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Recent insights into chemical and pharmacological studies of bee bread
... The transformation of bee pollen into bee bread represents a natural biochemical in-hive process that takes place directly in the honeycomb cells. Namely, the worker bees cover the bee pollen stored in the cells with a thin layer of honey and add salivary gland secretions containing various enzymes [3,23,24]. ...
... might play a central role in the degradation of pollen walls and membranes [26]. After 15 days of transformation, the microbial diversity in the BB is greatly reduced compared to that of the pollen, and the pH of BB is around 4, which allows the conservation of BB by slowing the growth of spoilage microorganisms [3,5,25]. ...
... Moreover, nowadays, they stand out as an emblematic example of underutilized sources of bioactive compounds [1]. Of all bee products, bee bread is the least researched and utilized, although it has been proven to exhibit health-promoting properties, such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiradical, and anti-inflammatory activities [2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12]. ...
Due to numerous bioactive constituents, both bee pollen (BP) and bee bread (BB) represent valuable food supplements. The transformation of BP into BB is a complex biochemical in-hive process that enables the preservation of the pollen’s nutritional value. The aim of this study was to determine the depth of the honeycomb cells in which bees store pollen and to provide a spectral insight into the chemical changes that occur during the BP-to-BB transformation process. This study was carried out on three experimental colonies of Apis mellifera carnica, from which fresh BP was collected using pollen traps, while BB samples were manually extracted from the cells two weeks after BP sampling. The samples were analyzed using infrared (FTIR-ATR) spectroscopy, and the depth of the cells was measured using a caliper. The results showed that the average depth of the cells was 11.0 mm, and that the bees stored BB up to an average of 7.85 mm, thus covering between ⅔ and ¾ (71.4%) of the cell. The FTIR-ATR analysis revealed unique spectral profiles of both BP and BB, indicating compositional changes primarily reflected in a higher water content and an altered composition of the carbohydrate fraction (and, to a lesser extent, the lipid fraction) in BB compared to BP.
... Kuru haldeki polen ve arı ekmeğinin su içeriği incelendiğinde %2 ile %9 arasında değişkenlik gösterdiği tespit edilmiştir [7,28]. Karbonhidratlar, arı ekmeğinin ana bileşenidir ve kuru ağırlığının yaklaşık %15-70'ini oluşturmaktadır [29]. ...
... Diğer bileşenlerde (karbonhidrat, protein vb.) olduğu gibi arı ekmeğindeki lipit konsantrasyonu polenin botanik kökenine bağlıdır. Arı ekmeği, aralarında C, B1, B2, B5, B6, B9, E, H, P, K ve inositol bulunan vitaminler açısından da zengindir [28]. Buna ek olarak, arı poleninin arı ekmeğine dönüştürülmesinde C ve B6 vitamini konsantrasyonları azalmaktadır. ...
... Best practice & research. Clinical endocrinology & metabolism,23(6), 793-800.28. Haupt, D. W., & Newcomer, J. W. (2001). ...
The major goal of dairy cattle husbandry is to improve milk production traits. In animal breeding taking advantage of the knowledge from molecular genetics and important development analytical tools has resulted in the identification of causal genes underlying QTL (Quantitative Trait Loci) for various economic traits. Diacyl glycerol acyl transferase 1 (DGAT1) was introduced as a suggested gene for milk production traits. The genes encoding the diacylglycerol O-acyltransferase (DGAT1) became a functional candidate gene for lactation traits in cows. The (DGAT1) gene is located in chromosome 14 and encodes the diacylglycerol-O-transferase enzyme which catalyzes the final step in triglyceride synthesis. This study aimed to determine the effects of DGAT1 (diacylglycerol acyltransferase1) gene polymorphisms on protein content in Holstein cows by Meta-analysis. Meta-analysis is a statistical method for combining the results from two or more studies to estimate common effect sizes. Therefore, the present work was carried out to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis of the diacylglycerol O-acyltransferase (DGAT1) gene and its associations with some performance traits in dairy cows. All literature was reviewed from the years 2002-2021. The genetic model: dominant; AA+ AB and BB, recessive; AA and AB+ BB, codominant; AA, BB, and AB genotypes were compared with each other. As a result of the statistical analysis, when 9 studies that met the criteria were analyzed, cows with AA versus AB genotype in the Holstein breed, found as the most favorable in terms of protein content and were statistically significant (P< 0.01). Cows with genotype AA produced higher protein content compared to genotypes BB.
... Arginine, in turn, strengthens the immune system by stimulating the activity of T lymphocytes and macrophages (Bakour et al., 2022). Khalifa et al. (2020) suggest that bee bread has a hypolipidemic effect by lowering the level of cholesterol produced by lactic acid bacteria. ...
... During the formation and maturation of bee bread, complex biochemical changes take place as a result of the activity of enzymes and microorganisms (Khalifa et al., 2020), mainly Lactobacilli. As a result of the above-mentioned changes, the digestibility and bioavailability of nutrients increase. ...
... The growing interest in lactic acid bacteria is due to the fact that they are on the gras list, that is, generally recognized as safe for health (Plavec & Berlec, 2020). The starters of the above-described bacteria have found application, among others, in the dairy, fruit, and vegetable, and meat industries (Gilliam, 1997;Khalifa et al., 2020). ...
Nowadays, natural foods that can provide positive health effects are gaining more and more popularity. Bees and the products they produce are our common natural heritage that should be developed. In the article, we presented the characteristics of bee products and their use in industry. We described the development and importance of beekeeping in the modern world. Due to their high nutritional value and therapeutic properties, bee products are of great interest and their consumption is constantly growing. The basis for the use of bee products in human nutrition is their properties and unique chemical composition. The conducted research and opinions confirm the beneficial effect of bee products on health. The current consumer awareness of the positive impact of food having a pro-health effect on health and well-being affects the increase in interest and demand for this type of food among various social groups. Enriching the daily diet with bee products may support the functioning of the organism. New technologies have appeared on the market to improve the process of obtaining bee products. The use of bee products plays a large role in many industries; moreover, the consumption of bee products and promotion of their medicinal properties are very important in shaping proper eating habits.
