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R E S E A R C H Open Access
Oligohydramnios: a prospective study of
fetal, neonatal and maternal outcomes in
low-middle income countries
Lester Figueroa
1
, Elizabeth M. McClure
2*
, Jonathan Swanson
3
, Robert Nathan
3
, Ana L. Garces
1
, Janet L. Moore
2
,
Nancy F. Krebs
4
, K. Michael Hambidge
4
, Melissa Bauserman
5
, Adrien Lokangaka
6
, Antoinette Tshefu
6
,
Waseem Mirza
7
, Sarah Saleem
8
, Farnaz Naqvi
8
, Waldemar A. Carlo
9
, Elwyn Chomba
10
, Edward A. Liechty
11
,
Fabian Esamai
12
, David Swanson
13
, Carl L. Bose
5
and Robert L. Goldenberg
14
Abstract
Background: Oligohydramnios is a condition of abnormally low amniotic fluid volume that has been associated
with poor pregnancy outcomes. To date, the prevalence of this condition and its outcomes has not been well
described in low and low-middle income countries (LMIC) where ultrasound use to diagnose this condition in
pregnancy is limited. As part of a prospective trial of ultrasound at antenatal care in LMICs, we sought to evaluate
the incidence of and the adverse maternal, fetal and neonatal outcomes associated with oligohydramnios.
Methods: We included data in this report from all pregnant women in community settings in Guatemala, Pakistan,
Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) who received a third trimester ultrasound as part of the First
Look Study, a randomized trial to assess the value of ultrasound at antenatal care. Using these data, we conducted a
planned secondary analysis to compare pregnancy outcomes of women with to those without oligohydramnios.
Oligohydramnios was defined as measurement of an Amniotic Fluid Index less than 5 cm in at least one ultrasound in
the third trimester. The outcomes assessed included maternal morbidity and fetal and neonatal mortality, preterm birth
and low-birthweight. We used pairwise site comparisons with Tukey-Kramer adjustment and multivariable logistic
models using general estimating equations to account for the correlation of outcomes within cluster.
Results: Of 12,940 women enrolled in the clusters in Guatemala, Pakistan, Zambia and the DRC in the First Look Study
who had a third trimester ultrasound examination, 87 women were diagnosed with oligohydramnios, equivalent to
0.7% of those studied. Prevalence of detected oligohydramnios varied among study sites; from the lowest of 0.2% in
Zambia and the DRC to the highest of 1.5% in Pakistan. Women diagnosed with oligohydramnios had higher rates of
hemorrhage, fetal malposition, and cesarean delivery than women without oligohydramnios. We also found
unfavorable fetal and neonatal outcomes associated with oligohydramnios including stillbirths (OR 5.16, 95%CI 2.07,
12.85), neonatal deaths < 28 days (OR 3.18, 95% CI 1.18, 8.57), low birth weight (OR 2.10, 95% CI 1.44, 3.07) and preterm
births (OR 2.73, 95%CI 1.76, 4.23). The mean birth weight was 162g less (95% CI -288.6, −35.9) with oligohydramnios.
Conclusions: Oligohydramnos was associated with worse neonatal, fetal and maternal outcomes inLMIC.Furtherresearch
is needed to assess effective interventions to diagnose and ultimately to reduce poor outcomes in these settings.
Trial registration: NCT01990625.
Keywords: Oligohydramnios, Low and middle-income countries, Ultrasound, Pregnancy outcomes
© The Author(s). 2020 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to
the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver
(http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
* Correspondence: mcclure@rti.org
2
Social Statistical and Environmental Health Sciences, RTI International,
Durham, NC, USA
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
Figueroa et al. Reproductive Health (2020) 17:19
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-020-0854-y
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Plain English summary
Low levels of amniotic fluid (also known as oligohy-
dramnios) have been associated with a number of ad-
verse pregnancy outcomes in high-income countries. In
this analysis of data from pregnancies in the First Look
Trial from Guatemala, Pakistan, Zambia and the Demo-
cratic Republic of Congo involving nearly 13,000 women
with a third trimester ultrasound examination, oligohy-
dramnios was found in about 1 in 150 pregnancies. Oli-
gohydramnios was associated with higher rates of
maternal hemorrhage, fetal malposition and cesarean de-
livery than in pregnancies without oligohydramnios.
