scale-up in effort and resources will be
needed for most countries to achieve Sustainable Development
Goal 6 and to support other water-related or water-impacted SDGs.
A 2016 study wrote that “the longer governments take to act, the
harder it will be to deliver on their promises by 2030”, and that
overall, every 3 years of inaction will mean that the amount of effort
needed to succeed will increase exponentially⁶⁸.
Beyond SDG 6 – the ‘water goal’- water is fundamental to life
and livelihoods. The success of SDG 6 will underpin progress in
many other goals, including those for human health, universal
education and urban progress. Water security is fundamental to
poverty alleviation, and water resource management impacts almost
all aspects of economic activity, including food production and security, industry, energy production,
and transport⁶⁹.
However, these human activities often degrade water resources. 2 million tons of human waste are disposed
of in water courses every day⁷⁰; 15–18 billion m³ of freshwater resources are contaminated by fossil fuel
production every year⁷¹; and the food sector contributes 40 and 54% to the production of organic water pollutants
in high-income and low- income countries respectively ⁷². Severe pathogenic pollution affects around one-third
of all rivers, severe organic pollution around one-seventh of all rivers, and severe and moderate salinity pollution
around one-tenth of all river stretches in Latin America, Africa and Asia⁷³.
To move beyond simply ‘ticking off’ sustainability indicators to true sustainability in the water sector, Member
States must consider the full cost of water and the services it provides.
Unsustainable development
Or more than 3 times the current level of
capital investment is needed to achieve
the Sustainable Development Goals on
water supply, sanitation and hygiene
(WASH). the amount of money needed
to meet the other targets of the “water
goal” is currently
US$114 billion per year
Unknown⁶⁷
A 2°C rise in global average temperature could mean additional water-related costs between
US$13.7 billion and $19.2 billion
per year from 2020 to 2050, mostly through water supply and flood management⁷⁴
Regionally, the global limit of ecological
sustainability of water available for
abstraction is reported to have
been exceeded for about
one-third
of the human population.
This will rise to about half of the
human population by 2030⁷⁶
Of the world’s 263 transboundary
basins, more than
60% lack
any type of cooperative
management framework⁷⁷
Wealthier diets cost water:
Producing 1 kg of rice requires around
3,500 L of water,
while 1 kg of beef costs
15,000 L⁷⁵
Wastewater-related emissions of methane and nitrous oxide
could rise by 50% and 25%,
respectively, between 1990 and 2020⁷⁸
7
UNU-INWEH
All freshwater ultimately depends on the
continued, healthy functioning of ecosystems.
Recognising the water cycle as a biophysical
process is essential to achieving sustainable
water management⁸⁰ and securing the ecosystem
services that humans rely on.
The water- related services provided by
tropical forests include the regulation of water
flows, waste treatment and water purification and
erosion prevention; these collectively account for a value of up to US$7,236 per hectare per year – more than
44% of the total value of forests, exceeding the values of carbon storage, food, timber, and recreation and tourism
services combined⁸¹. Despite this, between 1997 and 2011, US$4.3 to US$20.2 trillion per year worth of
ecosystem services were lost due to land use change.
Freshwater ecosystems themselves provide more than US$75 billion in goods and ecosystem services for
people annually; they also sustain a disproportionately large number of species, including a quarter of all known
vertebrates⁸². However, wetlands are being increasingly threatened by a host of problems. Since 1900,
64% of the world’s wetlands have disappeared⁸³. This degradation has been valued at US$20 trillion in lost
ecosystem services annually⁸⁴. According to some estimates the populations of freshwater species declined by 76 %
between 1970 and 2010⁸⁵; Nearly one-third of the world’s amphibians are at risk of extinction and in some
regions, more than 50% of native freshwater fish species are at risk of extinction⁸⁶.
Wetlands are also carbon sinks. Peatlands –lands with peat at the surface- cover only 3% of the Earth’s land
surface, but store nearly double the carbon than all the world’s forests combined, if they are kept wet. An overall
loss of 15% of peatlands has been reported, which translates to a contribution of 5% of all global anthropogenic
carbon dioxide emissions⁸⁷. Almost half (45%) of the peatlands in the Nordic and Baltic States have been drained
and emit almost 80 megatons of carbon dioxide annually – which is 25% of the total carbon dioxide emissions
of these countries⁸⁸.