... Natural products such as bee pollen (BP) and bee bread (BB) are gaining more and more attention from the food industry because they are able to combine a rich macro and micronutrients content (Kieliszek et al., 2018) with therapeutic properties (Mȃrgȃoan et al., 2019), satisfying the consumers trend for natural and functional food (Bakour et al., 2019;Kieliszek et al., 2018). This interest lies on the composition of BP and BB, which includes: i) high-level of carbohydrate, protein, lipid, and fibre content (Dranca et al., 2020;Kieliszek et al., 2018), ii) a good source for vitamins C, K and E (Khalifa et al., 2020;Tomás et al., 2017) and minerals such as K, P, Mg or Ca (Mayda et al., 2020), iii) the presence of several bioactive compounds (e.g., phenolic acids, flavonoids and phenylamides) (Aylanc et al., 2021a), and iv) the potential health benefits associated with its consumption (Mȃrgȃoan et al., 2019). ...
... Those studies have generally focused on the physicochemical properties (Dranca et al., 2020;Tomás et al., 2017;Yang et al., 2013), antioxidant (Mayda et al., 2020), and antimicrobial activity (Bakour et al., 2019;Kaškonienė et al., 2020) of BP and BB. More recently, additional studies on antiobesity (Al-Hatamleh et al., 2020;Othman et al., 2019), anticancer (Khalifa et al., 2020;Wan-Omar et al., 2016), and anti-inflammatory activities (Khalifa et al., 2020;Li et al., 2017) were also explored. Nevertheless, the number of studies giving comparative nutritional composition and digestibility rates of BP and BB is still scarce and limited. ...
... Those studies have generally focused on the physicochemical properties (Dranca et al., 2020;Tomás et al., 2017;Yang et al., 2013), antioxidant (Mayda et al., 2020), and antimicrobial activity (Bakour et al., 2019;Kaškonienė et al., 2020) of BP and BB. More recently, additional studies on antiobesity (Al-Hatamleh et al., 2020;Othman et al., 2019), anticancer (Khalifa et al., 2020;Wan-Omar et al., 2016), and anti-inflammatory activities (Khalifa et al., 2020;Li et al., 2017) were also explored. Nevertheless, the number of studies giving comparative nutritional composition and digestibility rates of BP and BB is still scarce and limited. ...
Bee pollen (BP) and bee bread (BB) have been often investigated as potential functional foods. Both bee products are generally characterized by their high nutritional content, with BB being referred as more digestible than BP, however, there is a lack of scientific studies proving this claim. Here, we present a comparative evaluation of the macronutrient digestibility of BP and BB after applying a simulated in vitro gastrointestinal digestive system, together with the evaluation of its nutritional value and chemical composition. The digestibility scores for protein content were calculated on average as 69% and 76% for BP and BB, respectively, whereas digestibility scores for soluble sugars varied depending on bee product and sugar type. The results demonstrated that the nutritional values of both bee products changed depending on their botanical origin but BB is more accessible in the intestinal lumen, especially regarding protein.
... Honeybee products have attracted great attention and their health-promoting properties have spurred their pre-clinical and clinical testing. Apart from honey and propolis, the most studied and clinically tested bee products, bee pollen (BP) and bee bread (BB) represent a good source of bioactive compounds which can mediate diverse biological effects [1]. ...
... BP is rich in polyphenols including mainly flavonoids and their content is in the range of 0.2-2.5% [3]. Indeed, most of the described biological and pharmacological effects of BP such as antioxidant, antibacterial, immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory activity are attributed to polyphenols (reviewed in [1,[3][4][5][6]). ...
... Due to the generation of lactic acid, the pH value of BP changes from 7.2 to 4.2 for BB [7]. Furthermore, it has been suggested that BB has a lower protein content compared to BP due to beederived digestive enzymes and it is rich in free amino acids and easily assimilated sugars [1,3,8]. Nowadays, BB has become preferred over BP as a dietary supplement due to its higher nutritional value, better bioavailability and reduced allergenicity [9]. ...
Bee pollen (BP) and bee bread (BB) have attracted great attention due to their biological activities including antibacterial activity. However, the mechanism of antibacterial activity is largely unknown. Therefore, we aimed to characterise the antibacterial effect of BP and BB aqueous extracts against bacterial pathogens (Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis and Enterococcus faecalis) and identify the key compound(s) responsible for this effect. Here, we demonstrate that BP and particularly BB extracts display antibacterial activity which is significantly increased in the presence of glucose. Immunoblot analysis of extracts revealed the presence of MRJP1 in all analysed BP and BB samples and the enzyme glucose oxidase (GOX) in the majority of BB samples. Treatment of extracts with catalase resulted in the restoration of bacterial growth but only in those samples where glucose supplementation caused the enhancement of antibacterial activity. Our findings provide a deeper understanding of antibacterial activity of BP/BB which is mediated by the enzymatic activity of bee-derived GOX.
... Bee products have been used to treat and prevent disorders such as burns, wounds, diabetic foot ulcers, allergic rhinitis, hyperlipidemia, and rheumatoid arthritis through the history of the traditional medicine (3)(4)(5)(6). Recently, bee products developed due to the fermentation process have gained colossal interest and became a severe topic for future research due to the positive impact on the food market. ...
... BB is more digestible than BP due to the breakdown of the multilayer wall during fermentation. Moreover, this process enhances BB bioavailability, resulting in higher absorption by human intestinal epithelial cells (3,18). Also, during fermentation, bacteria break down cellulose, which constitutes the internal coating (also known as intine) of BP, lowering BB's cellulose ratio in contrast to BP (22). ...
... BB includes a variety of enzymes, as well as acid leucine aminopeptidase, phosphatase, and glucosidase, which hydrolyze carbohydrates such as amygdalin, salicin, cellobiose, and centipoise (3). The BB fermentation technique results in higher amounts of lactic acid due to microbial metabolism, which provides long-term defense against pathogens while also increasing the nutritious qualities of BB (3). ...