Higher rates of poor fetal/neonatal outcomes were also
associated with oligohydramnios, including a 5-fold in-
crease in stillbirths and a 3-fold increase in deaths
among babies less than 28 days of age. The babies were
also twice as likely to be born prematurely or to be low
birth weight (weigh less than 2500 g). The babies from
pregnancies complicated by oligohydramnios weighed
on average 162 g less than those from pregnancies with-
out oligohydramnios. In summary, similar to results
from high-income countries, in the low- and middle-
income countries studied, oligohydramnios was associ-
ated with a number of pregnancy-related complications
for the mother and her fetus and newborn.
Background
An appropriate volume of amniotic fluid is one of the
most important components of a healthy pregnancy, as
it acts as a protective cushion for the fetus, prevents
compression of the umbilical cord, and promotes fetal
lung development [1]. While the average volume of am-
niotic fluid varies with gestational age, abnormally low
amniotic fluid volume has been associated with adverse
pregnancy outcomes. Oligohydramnios, in which the
volume of amniotic fluid is abnormally low (< 500 ml)
between the 32nd and 36th weeks of pregnancy, is a ser-
ious condition for the fetus and the mother [1,2]. Oligo-
hydramnios can be diagnosed with ultrasound
performed during the late second trimester or the third
trimester and is defined by an Amniotic Fluid Index
(AFI) below 5 cms or below the 5th percentile to ap-
proximate the amniotic fluid volume [3,4].
In settings where ultrasound use is widespread, rates
of oligohydramnios have been reported between 0.5 and
8% among pregnant women [5]. When associated with a
fetal anomaly, oligohydramnios is present in as many as
37% of pregnancies and is higher with other pregnancy
complications [6]. However, because ultrasound is not
commonly used during routine prenatal care in many
low and middle-income country (LMIC) settings, the
population rates of oligohydramnios and the associated
outcomes in LMIC settings are largely unknown.
Maternal conditions such as utero-placental insufficiency,
hypertension, preeclampsia, diabetes, chronic hypoxia, rup-
ture of amniotic membranes, dehydration and post-term
gestation have been associated with oligohydramnios [1,2].
Anomalies of the kidneys including congenital absence of
renal tissue, obstructive uropathy or decreased renal perfu-
sion also may be contributing factors [7]. Most oligohy-
dramnios cases, however, are idiopathic [1,2].
Fetal health can be seriously compromised by oligohydram-
nios, with complications such as pulmonary hypoplasia, meco-
nium aspiration syndrome, fetal compression and, in cases of
prolonged rupture of membranes, infections [1,2,8,9].
Women with oligohydramnios are more likely to have an in-
fant with low birth weight [10–13]. In terms of burden of care,
higher rates of cesarean delivery for fetal distress and neonatal
admission to the intensive care unit have also been associated
with oligohydramnios [4,8]. Timely identification and treat-
ment have been associated with improvement in some mater-
nal and fetal/neonatal outcomes. When detected, clinical
management of women with oligohydramnios can include
amnioinfusion, early induction of labor and even cesarean de-
livery [13,14]. However, gaps in knowledge remain, including
the incidence of oligohydramnios in LMIC, the role of the
underlying conditions associated with oligohydramnios and
their association with oligohydramnios and adverse pregnancy
outcomes [15–17].
To address this need, we conducted a secondary analysis
of data from the First Look Trial, which aimed to deter-
mine if the introduction of ultrasound examinations dur-
ing antenatal care in low-resource settings improved
maternal mortality, maternal near-miss mortality, stillbirth
and neonatal mortality. The methods and results of the
parent trial have been published [17,18]. Our objectives
in conducting this planned secondary analysis included
determining the prevalence of oligohydramnios, risk fac-
tors for this condition, and the maternal and fetal out-
comes associated with oligohydramnios in LMIC settings.