Ecosystem degradation
12.6 million
deaths were attributable to the
environment globally in 2012⁷⁹
Eutrophication of surface water and
coastal zones is expected to increase
almost everywhere until 2030. Globally,
the number of lakes with harmful algal
blooms will increase by at least
20% until 2050⁹⁰
It is estimated that the number of people living
in environments with high water quality risks
due to excessive biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD) will affect
one fifth
of the global population in 2050, while people
facing risks from excessive nitrogen and
phosphorous will increase to
one third
of the global population over the same period⁸⁹
There has been a
30%
decline in biodiversity
health since 1970⁹²
Between US$4.3 and US$20.2 trillion per year
worth of ecosystem services were lost between
1997 and 2011 due to land use change⁹³
Inefficient use of water for crop
production has caused salinization
of
20%
of the global
irrigated land area⁹¹
THIS FACT >>
8
UNU-INWEH
References
¹ 2030 WRG (2030 World Resources Group), 2009. Charting our Water Future: Economic Frameworks to Inform Decision-making. http://www.
mckinsey.com/business-functions/sustainability-and-resource-productivity/our-insights/charting-our-water-future
² OECD, 2012. Environmental Outlook to 2050: the consequences of inaction. OECD 2012. http://www.oecd.org/env/indicators-modelling-out-
looks/oecd-environmental-outlook-1999155x.htm
³ FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), 2009. How to Feed the World in 2050. FAO, Rome. http://www.fao.org/wsfs/
forum2050/wsfs-background-documents/wsfs-expert-papers/en/
⁴ OECD, 2012. Environmental Outlook to 2050: the consequences of inaction. OECD 2012. http://www.oecd.org/env/indicators-modelling-out-
looks/oecd-environmental-outlook-1999155x.htm
⁵ Jacob D. Petersen-Perlman, Jennifer C. Veilleux & Aaron T. Wolf, 2017. International water conflict and cooperation: challenges and opportuni-
ties, Water International, 42(2):105-120. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02508060.2017.1276041
⁶ Rieu-Clarke, A., Allan, A. and Hendry, S. 2017: Routledge Handbook of Water Law and Policy https://www.routledge.com/Routledge-Hand-
book-of-Water-Law-and-Policy/Rieu-Clarke-Allan-Hendry/p/book/9781138121201
⁷ CRED (Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters), 2016. Preliminary Data: Human impact of natural disasters. CRED Crunch Issue
45. http://www.cedat.be/publications
⁸ Zhang, D., Yan, D., Lu, F., Wang, Y. and Feng, J., 2015. Copula-based risk assessment of drought in Yunnan province, China Natural Hazards
75:2199–2220. http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11069-014-1419-6
⁹ Chen, H., Wang, J. and Huang, J., 2014. Policy Support, Social Capital, and Farmers’ Adaptation to Drought in China. Global Environmental
Change 24:193–202. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378013002173
¹⁰ Sadoff, C. W., Hall, J. W., Grey, D., Aerts, J. C. J. H., Ait-Kadi, M., Brown, C., Cox, A., Dadson, S., Garrick, D., Kelman, J., McCornick, P., Ringler,
C., Rosegrant, M., Whittington, D. and Wiberg, D., 2015. Securing Water, Sustaining Growth: Report of the GWP/OECD Task Force on Water
Security and Sustainable Growth. University of Oxford, Oxford UK. http://www.water.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/SCHOOL-OF-GEOG-
RAPHY-SECURING-WATER-SUSTAINING-GROWTH-DOWNLOADABLE.pdf
¹¹ Calculated from FAO AQUASTAT (http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/main/index.stm) using Renewable internal freshwater resources per
capita (cubic meters)
¹² WWAP (World Water Assessment Programme), 2012. The United Nations World Water Development Report 4: Managing Water Under Uncer-
tainty and Risk. UNESCO, Paris. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/water/wwap/wwdr/wwdr4-2012/
¹³ United Nations, (n.d.) Water. http://www.un.org/en/sections/issues-depth/water/