Recent signs of progress in functional foods and nutraceuticals highlighted the favorable impact of bioactive molecules on human health and longevity. As an outcome of the fermentation process, an increasing interest is developed in bee products. Bee bread (BB) is a different product intended for humans and bees, resulting from bee pollen's lactic fermentation in the honeycombs, abundant in polyphenols, nutrients (vitamins and proteins), fatty acids, and minerals. BB conservation is correlated to bacteria metabolites, mainly created by Pseudomonas spp., Lactobacillus spp., and Saccharomyces spp., which give lactic acid bacteria the ability to outperform other microbial groups. Because of enzymatic transformations, the fermentation process increases the content of new compounds. After the fermentation process is finalized, the meaningful content of lactic acid and several metabolites prevent the damage caused by various pathogens that could influence the quality of BB. Over the last few years, there has been an increase in bee pollen fermentation processes to unconventional dietary and functional supplements. The use of the chosen starters improves the bioavailability and digestibility of bioactive substances naturally found in bee pollen. As a consequence of enzymatic changes, the fermentation process enhances BB components and preserves them against loss of characteristics. In this aspect, the present review describes the current biotechnological advancements in the development of BB rich in beneficial components derived from bee pollen fermentation and its use as a food supplement and probiotic product with increased shelf life and multiple health benefits.
... Харчова цінність бджолиного хліба різна і залежить від таких факторів, як ботанічне походження, географічне розташування, кліматичні умови, тип ґрунту, діяльність бджоляра та види бджіл (Anđelković et al., 2012;Khalifa et al., 2020), оскільки ці чинники впливають на його хімічний склад. ...
... Наприклад, високий рівень pH може свідчити про вплив зовнішніх чинників, таких як неконтрольоване збирання або обробка, що може призвести до втрати біологічно активних речовин. Низький рівень pH натомість може бути результатом високої концентрації органічних кислот, які можуть бути важливими для антиоксидантної та протизапальної активності перги (Khalifa et al., 2020;Melnyk et al., 2023). ...
Studies of beekeeping products reveal the presence of a significant complex of biologically active substances in them, which arouses great interest among scientists and specialists in the field of medicine and nutrition. One of the little-studied products – perga, is characterized by a unique composition of complex compounds, characterized by their natural harmony, bioavailability and synergistic interaction. This research substance, which is the result of the active activity of bees, includes a balanced spectrum of biologically active components that can affect various aspects of human health. In particular, its potential is considered in the context of strengthening immunity, increasing energy reserves and general support of physiological processes. Such a well-known product can become an important addition to the diet and an approach to maintaining optimal health. The physico-chemical and organoleptic characteristics of buckwheat perga from different regions were studied in order to establish possible differences in their composition and quality. The analysis of perga samples from the Boryspil and Pereyaslav-Khmelnytsky districts showed that the mass fraction of mechanical impurities in both cases is 0 %, confirming their high quality and purity. It was determined that the moisture content of the perga from Boryspil district is 8.7 %, and from Pereyaslav-Khmelnytskyi – 7.6 %, which may be due to differences in the conditions of collection and storage. The pH level in perga from Boryspil district is 5, and from Pereyaslav-Khmelnytskyi – 3.9, which indicates possible differences in chemical conditions. The study also revealed a difference in the mass content of flavonoid compounds: in perga from Boryspil district, this indicator is 3.7 %, and from Pereyaslav-Khmelnytskyi – 2.5 %. The organoleptic analysis showed a high index of color (5 points) for both areas, indicating stability and intensity of color. Taste and smell received 4.8 and 4.5 points, respectively, confirming the presence of high-quality aroma and taste. Appearance and consistency were also highly rated (4.4 and 4.8 points), indicating the variety and naturalness of the lumps and their crumbly structure. The general analysis confirms the presence of differences in the composition and characteristics of buckwheat perga from different regions. These differences may be related to environmental factors, but they correspond to DSTU 7074:2009.
... Bee bread is a preserved fermentation product being a mixture of flower nectar, pollen, and bee secretion with a wide range of bacteria and yeasts required for fermentation. It is stored in honeycomb cells [17,18]. This product has strong antimicrobial, antioxidant, The total phenolic content (TPC) was evaluated by a Folin-Ciocalteu method described by Singelton and Rossi [26]. ...
... Sawicki et al. [8] did not find quercetin in bee bread, while Bakour et al. [17] and Sobral et al. [24] confirmed the presence of quercetin in bee bread, in the form of glycosides. The presence of quercetin in that bee product was also confirmed by Kalifa et al. [18], while Isidorov et al. [20] found traces of that flavonoid in Polish and Lithuanian bee bread.Čeksterytė et al. [45] determined quercetin levels in bee bread in the range from 27.41 mg/100 g to 49.58 mg/100 g. The high quercetin level in bee bread directly influences its rising content in honey. ...
The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of bee bread addition on the phenolic content, antioxidant properties, sensory and quality characteristics of the multifloral honey. On the base of results obtained, it was stated that an enrichment of honey with bee bread led to an significant increase in total phenolic content (from 30.75 to 158.96 mg GAE/100 g), total flavonoids content (from 2.77 to 21.15 mg QE/100 g), and phenolic acids content (from 11.02 to 35.47 mg CAE/100 g). Gallic acid was the predominating phenolic acid, while quercetin was the main determined flavonoid. A significant elevation of the phenolic content resulted in an increase in antioxidant capacity of the honey. However, an addition of bee bread to the honey led to the unfavorable changes of its sensory characteristics. The decrease in clarity, and uniformity of color and brightness was detected. In the case of consistency, the decrease in smoothness and meltability was found along with an increase in the feeling of sandiness. The assessment of taste showed a significant increase in acid taste, sharpness, bitterness and durability of the aftertaste, with a decrease in sweetness. The addition of bee bread to the honey caused a significant increase in water-insoluble substances content, free acidity, specific conductivity and proline level. At the same time, a decrease in the content of glucose and fructose was observed.
... For each sampling event, we collected approximately 15 g of "bee bread" from each hive -pollen that had been previously collected, brought back to the hive, and undergone processing by worker bees. Bee bread is stored as small pellets, compressed together as a heterogenous mixture of pollen, nectar, bee saliva, bacteria, and yeast (Khalifa et al., 2020). We harvested the bee bread by selecting hive cells that contained recently collected pollen, distinguishable by the light degree of compaction, using a 7″ birch wood stir stick to remove the clumped pollen and transfer it into a sterile 50 mL conical tube. ...