Methods
We evaluated oligohydramnios among women enrolled
in the First Look Trial, a multi-country cluster random-
ized study that enrolled pregnant women in rural areas
within Guatemala, Pakistan, Kenya, Zambia and the
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Briefly, as part of
the trial, at each site, medical officers, nurses, midwives
and radiographers with no prior ultrasound experience
were trained to perform basic obstetric ultrasound ex-
aminations to determine gestational age and screen for
high-risk conditions. All sonographers received stan-
dardized training using the Basic Obstetric Ultrasound
Training methodology developed by the University of
Washington (UW) team [19–21]. This training consisted
of an intensive two-week training led by the UW team
with both didactic and hands-on components. In
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addition, during the next 3 months, a minimum of five
examinations were observed directly by an experienced
sonographer and all ultrasound examinations, including
the images and interpretation, were evaluated by a senior
radiologist either at UW or at the site for quality assur-
ance (QA) [20]. Using the web-based application, all
ultrasound images were uploaded at the site, then
reviewed by the senior QA radiologist with feedback
provided to the field sonographers on a regular basis
[20,21]. Throughout the trial, quality control procedures
were used to assess and maintain a high rate of accuracy
for the ultrasound diagnoses. We emphasize that all sites
used the same equipment and that the criteria for diag-
nosing oligohydramnios were the same for all sites.
For this analysis, we included those participants who had at
least one ultrasound examination in the third trimester. We
defined oligohydramnios as an amniotic fluid index below 5
cms on one or more ultrasound examinations performed after
28 weeks. All cases of oligohydramnios were confirmed by the
central QA team of experienced radiologists at the UW. In
addition, approximately 10% of all ultrasound examinations
other than those with oligohydramnios were also reviewed for
accuracy. Body mass index (BMI) was defined as the mother’s
weight in kilograms divided by her height in meters squared.
All maternal and infant outcomes up to 6 weeks postpartum
were collected by the Global Network’s Maternal Newborn
Health Registry [22]. We excluded women from the analysis
who were lost to follow-up prior to delivery, maternal deaths
that occurred before 20 weeks, and women who had a miscar-
riage or a medical termination of pregnancy. Because the Ken-
yan site had no cases of oligohydramnios identified in the
third trimester, we present data only from Pakistan, the DRC,
Guatemala and Zambia. However, the results were similar
with and without the Kenyan data.
Data were keyed and edit checks conducted locally before
data were transferred through encrypted transmission to a
central data center. We reported pairwise mean differences
of oligohydramnios for each site and p-values with a
Tukey-Kramer adjustment for multiple comparisons from a
logistic model adjusting for site using generalized estimat-
ing equations (GEE) to account for the correlation of oligo-
hydramnios within cluster. To determine maternal
characteristics associated with oligohydramnios, p-values
were obtained from logistic models using GEE and adjust-
ing for site and each maternal characteristic. In addition,
odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for delivery com-
plications and fetal/neonatal outcomes were obtained from
logistic models, adjusting for oligohydramnios, study site
and prior live birth using GEE to account for the correl-
ation of outcomes within cluster.
Ethics
This study was reviewed and approved by the institu-
tional review boards of participating institutions (Aga
Khan University, Pakistan; Moi University, Kenya; Uni-
versity of Zambia; INCAP, Guatemala; and Kinshasa
School of Public Health, DRC; University of Washing-
ton, Seattle WA; RTI International, Durham NC). All
women provided informed consent prior to enrollment
in the trial.
Results
A total of 12,940 participants in Guatemala, Pakistan,
Zambia and the DRC received at least one third trimester
study ultrasound examination (Fig. 1). Eighty-seven cases
of oligohydramnios, equivalent to 0.7% of the subjects in
this analysis, were detected on a third trimester ultrasound.