¹⁴ OECD, 2012. Environmental Outlook to 2050: The Consequences of Inaction, OECD Publishing, Paris. http://www.oecd.org/env/indicators-
modelling-outlooks/oecd-environmental-outlook-1999155x.htm
¹⁵ FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), 2011. The State of the World’s Land and Water Resources for Food and Agri-
culture (SOLAW) – Managing systems at risk. FAO, Rome, and Earthscan, London. http://www.fao.org/docrep/017/i1688e/i1688e00.htm
¹⁶ FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), 2009. How to Feed the World in 2050. FAO, Rome. http://www.fao.org/wsfs/
forum2050/wsfs-background-documents/wsfs-expert-papers/en/
¹⁷ World Bank Group, 2016. High and Dry: Climate Change, Water, and the Economy. World Bank, Washington DC. http://www.worldbank.org/
en/topic/water/publication/high-and-dry-climate-change-water-and-the-economy
¹⁸ Jiménez Cisneros, B.E., T. Oki, N.W. Arnell, G. Benito, J.G. Cogley, P. Döll, T. Jiang, and S.S. Mwakalila, 2014:Freshwater resources. In: Climate
Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assess-
ment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Field, C.B., V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken, K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea, T.E. Bilir, M.
Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea, and L.L. White (eds.)]. Cam-
bridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 229-269. https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg2/
WGIIAR5-Chap3_FINAL.pdf
¹⁹ WWAP (United Nations World Water Assessment Programme), 2016. The United Nations World Water Development Report 2016: Water and
Jobs. Paris, UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002439/243938e.pdf
²⁰ Calculated from EM-DAT: The International Disasters Database. http://www.emdat.be/
²¹ Vahid Alavian, V., Qaddumi, H., Dickson, E., Diez, S., Danilenko, A., Hirji, R., Puz, G., Pizarro, C., Jacobsen, M., Blakespoor, B., 2009. Water and
Climate Change: Understanding the Risks and Making Climate-smart Investment Decisions. The World Bank, New York. http://siteresources.
worldbank.org/EXTNTFPSI/Resources/DPWaterClimateChangeweblarge.pdf
²² CRED (Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters), 2013. Disaster Data: A balanced perspective, CRED Crunch Issue 32. http://www.
cedat.be/publications
²³ OECD, 2012. Environmental Outlook to 2050: the consequences of inaction. OECD Publishing, Paris. http://www.oecd.org/env/indicators-mod-
elling-outlooks/oecd-environmental-outlook-1999155x.htm
²⁴ UNISDR (UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction), 2011. Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction. UNISDR, Geneva. https://www.
unisdr.org/we/inform/publications/19846
9
UNU-INWEH
²⁵ UNU (United Nations University), 2004. Two Billion People Vulnerable to Floods by 2050: Number Expected to Double or More in Two Genera-
tions. News Release. UNU, Tokyo. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/06/040614081820.htm
²⁶ UNISDR (UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction), 2015. Flash floods are a major global threat says UN. News release, UNISDR, Geneva. https://
www.unisdr.org/archive/46061
²⁷ UNISDR (United Nations Disaster Risk Reduction Office), 2017. Five Wetlands That Help us Cope with Extreme Weather Events. http://www.
worldwetlandsday.org/documents/10184/164097/WWD17_Handout2_engl2_HR2_+desktop+print+.pdf/4ae20093-86f4-4cd9-a872-c664cb167aca
²⁸ UNISDR (United Nations Disaster Risk Reduction Office), 2017. Wetlands: a natural safeguard against disasters. http://www.worldwetlandsday.
org/documents/10184/164097/WWD17_Handout_engl1_HR2_desktop+print+.pdf/d8e8728b-3ed7-4686-a174-9ebe02d047bd
²⁹ UNISDR (United Nations Disaster Risk Reduction Office), 2017. Five Wetlands That Help us Cope with Extreme Weather Events. http://www.