Honey bees are efficient pollinators of flowering plants, aiding in the plant reproductive cycle and acting as vehicles for evolutionary processes. Their role as agents of selection and drivers of gene flow is instrumental to the structure of plant populations, but historically, our understanding of their influence has been limited to predominantly insect‐dispersed flowering species. Recent metagenetic work has provided evidence that honey bees also forage on pollen from anemophilous species, suggesting that their role as vectors for transmission of plant genetic material is not confined to groups designated as entomophilous, and leading us to ask: could honey bees act as dispersal agents for non‐flowering plant taxa? Using an extensive pollen metabarcoding dataset from Canada, we discovered that honey bees may serve as dispersal agents for an array of sporophytes ( Anchistea , Claytosmunda , Dryopteris , Osmunda , Osmundastrum , Equisetum ) and bryophytes ( Funaria , Orthotrichum , Sphagnum , Ulota ). Our findings also suggest that honey bees may occasionally act as vectors for the dispersal of aquatic phototrophs, specifically Coccomyxa and Protosiphon , species of green algae. Our work has shed light on the broad resource‐access patterns that guide plant‐pollinator interactions and suggests that bees could act as vectors of gene flow, and potentially even agents of selection, across Plantae.
... Previous findings shown that bee bread can be considered as a food supplement due to its nutrients that provide health benefits. For example, bee bread has antioxidant, anticancer, antihypertensive, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, and anti-inflammatory properties (Bakour et al., 2017;Sobral et al., 2017;Kowalski and Makarewicz, 2017;Khalifa et al., 2020). According to study by Kowalski and Makarewicz (2017), both bee bread and propolis have the same antibacterial and antioxidant qualities as honey. ...
Bee bread has been widely traditionally used for male fertility enrichment although limited scientific data are available on its effectiveness. Hence, the aim of this study was to determine the effect of bee bread on testicular cell development and testosterone level in male Sprague Dawley rats. In this study, 24 adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were selected and divided equally into four treatment groups (n = 6/group) which were Control (C: 0 g of bee bread/kg body weight), Treatment 1 (T1: 1 g of bee bread /kg body weight), Treatment 2 (T2: 2 g of bee bread /kg body weight) and Treatment 3 (T3: 3 g of bee bread /kg body weight). The bee bread was administered daily and orally according to the designated treatment groups using oral gavage for 28 days. After 28 days of treatment, rats were euthanised and testicular cell development and testosterone level were measured. Results showed that rats in the T2 group had thicker (P<0.05) seminiferous tubular diameter (STD) than the control group and higher (P<0.05) seminiferous epithelial height (SEH) compared to C and T1 groups. The testosterone level in the T1, T2 and T3 groups was significantly higher (P<0.05) compared to control. In conclusion, this study suggests that supplemented with 2 g of bee bread per kg body weight is likely to give a positive effect by improving testicular cells development and testosterone level in male Sprague Dawley rats.
... These values are following the studies reported by Bakour et al., 2019; Kieliszek et al., 2018; Mayda et al., 2020 the protein content is around 14-37% in both bee products of their dry weight. As mentioned before, variability between pollens is strongly dependent on the plant source(Mayda et al., 2020).Lipids are an important macronutrient that forms the nutritional composition for pollen samples, and it varies depending on the plant origin(Khalifa et al., 2020;Kieliszek et al., 2018). The ...
... Some major venom compounds are found in the bee cuticle and in the wax (Baracchi et al., 2012), which suggests a more important role of venom in defense against pathogens. Beeswax also exhibits antimicrobial properties, summarized in the review by Fratini et al. (2016), as does bee bread (Bakour et al., 2019;Khalifa et al., 2020). ...
The honeybee is an important species for the agri-food and pharmaceutical industries through bee products and crop pollination services. However, honeybee health is a major concern, because beekeepers in many countries are experiencing significant colony losses. This phenomenon has been linked to the exposure of bees to multiple stresses in their environment. Indeed, several biotic and abiotic stressors interact with bees in a synergistic or antagonistic way. Synergistic stressors often act through a disruption of their defense systems (immune response or detoxification). Antagonistic interactions are most often caused by interactions between biotic stressors or disruptive activation of bee defenses. Honeybees have developed behavioral defense strategies and produce antimicrobial compounds to prevent exposure to various pathogens and chemicals. Expanding our knowledge about these processes could be used to develop strategies to shield bees from exposure. This review aims to describe current knowledge about the exposure of honeybees to multiple stresses and the defense mechanisms they have developed to protect themselves. The effect of multi-stress exposure is mainly due to a disruption of the immune response, detoxification, or an excessive defense response by the bee itself. In addition, bees have developed defenses against stressors, some behavioral, others involving the production of antimicrobials, or exploiting beneficial external factors.
... Allah inspired the bees to produce honey. Allah gave a special substance to bees, namely saliva (Khalifa et al., 2020). The liquid has an invertase enzyme that can convert nectar into honey. ...
Qur’an surah An-Nahl verses 68 and 69 provide information about the nature of bees and their benefits for human life. Allah inspires bees to build nests and find food in trees, mountains, and places made by humans. This study aims to examine scientific information on bees in Surah An-Nahl verses 68 and 69. The research method is library research. The results showed that bees in Surah An-Nahl verses 68 and 69 produce honey, have a good life, have great teamwork, and give benefits to human life. Bee gives people good role models for human society, teamwork, and lifestyle. In science, bees produce pheromone chemical compounds that play a role in communication between bees in the colony. The pheromones produced by the queen bee can regulate the male bees and worker bees to be loyal to the queen bee and carry out their duties well. Qur’an Surah An-Nahl verses 68 and 69 give us information about the bee and honey. Allah gives a message to people to live like a bee to have a good social, good lifestyle, don’t destroy the environment, and give benefits to people like honey. Rasullullah advised us to consume honey for treatment. Honey functions as an antioxidant, anticancer, and energy source, healthy heart, control sugar level, and maintain a healthy body. Bee food is nectar, good nectar will produce high-quality honey. Chemical compounds that are often found in honey like glucose, flavonoid, alkaloid, saponin, and glycoside.