Prevalence of oligohydramnios varied among study sites
with the lowest rates in Zambia and the DRC (0.2%) and
the highest in Pakistan (1.5%) (Table 1). We found differ-
ences in prevalence to be statistically significant between
the Guatemalan and Pakistan sites that had the highest
prevalence,incomparisontotheZambiansitethathadthe
lowest prevalence. Mean gestational age at the time of first
diagnosis of oligohydramnios was 35.5 ± 4.1 weeks.
The only significant difference in the maternal charac-
teristics between those women with and without oligo-
hydramnios using a logistic regression model with
primiparas in the model was found in women with a
previous live birth. There were no statistically significant
differences among the other maternal characteristics in-
cluding in the distribution of maternal age, education,
parity, maternal height, weight and BMI between partici-
pants with or without oligohydramnios (Table 2).
Women with oligohydramnios had significantly higher
incidences of hemorrhage (5.7% vs. 1.7%, OR 2.94, 95% CI
1.31, 6.61) and fetal malposition (5.7% vs. 1.9%, OR 2.44,
95% CI 1.07, 5.59) (Table 3). Cesarean deliveries were
more commonly performed in women with oligohydram-
nios compared to those without oligohydramnios (28.7%
vs. 13.5%, OR 2.07, 95% CI 1.41, 3.03). While hypertensive
disorders were more common in women with oligohy-
dramnios, 4.6% compared to 2.2%, we were not able to get
the model to converge, likely due to the low prevalence of
hypertension in the African sites. There were no maternal
deaths among the women with oligohydramnios.
We also found unfavorable fetal and neonatal out-
comes among women with oligohydramnios. Women
with oligohydramnios compared to those without had
higher risk for stillbirths (80.5 per 1000 births vs. 14.9
per 1000 births, OR 5.16, 95% CI 2.07, 12.85), neonatal
deaths within 28 days (75.0 vs 16.7 per 1000 live births,
OR 3.18, 95% CI 1.18, 8.57), low birth weight (29.9% vs
11.7%, OR 2.10, 95% CI 1.44, 3.07) and preterm birth
(31.8% vs 11.4%, OR 2.73, 95% CI 1.76, 4.23). Congenital
anomalies were more common among the offspring of
women with oligohydramnios compared to without oli-
gohydramnios (2.6% vs. 0.1%, respectively) but likely due
Figueroa et al. Reproductive Health (2020) 17:19 Page 3 of 7
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to small numbers, the logistic regression model did not
converge. The mean birth weight was significantly lower
in the oligohydramnios group based on the model, with a
mean difference of −162.3 g (95% CI −288.6 g, −35.9 g).
Discussion
The overall prevalence of oligohydramnios on a third tri-
mester ultrasound examination performed on average
around 35 weeks of pregnancy was 0.7% across sites,
with the lowest incidence in Zambia and the DRC (0.2%)
and highest in Pakistan (1.5%). These rates are within
the ranges found in high-income countries and provide
evidence regarding the rate of oligohydramnios in LMIC
settings [4,8–12].
We found no substantial demographic differences
among women with or without this condition. However,
we did find significant differences in delivery complica-
tions; hemorrhage, fetal malposition and cesarean sec-
tion were significantly more common in women with
oligohydramnios. The higher rates of these complica-
tions have been noted in studies from high-income
countries. Most interesting were the fetal and neonatal
outcomes associated with oligohydramnios. The stillbirth
rate was five-fold higher and the neonatal death rate
three-fold higher in this group. The mean birth weight
was lower in women with oligohydramnios by 162 g and
the incidences of low birth weight and preterm birth
were higher. Similar results have been found in stud-
ies from high-income settings [4,8,9,11–13]. During
the parent study we emphasized appropriate referral
and hospital care for conditions diagnosed by ultra-
sound including oligohydramnios. However, care at
many of the study hospitals was less than optimal
and we do not know if better care for women with
oligohydramnios and their neonates would have im-
proved the outcomes.