worldwetlandsday.org/documents/10184/164097/WWD17_Handout2_engl2_HR2_+desktop+print+.pdf/4ae20093-86f4-4cd9-a872-c664cb167aca
³⁰ Preventionweb, 2017. Disaster Risk and Environmental Degradation. http://www.preventionweb.net/risk/environmental-degradation
³¹ United Nations, 2016. Sustainable Development Goals. Goal 6: Ensure access to water and sanitation for all, Facts and figures. http://www.
un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/
³² Guha-Sapir, D., Hoyois, P. and Below, R., 2014. Annual Disaster Statistical Review 2013: The Numbers and Trends. Centre for Research on the
Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED), Institute of Health and Society (IRSS), Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels. www.cred.be/sites/default/
files/ADSR_2013.pdf
³³ Calculated from the International Disaster Database (EM-DAT) from Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED). http://www.
emdat.be/
³⁴ Scheffran, J., Brzoska, M., Brauch, H. G., Link, P. M. and Schilling, J. (eds), 2012. Climate Change, Human Security and Violent Conflict. Springer,
Berlin/New York. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S096262980700039X
³⁵ Calculated from the International Disaster Database (EM-DAT) from Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED). http://www.
emdat.be/
³⁶ Bain, R., Cronk, R., Hossain, R., Bonjour, S., Onda, K., Wright, J., Yang, H., Slaymaker, T., Hunter, P., Pruss-Ustun, A., Bartram, J., 2014. Global
assessment of exposure to faecal contamination through drinking water based on a systematic review. Tropical Medicine and International Health
19(8) pp 917–927. Wiley. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/tmi.12334/abstract
³⁷ Guha-Sapir, D., Hoyois, P. and Below, R., 2014. Annual Disaster Statistical Review 2013: The Numbers and Trends. Centre for Research on the
Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED), Institute of Health and Society (IRSS), Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels. www.cred.be/sites/default/
files/ADSR_2013.pdf
³⁸ Flanagan, SV, Johnston RB and Zheng Y., 2012. Arsenic in tube well water in Bangladesh: health and economic impacts and implications for
arsenic mitigation. Bull World Health Organ 90:839-846. https://www.scienceopen.com/document?vid=ea6da984-9275-45e6-8c85-efd78fb8adba
³⁹ JMP (Joint Monitoring Programme of Water Supply and Sanitation, UNICEF and WHO), 2015. Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2015
Update and MDG Assessment. WHO, Geneva. https://www.unicef.org/publications/index_82419.html
⁴⁰ CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention), 2017. Diarrhea: Common Illness, Global Killer. https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/global/
diarrhea-burden.html
⁴¹JMP (Joint Monitoring Programme of Water Supply and Sanitation, UNICEF and WHO), 2015. Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2015
Update and MDG Assessment. WHO, Geneva. https://www.unicef.org/publications/index_82419.html
⁴² WHO and UNICEF, 2015. Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Health Care Facilities: status in low and middle income countries and a way forward.
WHO, Geneva. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/wash-health-care-facilities/en/
⁴³ WHO (World Health Organization), 2004. Water, sanitation and hygiene links to health. Facts and figures. WHO, Geneva. http://www.who.int/
water_sanitation_health/publications/facts2004/en/
⁴⁴ UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR), 2004, Implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights: Addendum to the Fourth Periodic Reports Submitted by State Parties, Canada, UNESCOR, 19th Sess, UN Doc E/C.12/4/Add.15
at 84 [Implementation of ICESCR]. http://www.refworld.org/publisher,CESCR,STATEPARTIESREP,,,,0.html
⁴⁵ United Nations, 2009. The State of the World’s Indigenous Peoples, STT/ESA/328. UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Division of
Social Policy and Development, Secretariat of the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues. United Nations, New York. http://www.un.org/esa/