... Accessed December 10, 2022). Anyway, pear producers recently explored the possibility to produce pear cider as a tool for adding value to pear varieties intended for fresh consumption, when defects like below-standards fruit size make them unsuitable for direct consumption (Guerrini et al., 2022;Kieliszek et al., 2018), or when overproduction reduces margins for pears growers (Khalifa et al., 2020;Wang et al., 2011). Perry makers have also noted that consumption of their product is well suited to the spread desire to consume local products, developing niche brands based on varieties produced in restricted geographic areas. ...
... On the other hand, it has been accepted in recent years that phenolic compounds are quite effective in preventing or reducing oxidative damage and nitrosative stress in the human body [18,19]. It has been shown in previous studies that BB and BP exhibit high antioxidant activity because of their phenolic compounds [20][21][22][23][24], and thanks to these bioactive components, BP and BB remove free radicals in the organism and reduce the negative effects of reactive oxygen species [25]. Although investigations about other bee products are quite common, studies on bee bread are quite limited especially its bioactivity. ...
Bee bread (BB) and bee pollen (BP) are accepted as functional food and considered in medical properties due to its important bioactive components. These bee products show different biological properties, but researches on these aspects have not been clear yet. In present study, Anatolian BB and BP extracts were analyzed for the first time for their pollen type, total phenolic (TPC) and flavonoid content (TFC), and antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. Samples were analyzed for their antimicrobial efficacy by the agar well diffusion and MIC methods. HPLC analysis was used to identify the compounds in the BB and BP samples. Antioxidant activity was measured by the FRAP and DPPH methods. As a result of microscopy for pollen identification, Fagaceae family was dominant. Phenolic compound analysis showed that the amounts of p-coumaric acid and rutin were found to be the highest in BB and BP, respectively. Stronger antioxidant activity was obtained from BP. MIC values of BB were range from 250 to 12.5 μg/mL. The most susceptible bacterium was Mycobacterium smegmatis. The extract of BP was effective on all gram-negative bacteria with doses range from 250 μg/mL to 500 μg/mL. The lowest MIC value was detected with the concentration of 12.5 μg/mL against M. smegmatis. Anatolian BB and BP could be considered as a functional foods due to antioxidant activity and may be beneficial in the management and treatment of pathogenic bacteria because of high antimicrobial activity.
... According to earlier research [60][61][62], bee pollen has a variety of beneficial nutritional properties and therapeutic effects, including those that improve the gut barrier function and the immune system within the GI tract, the treatment of inflammatory status, and the prevention of oxidative stress damages [16,62,63]. The bio-accessibility of bioactive compounds from bee pollen, which is defined as the amount released during food digestion and made accessible for small intestine absorption, is what determines whether or not those compounds have beneficial effects. ...
Rodent models may help investigations on the possible link between autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and gut microbiota since autistic patients frequently manifested gastrointestinal troubles as co-morbidities. Thirty young male rats were divided into five groups: Group 1 serves as control; Group 2, bee pollen and probiotic-treated; and Group 3, propionic acid (PPA)-induced rodent model of autism; Group 4 and Group 5, the protective and therapeutic groups were given bee pollen and probiotic combination treatment either before or after the neurotoxic dose of PPA, respectively. Serum occludin, zonulin, lipid peroxides (MDA), glutathione (GSH), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), catalase, and gut microbial composition were assessed in all investigated groups. Recorded data clearly indicated the marked elevation in serum occludin (1.23 ± 0.15 ng/mL) and zonulin (1.91 ± 0.13 ng/mL) levels as potent biomarkers of leaky gut in the PPA- treated rats while both were normalized to bee pollen/probiotic-treated rats. Similarly, the high significant decrease in catalase (3.55 ± 0.34 U/dL), GSH (39.68 ± 3.72 µg/mL), GST (29.85 ± 2.18 U/mL), and GPX (13.39 ± 1.54 U/mL) concomitant with a highly significant increase in MDA (3.41 ± 0.12 µmoles/mL) as a marker of oxidative stress was also observed in PPA-treated animals. Interestingly, combined bee pollen/probiotic treatments demonstrated remarkable amelioration of the five studied oxidative stress variables as well as the fecal microbial composition. Overall, our findings demonstrated a new approach to the beneficial use of bee pollen and probiotic combination as a therapeutic intervention strategy to relieve neurotoxic effects of PPA, a short-chain fatty acid linked to the pathoetiology of autism.
... Debido a su pequeño tamaño (en comparación con la Apis mellifera), estas abejas recolectan polen de frutas, árboles y plantas ornamentales, arbustos, epífitas, hierbas y plantas infrautilizadas (Ghazi et al., 2018;Roubik et al., 2018). El modo de obtención de este producto consiste en instalar una trampa de polen en la entrada de la colmena, esto obliga a las abejas a arrastrarse por un agujero estrecho que permite recolectar el polen de abeja adherido a sus extremidades inferiores (Leonhardt et al., 2007;Szczesna, 2007), también se obtiene de forma manual utilizando fórceps, pinzas o espátula, aunque resulte difícil lograr una producción masiva que permita su comercialización (Khalifa et al., 2020). Una vez que las macetas de polen están llenas, las macetas se cierran herméticamente (Figura 8d) (Menezes et al., 2013) antes de ser consumidas por larvas o abejas adultas jóvenes como fuente de proteína. ...
Las abejas sin aguijón, conocidas como meliponas, han demostrado ser una maravilla de la naturaleza, ya que su papel en el medio ambiente se basa principalmente en dar vida a las plantas, hacerlas crecer y reproducirse por medio de la polinización, proceso ecológico que mantiene a los ecosistemas vivos y saludables.
El manejo y la crianza de abejas meliponas constituye una importante actividad pecuaria en la que se pueden aprovechar múltiples productos utilizados desde tiempos antiguos. La variabilidad genética, provoca que los productos derivados de las abejas presentan diferentes componentes físicos, químicos y bioactivos, lo cual muchas veces dificulta su estandarización (factores edafoclimáticos, estado fisiológico de la colonia y la fuente botánica de donde las abejas consiguen su alimento). Sin embargo, es esta variabilidad lo que propicia que cada vez se descubran nuevas propiedades con efectos benéficos en la salud de los consumidores. La miel, el geopropóleo y el polen constituyen los principales productos de interés comercial, obtenidos de las abejas sin aguijón, esto debido a sus propiedades bioactivas y funcionales, capacidades antioxidantes, antimicrobianas, antiinflamatorias y quimiopreventivas, mientras que la importancia de la cera como producto generado por las abejas sin aguijón, radica
en que forma parte junto con gomas, propóleo y resina de los materiales usados
para la construcción de sus nidos. En este capítulo, se pretende dar a conocer los
componentes fisicoquímicos y funcionales de los productos obtenidos a partir de las abejas sin aguijón.