The strengths of the study included the large sample
size, more than 12,900 pregnant women had a third tri-
mester ultrasound examination. In addition, we had
broad representation with women from 4 countries on 3
continents included in this analysis. The data were all
Table 1 Incidence of oligohydramnios by FIRST LOOK study site
Overall DRC Zambia Guatemala Pakistan
At least one US exam
≥28 weeks, n
12,940 1978 3571 5507 1884
Incidence of
oligohydramnios, n (%)
87
(0.7)
4
(0.2)
6 (0.2) 49 (0.9) 28 (1.5)
GA at first diagnosis,
Mean (sd)
35.5
(4.1)
37.8
(1.4)
35.9
(1.3)
36.6 (3.7) 33.0
(4.3)
Fig. 1 CONSORT diagram
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collected prospectively. Every case in which oligohy-
dramnios was diagnosed was also confirmed by a radi-
ologist with extensive expertise in ultrasonography in
pregnancy [18–21]. Outcome data were collected inde-
pendently from the ultrasound study team as part of an
ongoing pregnancy outcome registry.
Potential weaknesses included the fact that the
sonographers were recently trained and had limited
ultrasound experience, although they received excel-
lent training and their examinations were monitored
during the study. The timing of the stillbirth was
not routinely collected so whether the stillbirth pre-
ceded the diagnosis of oligohydramnios or followed
it is unclear. There were few congenital anomalies in
the oligohydramnios group, so further study of this
issue was impractical. While there was little evidence
of membrane rupture at the time of the diagnosis of
oligohydramnios, routine testing for membrane rup-
ture was not done at that time. The potential rea-
sons for the lower reported rates of oligohydramnios
in the African sites compared to the Guatemalan
and Pakistan sites are unexplained; however, this dis-
crepancy may suggest that some women with oligo-
hydramnios were missed. We emphasize, however,
that every examination diagnosed as having oligohy-
dramnios was confirmed by the QA radiologist. We
also emphasize that since data for this analysis came
from four countries on three continents, and in-
cluded 87 cases of third trimester oligohydramnios,
we believe the maternal, fetal and neonatal outcomes
associated with oligohydramnios are generalizable to
many LMIC.
Conclusions
The incidence of oligohydramnios in our LMIC was
not generally associated with the maternal demo-
graphic characteristics assessed, but oligohydramnios
was associated with a variety of materrnal, fetal and
neonatal adverse outcomes. While this study demon-
strated that newly trained sonographers were capable
of diagnosing oligohydramnios [19–22]andthat
women with oligohydramnios often had worse out-
comes than women withoutoligohydramnios,our
data do not prove that diagnosing oligohydramnios
during pregnancy with ultrasound improves
outcomes.
Some studies from high income countries suggest
that treating some cases of oligohydramnios may im-
prove certain outcomes [13,14,23], but whether in-
terventions such as amnioinfusion or early delivery
or delivery by cesarean section would achieve similar
results in LMICs is unknown [24,25]. The overall
trial showed no benefit of ultrasound for any im-
portant outcome including maternal death or near-
Table 2 Maternal characteristics in women with and without oligohydramnios
With Oligohydramnios No Oligohydramnios Overall p-Value
1
At least one US exam ≥28 weeks, n 87 12,853 12,940
Maternal age (years), n (%) 87 12,849 12,936 0.2766
< 20 17 (19.5) 2185 (17.0) 2202 (17.0)
20–35 61 (70.1) 9577 (74.5) 9638 (74.5)
> 35 9 (10.3) 1087 (8.5) 1096 (8.5)