socdev/unpfii/documents/SOWIP/en/SOWIP_web.pdf
⁴⁶ Hutton, G. & Varughese, M., 2016. The Costs of Meeting the 2030 Sustainable Development Goal Targets on Drinking Water, Sanitation, and
Hygiene, Technical Paper 103171, Water and Sanitation Program. http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/water/publication/the-costs-of-meeting-
the-2030-sustainable-development-goal-targets-on-drinking-water-sanitation-and-hygiene
⁴⁷ Nicolai, S., Hoy, C., Berliner, T., and Aedy, T., 2015. Projecting progress: Reaching the SDGs by 2030. Flagship Report, Overseas Development
Institute, London. https://www.odi.org/publications/9895-projecting-progress-reaching-sdgs-2030
⁴⁸ UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme), 2016. Healthy Environment, Healthy People. Thematic Report for the Ministerial policy review
session of the Second Session of the United Nations Environment Assembly of the United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, 23–27 May
2016. http://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/17602/K1602727%20INF%205%20Eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
10
UNU-INWEH
⁴⁹ JMP (Joint Monitoring Programme of Water Supply and Sanitation, UNICEF and WHO), 2015. Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2015
Update and MDG Assessment. WHO, Geneva. https://www.unicef.org/publications/index_82419.html
⁵⁰JMP (Joint Monitoring Programme of Water Supply and Sanitation, UNICEF and WHO), 2015. Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2015
Update and MDG Assessment. WHO, Geneva. https://www.unicef.org/publications/index_82419.html
⁵¹ Hutton, G., (2012). Global costs and benefits of drinking-water supply and sanitation interventions to reach the MDG target and universal cover-
age, p5. WHO, Geneva. http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/water/publication/the-costs-of-meeting-the-2030-sustainable-development-goal-
targets-on-drinking-water-sanitation-and-hygiene
⁵² Tyagi, A., 2012. Inadequate sanitation costs India Rs.2.4 trillion (US$53.8 billion). Economic impacts of inadequate sanitation in India; Water and
sanitation program. World Bank, Washington, DC. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/285381468260122313/Inadequate-sanitation-
costs-India-Rs-2-4-trillion-US-53-8-billion
⁵³ United Nations, 2016. Sustainable Development Goals. Goal 6: Ensure access to water and sanitation for all, facts and figures. http://www.
un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/
⁵⁴ WWAP (World Water Assessment Programme), 2012.The United Nations World Water Development Report 4: Managing Water under Uncer-
tainty and Risk. UNESCO, Paris. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/water/wwap/wwdr/wwdr4-2012/
⁵⁵ Kingdom, B., Liemberger, R. and Marin, P., 2006. The Challenge of Reducing Non-revenue Water (NRW) in Developing Countries - How the
Private Sector can Help: A Look at Performance-based Service Contracting. Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Board Discussion Paper Series
No. 8. Washington, DC, The World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/17238
⁵⁶ Fisher, M., Shields, K., Chan, T., Christenson, E., Cronk, R., Leker, H., Samani, D., Apoya, P., Lutz, A., Bartram, J., 2015. Understanding hand-
pump sustainability: Determinants of rural water source functionality in the Greater Afram Plains region of Ghana. Water Resources Research 51
pp 8431-8499. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2014WR016770/abstract
⁵⁷ RWSN (Rural Water Supply Network), 2009. Triple S Briefing: Providing Reliable Rural Water Services That Last. http://reliefweb.int/report/
uganda/triple-s-briefing-providing-reliable-rural-water-services-last
⁵⁸ Kingdom, B., Liemberger, R. and Marin, P., 2006. The Challenge of Reducing Non-revenue Water (NRW) in Developing Countries - How the Pri-
vate Sector can Help: A Look at Performance-based Service Contracting. Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Board Discussion Paper Series No.