... Honey and honey products comprise abundant phenols, phenolic acids, flavonoids, polyphenols, and fatty acids as source antioxidants, which can prevent the neurotoxicity, and neuronal oxidative damage by modulating neurosignalling pathways (Hamby et al. 2009;Mijanur Rahman et al. 2014;Iftikhar et al. 2022). Honey, propolis, royal jelly, and bee bread consist of many antioxidants, neuroprotective, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory components in the form of flavonoids (hesperetin, isorhamnetin, epicatechin, delphinidin, malvidin, and petunidin, catechin, myricetin, chrysin, pinobaskin, pinocembrin, hesperidin, naringin, fisetin, formononetin, luteolin, myricetin, quercetin, naringenin, kaempferol, catechin, rutin, acacetin, galangin, apigenin, liquiritigenin, daidzein, pinocembrin), phenolic acids (caffeic, chlorogenic, cinnamic, ferulic, gallic, 4-hydroxybenzoic, 4-hydroxyhydrocinnamic, and 4-hydroxybenzoic acid-methyl ester, p-coumaric, protocatechuic, rosmarinic, syringic, and vanillic acid), stilbene derivative (resveratrol), and terpenoids (communic acid, farnesol, jsocupressic acid, manool, mimosaside A, mannopyranoside, totarol, sugiol, sempervirol, abietic acid, and pimaric acid) (Sousa et al. 2016;Siheri et al. 2017;Kocot et al. 2018;Anjum et al. 2019;Gündogdu et al. 2019;Petelin et al. 2019;Takashima et al. 2019;El-Seedi et al. 2020;Khalifa et al. 2020;Mayda et al. 2020;Peršurić et al. 2021). As a result, honey bioactive compounds may play a key role in mitigating the burden of neurodegenerative disorders, which have been remarkably rising in the recent times around the world (Pyrzynska and Biesaga 2009;Hossen et al. 2017). ...
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is one of the neurodegenerative diseases, manifesting dementia, spatial disorientation, language, cognitive, and functional impairment, mainly affects the elderly population with a growing concern about the financial burden on society. Repurposing can improve the traditional progress of drug design applications and could speed up the identification of innovative remedies for AD. The pursuit of potent anti-BACE-1 drugs for AD treatment has become a pot boiler topic in the recent past and to instigate the design of novel improved inhibitors from the bee products. Drug-likeness characteristics (ADMET: absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity), docking (AutoDock Vina), simulation (GROMACS), and free energy interaction (MM-PBSA, molecular mechanics Poisson–Boltzmann surface area) analyses were performed to identify the lead candidates from the bee products (500 bioactives from the honey, royal jelly, propolis, bee bread, bee wax, and bee venom) for Alzheimer’s disease as novel inhibitors of BACE-1 (beta-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme (1) receptor using appropriate bioinformatics tools. Forty-four bioactive lead compounds were screened from the bee products through high throughput virtual screening on the basis of their pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics characteristics, showing favorable intestinal and oral absorption, bioavailability, blood brain barrier penetration, less skin permeability, and no inhibition of cytochrome P450 inhibitors. The docking score of the forty-four ligand molecules was found to be between −4 and −10.3 kcal/mol, respectively, exhibiting strong binding affinity to BACE1 receptor. The highest binding affinity was observed in the rutin (−10.3 kcal/mol), 3,4-dicaffeoylquinic acid (−9.5 kcal/mol), nemorosone (−9.5 kcal/mol), and luteolin (−8.9 kcal/mol). Furthermore, these compounds demonstrated high total binding energy −73.20 to −105.85 kJ/mol), and low root mean square deviation (0.194–0.202 nm), root mean square fluctuation (0.0985–0.1136 nm), radius of gyration (2.12 nm), number of H-bonds (0.778–5.436), and eigenvector values (2.39–3.54 nm²) in the molecular dynamic simulation, signifying restricted motion of Cα atoms, proper folding and flexibility, and highly stable with compact of the BACE1 receptor with the ligands. Docking and simulation studies concluded that rutin, 3,4-dicaffeoylquinic acid, nemorosone, and luteolin are plausibly used as novel inhibitors of BACE1 to combat AD, but further in-depth experimental investigations are warranted to prove these in silico findings.
... Debido a su pequeño tamaño (en comparación con la Apis mellifera), estas abejas recolectan polen de frutas, árboles y plantas ornamentales, arbustos, epífitas, hierbas y plantas infrautilizadas (Ghazi et al., 2018;Roubik et al., 2018). El modo de obtención de este producto consiste en instalar una trampa de polen en la entrada de la colmena, esto obliga a las abejas a arrastrarse por un agujero estrecho que permite recolectar el polen de abeja adherido a sus extremidades inferiores (Leonhardt et al., 2007;Szczesna, 2007), también se obtiene de forma manual utilizando fórceps, pinzas o espátula, aunque resulte difícil lograr una producción masiva que permita su comercialización (Khalifa et al., 2020). Una vez que las macetas de polen están llenas, las macetas se cierran herméticamente (Figura 8d) (Menezes et al., 2013) antes de ser consumidas por larvas o abejas adultas jóvenes como fuente de proteína. ...
Las abejas sin aguijón, también conocidas como abejas meliponas se agrupan en la tribu Meliponini, de la familia Apidae y representan una fracción muy pequeña de las más de 20 000 especies de abejas conocidas en todo el mundo, su importancia se relaciona con aspectos ecológicos, económicos y culturales. Las abejas meliponas se localizan en zonas altas y subtropicales, por lo que cerca del 80 % de su población puede encontrarse desde México hasta Brasil y el norte de Argentina, además de tener presencia en Asia, África, América y Australia.En la región centro-occidental de México se ha registrado diversidad y presencia en la costa del pacífico, el golfo y sureste de México, incluida la península de Yucatán. Existe una gran diversidad de géneros y especies de abejas sin aguijón que representan el 2.6 % de la fauna de abejas del país, por lo que se tiene registrado un total de 46 especies de 11 géneros, de las cuales 12 especies (26 %) son endémicas de México, estas son del género Melipona en mayor proporción (17.33 %), seguidas de Trigonisca (10.64 %) y Plebeia (10.40 %), entre otras.