Maternal education, n (%) 87 12,851 12,938 0.1698
No formal schooling 30 (34.5) 3209 (25.0) 3239 (25.0)
Primary 37 (42.5) 4403 (34.3) 4440 (34.3)
Secondary 19 (21.8) 4873 (37.9) 4892 (37.8)
University 1 (1.1) 366 (2.8) 367 (2.8)
Parity, n (%) 82 12,660 12,742 0.1253
0 25 (30.5) 2993 (23.6) 3018 (23.7)
1 14 (17.1) 2847 (22.5) 2861 (22.5)
2+ 43 (52.4) 6820 (53.9) 6863 (53.9)
Previous live birth among multipara, n/N (%) 52/57 (91.2) 9092/9667 (94.1) 9144/9724 (94.0) 0.5814
Previous live birth with primipara in denominator, n/N (%) 52/82 (63.4) 9092/12,660 (71.8) 9144/12,742 (71.8) 0.0421
Maternal height, Mean (sd) 151.1 (7.6) 153.5 (8.1) 153.5 (8.1) 0.7097
Maternal weight, Mean (sd) 55.1 (10.0) 55.9 (10.1) 55.9 (10.1) 0.0713
Maternal BMI, Mean (sd) 24.2 (4.2) 23.8 (4.2) 23.8 (4.2) 0.1007
1
P-value from a logistic regression model for at least one oligohydramnios finding adjusting for site and maternal characteristics using general estimating
equations to account for the correlation of outcomes within cluster
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miss maternal mortality, stillbirth and neonatal mor-
tality [19]. However, since the main trial was not
specifically aimed at improving outcomes associated
with oligohydramnios, the benefit of these interven-
tions in LMIC, if any, remains unknown.
Abbreviations
LMIC: Low-middle income countries; US: Ultrasound
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the FIRST LOOK Study staff who contributed
to the study including: University of Zambia: Melody Chiwala, Musaku M
Mwenechanya, Dorothy Hamsumonde; Kinshasa School of Public Health: Victor
Lokombo Bolamba; Moi University: Nancy Kanaiza, David Muyodi; INCAP: Irma
Sayury Pineda
,
Walter López-Gomez; RTI International: Dennis D Wallace, Holly
Franklin. We thank the women who participated in the study.
Authors’contributions
LF and ALG conceived of the study concept; JS, RN and DS developed the study
ultrasound training and together with WM and LF reviewed study ultrasounds;
JLM performed study analyses with EMM; NFK, KMH, MB, AL, AT, SS, FN, WAC, EC,
EAL, FE, CLB and RLG developed the study protocol and monitored
implementation; LF, RLG and EMM developed the initial manuscript with input
from CLB, WAC. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.
Funding
The study was funded by grants from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and
from the U.S. National Institutional of Child Health and Human Development.
Ultrasound equipment was loaned for the period of the trial by GE Healthcare,
which also provided a grant to the University of Washington to provide training
and quality assurance of the ultrasound examinations.
Availability of data and materials
The dataset analysed during the current study are available at NICHD Data
and Specimen Hub (NDASH) (https://dash.nichd.nih.gov/).
Ethics approval and consent to participate
This trial was reviewed and approved by the institutional review committee at
Columbia University (FWA00002636; New York, NY) (approved 9/30/2013), RTI
International (FWA00003331 Durham, NC) (approved 7/19/2013) and the ethics
review committees at Aga Khan University (FWA00001177; Karachi Pakistan)
(approved 8/7/14), Kinshasa School of Public Health (FWA000003581 Kinshasa, DRC)
(approved 2/13/14), Universidad Francisco Marroquin Facultad de Medicina
(FWA000003581 Guatemala City, Guatemala) (approved 12/06/13), Moi University
(FWA000003128; Eldoret, Kenya) (approved 6/10/14), and the University of Zambia
(FWA00000338; Lusaka, Zambia) (approved 2/13/14). All women who participated
provided informed consent.