8. The World Bank, Washington DC. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/385761468330326484/The-challenge-of-reducing-non-revenue-
water-NRW-in-developing-countries-how-the-private-sector-can-help-a-look-at-performance-based-service-contracting
⁵⁹ American Society of Civil Engineers, 2011. Failure to Act: The economic impact of current investment trends in water and waste water treat-
ment infrastructure, Washington DC. http://www.asce.org/water_and_wastewater_report/
⁶⁰ Grangier, C., Qadir, M. and Singh, M., 2012. Health Implications for Children in Wastewater-Irrigated Peri-urban Aleppo, Syria. Water Quality,
Exposure and Health 4(4):187-195. Springer http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12403-012-0078-7
⁶¹ OECD, 2014. Water Integrity Workshop Report, OECD Conference Centre, Paris, France. http://www.oecd.org/cfe/regional-policy/OECD-
Water-Integrity-Workshop-Report.pdf
⁶² Reuters, 2015. ‘U.N. condemns air strike that cut water supplies to Syria's Aleppo’, Tue Dec 1, 2015. http://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-
crisis-aleppo-water-idUSKBN0TK4F020151201
⁶³ Pacific Institute, 2017. Water Conflict Chronology List. http://www2.worldwater.org/conflict/list/
⁶⁴ Sato, T., Qadir, M., Yamamoto, S., Endo, T. and Zahoor, A., 2013. Global, regional, and country level need for data on wastewater generation,
treatment, and use. Agricultural Water Management, 130, pp. 1–13. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378377413002163
⁶⁵ WWAP (World Water Assessment Programme), 2017. The United Nations World Water Development Report 2017: Wastewater the
Untapped Resource. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Paris. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/
images/0024/002471/247153e.pdf
⁶⁶ Drechsel, P., Scott, C. A., Raschid-Sally, L., Redwood, M. and Bahri, A. 2010. Wastewater Irrigation and Health. London/ Ottawa/Colombo,
Earthscan/International Devel-opment Research Centre (IDRC)/International Water Management Institute (IWMI). https://www.idrc.ca/en/book/
wastewater-irrigation-and-health-assessing-and-mitigating-risk-low-income-countries
⁶⁷ Hutton, G., & Varughese, M., 2016. The Costs of Meeting the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals and Targets on Drinking Water, Sanitation,
and Hygiene. World Bank, Water and Sanitation Program, Washington DC. http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/water/publication/the-costs-of-
meeting-the-2030-sustainable-development-goal-targets-on-drinking-water-sanitation-and-hygiene
⁶⁸ Stuart, E. et al., 2016. Leaving No one Behind: A critical path for the first 1,000 days of the Sustainable Development Goals. Overseas Develop-
ment Institute, London. https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/resource-documents/10691.pdf
⁶⁹ World Bank, 2009. Water Resources: Managing a Scarce, Shared Resource. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/659671468329099994/
Water-resources-managing-a-scarce-shared-resource
⁷⁰ WWAP (World Water Assessment Programme), 2017. The United Nations World Water Development Report 2017: Wastewater the
Untapped Resource. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Paris. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/
images/0024/002471/247153e.pdf
⁷¹ WWAP (World Water Assessment Programme), 2017. The United Nations World Water Development Report World Water Development
Report: Water and Energy. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Paris. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/
natural-sciences/environment/water/wwap/wwdr/2014-water-and-energy/
11
UNU-INWEH
⁷² United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2007. Global Environment Outlook 4: Environment for Development. http://www.unep.org/
geo/geo/assessments/global-assessments/global-environment-outlook-4
⁷³ UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme), 2016. A Snapshot of the World’s Water Quality: towards a global assessment. UNEP, Nairobi.
https://uneplive.unep.org/media/docs/assessments/unep_wwqa_report_web.pdf
⁷⁴ World Bank. 2010. Economics of adaptation to climate change - Synthesis report. World Bank, Washington DC. http://www.worldbank.org/en/
news/feature/2011/06/06/economics-adaptation-climate-change
⁷⁵ Hoekstra, A. and Chapagain, A. 2008. The Global Component of Freshwater Demand and Supply: an assessment of virtual water flows be-
tween nations as a result of trade in agricultural and industrial products. Water International, 33 (1), pp 19-32. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/
abs/10.1080/02508060801927812
⁷⁶ WWAP (World Water Assessment Programme). 2012. The United Nations World Water Development Report 4: Managing Water under Uncer-
tainty and Risk. UNESCO, Paris. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/water/wwap/wwdr/wwdr4-2012/
⁷⁷ UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme), 2002. The World’s International Freshwater Agreements. UNEP Press, Nairobi. http://www.