Las abejas sin aguijón se obtienen por medio de la meliponicultura, actividad ancestral que ha permitido criarlas y cultivarlas, los mayas y los olmecas utilizaban a las abejas sin aguijón principalmente con fines alimenticios, medicinales y hasta religiosos. Actualmente la meliponicultura ha tenido un declive debido a la introducción de la abeja Apis mellifera, y por el uso de endulzantes derivados de la caña de azúcar, además de que esta actividad se ha ido perdiendo tras generaciones poco interesadas en el conocimiento del manejo tradicional.Los impactos económicos, sociales y culturales que tienen las abejas de este tipo son de gran trascendencia, principalmente el ecológico, ya que una de sus funciones es ser polinizadoras de gran variedad de plantas, a través de este proceso (reproducción de las plantas) que ocurre en sistemas ambientales a nivel mundial, se beneficia la agricultura obteniendo cultivos de fresas, café, tomate, arándanos, pepinos, almendras, manzanas, calabazas, cebolla, etcétera, todos de interés económico, comercial y nutritivo para la población.
... Bee products (BP and BB) are reported to contain fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and water soluble vitamins (C and B complex) with different levels depending on the botanical origin and time of collection [49]. Vitamin E, mainly tocopherol, a fat-soluble vitamin with antioxidant potential, was reported to be abundant in both BP and BB [59]. A total of 20 BP samples collected from different apiaries from southern Brazil were analyzed for their vitamin content revealing the abundance of α, β, γ, and δ-tocopherol at levels 5-73 µg/g, 1-10 µg/g, 2-12 µg/g, and 1-84 µg/g, respectively [60]. ...
Recently, functional foods have been a subject of great interest in dietetics owing not only to their nutritional value but rather their myriad of health benefits. Moreover, an increase in consumers' demands for such valuable foods warrants the development in not only production but rather tools of quality and nutrient assessment. Bee products, viz., pollen (BP) and bread, are normally harvested from the flowering plants with the aid of bees. BP is further subjected to a fermentation process in bee hives to produce the more valuable and bioavailable BB. Owing to their nutritional and medicinal properties, bee products are considered as an important food supplements rich in macro-, micro-, and phytonutrients. Bee products are rich in carbohydrates, amino acids, vitamins, fatty acids, and minerals in addition to a myriad of phytonutrients such as phenolic compounds, anthocyanins, volatiles, and carotenoids. Moreover, unsaturated fatty acids (USFAs) of improved lipid profile such as linoleic, linolenic, and oleic were identified in BP and BB. This work aims to present a holistic overview of BP and BB in the context of their composition and analysis, and to highlight optimized extraction techniques to maximize their value and future applications in nutraceuticals.
... These values are following the studies reported by Bakour et al., 2019; Kieliszek et al., 2018; Mayda et al., 2020 the protein content is around 14-37% in both bee products of their dry weight. As mentioned before, variability between pollens is strongly dependent on the plant source(Mayda et al., 2020).Lipids are an important macronutrient that forms the nutritional composition for pollen samples, and it varies depending on the plant origin(Khalifa et al., 2020;Kieliszek et al., 2018). The ...
... Royal jelly, BB, and BB are examples of bee products that are rich in active compounds, such as proteins, amino acids, enzymes, fatty acids, esters, peptides, phenolic compounds, minerals, and vitamins [8,33,34]. Many factors, including climatic, botanical, geographic, and storage conditions, have an impact on the nutritional and chemical compositions of bee products [35,36]. ...
Honeybee products, as multicomponent substances, have been a focus of great interest. The present work aimed to perform the nutritional and chemical profiling and biochemical characterization of bee pollen (BP), bee bread (BB), and royal jelly (RJ) and study their applications in the fortification of functional fermented dairy products. Their effects on starter cultures and the physicochemical and sensorial quality of products were monitored. A molecular networking analysis identified a total of 46 compounds in the three bee products that could be potential medicines, including flavonoids, fatty acids, and peptides. BB showed the highest protein and sugar contents (22.57 and 26.78 g/100 g), which cover 45.14 and 53.56% of their daily values (DVs), with considerable amounts of the essential amino acids threonine and lysine (59.50 and 42.03%). BP, BB, and RJ can be considered sources of iron, as 100 g can cover 141, 198.5, and 94.94% of DV%, respectively. BP was revealed to have the highest phenolic and flavonoid contents (105.68 and 43.91 µg/g) and showed a synergetic effect when mixed with RJ, resulting in increased antioxidant activity, while BB showed a synergetic effect when mixed with RJ in terms of both antioxidant and proteolytic powers (IC50 7.54, 11.55, 12.15, 12.50, and 12.65 cP compared to the control (10.55 cP)), reflecting their organoleptic properties and highlighting these health-oriented products as promising natural products for human health care.
... These values are following the studies reported by Bakour et al., 2019; Kieliszek et al., 2018; Mayda et al., 2020 the protein content is around 14-37% in both bee products of their dry weight. As mentioned before, variability between pollens is strongly dependent on the plant source(Mayda et al., 2020).Lipids are an important macronutrient that forms the nutritional composition for pollen samples, and it varies depending on the plant origin(Khalifa et al., 2020;Kieliszek et al., 2018). The ...