Table 3 Delivery complications and fetal/neonatal outcomes in women with and without oligohydramnios
With
Oligohydramnios
No
Oligohydramnios
Overall Odds Ratio
b
or Mean Difference
c
(95% CI)
Delivery complications
Obstructed labor, n/N (%) 5/87 (5.7) 531/12,852 (4.1) 536/12,939 (4.1) 0.84 (0.36, 1.93)
Hemorrhage, n/N (%) 5/87 (5.7) 212/12,666 (1.7) 217/12,753 (1.7) 2.94 (1.31, 6.61)
Hypertensive disorder
d
, n/N (%) 4/87 (4.6) 277/12,851 (2.2) 281/12,938 (2.2) –
Fetal malposition, n/N (%) 5/87 (5.7) 243/12,852 (1.9) 248/12,939 (1.9) 2.44 (1.07, 5.59)
C-section delivery, n/N (%) 25/87 (28.7) 1736/12,851 (13.5) 1761/12,938
(13.6)
2.07 (1.41, 3.03)
Maternal death < 42 days
d
, n/N (rate/100,000
deliveries)
0/87 (0) 12/12,800 (94) 12/12,887 (93) –
Maternal sepsis, n/N (%) 1/87 (1.1) 134/12,720 (1.1) 135/12,807 (1.1) 0.82 (0.19, 3.57)
Fetal/Neonatal outcomes
a
Stillbirth, n/N (rate/1000) 7/87 (80.5) 192/12,852 (14.9) 199/12,939
(15.4)
5.16 (2.07, 12.85)
Male, n/N (%) 43/86 (50.0) 6578/12,849 (51.2) 6621/12,935
(51.2)
0.99 (0.69, 1.41)
Low birth weight, n/N (%) 26/87 (29.9) 1507/12,849 (11.7) 1533/12,936
(11.9)
2.10 (1.44, 3.07)
Multiple gestation, n/N (%) 2/87 (2.3) 76/12,851 (0.6) 78/12,938 (0.6) 1.93 (0.26, 14.37)
Congenital anomaly
d
, n/N (%) 2/77 (2.6) 18/12,513 (0.1) 20/12,590 (0.2) –
Birth weight, Mean (sd) 2710 (595) 2971 (441) 2969 (443) −162.3 (−288.6, −35.9)
GA at delivery, Mean (sd) 37.7 (2.9) 38.6 (2.0) 38.6 (2.0) −0.53 (−1.07, 0.00)
Preterm Birth, n/N (%) 27/85 (31.8) 1438/12,566 (11.4) 1465/12,651
(11.6)
2.73 (1.76, 4.23)
Neonatal death < 28 days, n/N (rate/1000) 6/80 (75.0) 211/12,613 (16.7) 217/12,693
(17.1)
3.18 (1.18, 8.57)
a
Fetal/Neonatal outcomes are calculated at the maternal level if at least one fetus/neonate has the outcome
b
Odds ratios from a multivariable logistic regression model adjusting for at least one oligohydramnios finding, previous
live birth and site using general estimating equations to account for the correlation of outcomes within cluster
c
Mean difference from a multivariable regression model adjusting for at least one oligohydramnios finding and site, previous live birth and site using general
estimating equations to account for the correlation of outcomes within cluster
d
Model did not converge
Figueroa et al. Reproductive Health (2020) 17:19 Page 6 of 7
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Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Author details
1
Instituto de Nutrición de Centro América y Panamá (INCAP), Guatemala City,
Guatemala.
2
Social Statistical and Environmental Health Sciences, RTI
International, Durham, NC, USA.
3
Department of Radiology, University of
Washington Medical Center, Seattle, WA, USA.
4
Department of Pediatrics,
University of Colorado, Denver, CO, USA.
5
Department of Pediatrics,
University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
6
Kinshasa School of Public Health, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the
Congo.
7
Department of Radiology, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan.
8
Department of Community Health Sciences, Aga Khan University, Karachi,
Pakistan.
9
Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama at Birmingham,
Birmingham, AL, USA.
10
Department of Pediatrics, University of Zambia,
Lusaka, Zambia.
11
Department of Pediatrics, Indiana University, Indianapolis,
IN, USA.
12
School of Medicine, Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya.
13
Department
of Radiology, Harborview Medical Center, University of Washington Medical
Center, Seattle, WA, USA.
14
Department of Obstetrics/Gynecology, Columbia
University, New York, NY, USA.
Received: 16 February 2019 Accepted: 6 January 2020
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