transboundarywaters.orst.edu/publications/atlas/
⁷⁸ UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme), 2011. Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradica-
tion. UNEP Press, Nairobi. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?page=view&type=400&nr=126&menu=35
⁷⁹ Prüss-Üstün, A., & Neira, M., 2016. Preventing Disease Through Healthy Environments: a global assessment of the burden of disease from envi-
ronmental risks. World Health Organization, Geneva. http://www.who.int/quantifying_ehimpacts/publications/preventing-disease/en/
⁸⁰ WWAP (World Water Assessment Programme), 2012.The United Nations World Water Development Report 4: Managing Water under Uncer-
tainty and Risk. UNESCO, Paris. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/water/wwap/wwdr/wwdr4-2012/
⁸¹ TEEB (The Economics of Ecosystems & Biodiversity), 2009. TEEB Climate Issues Update. UNEP Press, Geneva. http://www.teebweb.org/publi-
cation/climate-issues-update/
⁸² Vié, J.-C., Hilton-Taylor, C. and Stuart, S.N. (eds.), 2009. Wildlife in a Changing World – An Analysis of the 2008 IUCN Red List of Threat-
ened Species. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. https://www.iucn.org/content/wildlife-changing-world-analysis-2008-iucn-red-list-threatened-
species%E2%84%A2
⁸³ Ramsar Wetland Convention, 2016. Wetlands: A global disappearing Act. Fact sheet 3. http://www.ramsar.org/sites/default/files/documents/
library/factsheet3_global_disappearing_act_0.pdf
⁸⁴ Costanza, R., de Groot, R., Sutton, P., van der Ploeg, S., Anderson, S.J., Kubiszewski, I., Farber, S. and Turner, R.K., 2014. Changes in the global
value of ecosystem services. Global Environmental Change, 26:152-158. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378014000685
⁸⁵ McRae L, Freeman R & Marconi V (2016) 'The Living Planet Index' in: Living Planet Report 2016: Risk and resilience in a new era (ed. Oerlemans
N). WWF International, Gland, Switzerland. http://www.livingplanetindex.org/publications
⁸⁶ Vié, J.-C., Hilton-Taylor, C. and Stuart, S.N. (eds.), 2009. Wildlife in a Changing World – An Analysis of the 2008 IUCN Red List of Threat-
ened Species. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. https://www.iucn.org/content/wildlife-changing-world-analysis-2008-iucn-red-list-threatened-
species%E2%84%A2
⁸⁷ Ramsar Wetland Convention 2016. Keep Peatlands Wet for a Better Future. Fact sheet 8. http://www.ramsar.org/sites/default/files/documents/
library/fs_8_peatlands_en_v5.pdf
⁸⁸ Norden, 2015. Peatlands, Climate Change Mitigation and Biodiversity Conservation. Nordic Council of Ministers, Denmark. http://www.ramsar.
org/sites/default/files/documents/library/ny_2._korrektur_anp_peatland.pdf
⁸⁹ Veolia and IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute), 2015. The Murky Future of Global Water Quality. A White Paper. http://www.ifpri.
org/publication/murky-future-global-water-quality-new-global-study-projects-rapid-deterioration-water
⁹⁰ UNDESA (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs), 2012. Back to our Common Future: Sustainable Development in the
21st Century (SD21) Project. United Nations (UN), New York. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/UN-DESA_Back_Com-
mon_Future_En.pdf
⁹¹ FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), 2011. The State of the World's Land and Water Resources for Food and Agri-
culture: Managing systems at risk. London/Rome, Earthscan/FAO. http://www.fao.org/nr/solaw/solaw-home/en/
⁹² WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature), 2012. Living Planet Report 2012: Biodiversity, Biocapacity and Better Choices. Gland, Switzerland, WWF
international. http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/all_publications/living_planet_report_timeline/lpr_2012/
⁹³ Costanza, R., de Groot, R., Sutton, P., van der Ploeg, S., Anderson, S.J., Kubiszewski, I., Farber, S. and Turner, R.K., 2014. Changes in the Global
Value of Ecosystem Services. Global Environmental Change, 26: 152-158. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378014000685
12
UNU-INWEH
United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment and Health
204 - 175 Longwood Road South, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, L8P 0A1
Tel: +905 667-5511 Fax: +905 667 5510