Nutritional supplements play a role in promoting human protein synthesis, fitness recovery, and mental health
protection. Pollen is considered a natural food with excellent nutritional value. The use of bee-gathered pollen as
a nutritional supplement is now widespread around the world, and it is appreciated for its healing qualities. How-
ever, depending on the floral species and the region of origin, pollen has a wide range of nutritional value. It was
found that clover pollen had the highest protein content (31.4 g/100 g DM), while the lowest content was observed
in maize pollen (21.3%). Eucalyptus pollen had the highest lipid amount (9.49 g/100 g DM), while clover pollen
had the lowest content (7.46 g/100 g). Phytochemical analysis showed that eucalyptus pollen occupied the highest
total antioxidant activity (67.02%), followed by clover (58.25%) then maize (52.18%), whereas clover pollen had
the highest phenolic content (1165 mg GAE/100 gm), compared with the other pollen varieties (949.4 to 1073 mg-
GAE/100 gm). The contents of branched-chain amino acids were 29, 33.3, and 38.4 mg/g for maize, eucalyptus,
and clover respectively, representing 17.87, 18.44, and 16.53% of total amino acids. The contents of total essential
amino acids (EAAs) were 61.8, 73.0, and 83.5 mg/g for maize, eucalyptus, and clover pollen, respectively. Only
eucalyptus pollen ultimately met the minimum requirements of EAAs for adults. In contrast, the other two types
of pollen contained at least 3–4 limiting amounts of the essential amino acids leucine, lysine, phenylalanine, and
valine. In conclusion, pollen is a good, affordable source of nutrients that can be utilized as beneficial dietary
supplements for human health.
Keywords: eucalyptus; clover; maize; phenolic content; amino acid; pollen.
... These values are following the studies reported by Bakour et al., 2019; Kieliszek et al., 2018; Mayda et al., 2020 the protein content is around 14-37% in both bee products of their dry weight. As mentioned before, variability between pollens is strongly dependent on the plant source(Mayda et al., 2020).Lipids are an important macronutrient that forms the nutritional composition for pollen samples, and it varies depending on the plant origin(Khalifa et al., 2020;Kieliszek et al., 2018). The ...
Nutritional supplements play a role in promoting human protein synthesis, fitness recovery, and mental health
protection. Pollen is considered a natural food with excellent nutritional value. The use of bee-gathered pollen as
a nutritional supplement is now widespread around the world, and it is appreciated for its healing qualities. How-
ever, depending on the floral species and the region of origin, pollen has a wide range of nutritional value. It was
found that clover pollen had the highest protein content (31.4 g/100 g DM), while the lowest content was observed
in maize pollen (21.3%). Eucalyptus pollen had the highest lipid amount (9.49 g/100 g DM), while clover pollen
had the lowest content (7.46 g/100 g). Phytochemical analysis showed that eucalyptus pollen occupied the highest
total antioxidant activity (67.02%), followed by clover (58.25%) then maize (52.18%), whereas clover pollen had
the highest phenolic content (1165 mg GAE/100 gm), compared with the other pollen varieties (949.4 to 1073 mg-
GAE/100 gm). The contents of branched-chain amino acids were 29, 33.3, and 38.4 mg/g for maize, eucalyptus,
and clover respectively, representing 17.87, 18.44, and 16.53% of total amino acids. The contents of total essential
amino acids (EAAs) were 61.8, 73.0, and 83.5 mg/g for maize, eucalyptus, and clover pollen, respectively. Only
eucalyptus pollen ultimately met the minimum requirements of EAAs for adults. In contrast, the other two types
of pollen contained at least 3–4 limiting amounts of the essential amino acids leucine, lysine, phenylalanine, and
valine. In conclusion, pollen is a good, affordable source of nutrients that can be utilized as beneficial dietary
supplements for human health.
... These values are following the studies reported by Bakour et al., 2019; Kieliszek et al., 2018; Mayda et al., 2020 the protein content is around 14-37% in both bee products of their dry weight. As mentioned before, variability between pollens is strongly dependent on the plant source(Mayda et al., 2020).Lipids are an important macronutrient that forms the nutritional composition for pollen samples, and it varies depending on the plant origin(Khalifa et al., 2020;Kieliszek et al., 2018). The ...
Nutritional supplements play a role in promoting human protein synthesis, finess recovery, and mental health
protection. Pollen is considered a natural food with excellent nutritional value. The use of bee-gathered pollen as
a nutritional supplement is now widespread around the world, and it is appreciated for its healing qualities. However, depending on the flral species and the region of origin, pollen has a wide range of nutritional value. It was
found that clover pollen had the highest protein content (31.4 g/100 g DM), while the lowest content was observed
in maize pollen (21.3%). Eucalyptus pollen had the highest lipid amount (9.49 g/100 g DM), while clover pollen
had the lowest content (7.46 g/100 g). Phytochemical analysis showed that eucalyptus pollen occupied the highest
total antioxidant activity (67.02%), followed by clover (58.25%) then maize (52.18%), whereas clover pollen had
the highest phenolic content (1165 mg GAE/100 gm), compared with the other pollen varieties (949.4 to 1073 mgGAE/100 gm). The contents of branched-chain amino acids were 29, 33.3, and 38.4 mg/g for maize, eucalyptus,
and clover respectively, representing 17.87, 18.44, and 16.53% of total amino acids. The contents of total essential
amino acids (EAAs) were 61.8, 73.0, and 83.5 mg/g for maize, eucalyptus, and clover pollen, respectively. Only
eucalyptus pollen ultimately met the minimum requirements of EAAs for adults. In contrast, the other two types
of pollen contained at least 3–4 limiting amounts of the essential amino acids leucine, lysine, phenylalanine, and
valine. In conclusion, pollen is a good, affrdable source of nutrients that can be utilized as benefiial dietary
supplements for human health.
... Since primitive ages, these products have been utilized as traditional medicines in various countries such as Greece, China, Egypt, etc. due to several biological and therapeutic properties (antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antihypertensive, antimicrobial, anti-tumor, hypolipidemic, immunomodulatory and hepatoprotective action) depending on the botanical and geographical locations of Api-products (El-Seedi et al., 2020;Khalifa et al., 2020;Sharma et al., 2020;Starowicz & Granvogl, 2020). The above-mentioned apicultural products possess high potential to be explored and utilized in various sectors mainly in food, medicine, and cosmetic industries but facing a lot of hindrance due to lack in standardization, toxicological studies, regulation for consumptions of safe doses, etc. ...
Despite being considered a ‘superfood’, Api-products (Honeybee-derived products) are also linked with heterogeneous health risk factors such as toxic heavy metals, pathogens, antibiotics and pesticide residues due to unscrupulous beekeeping practices. The present work is a holistic approach to extensively studying and mapping various contaminants in Api-products. Thus, this provides an insight into their associated health hazards, such as placental damage, bronchitis hyperactivity, malignancy, renal lesion, neural degeneration, various allergens, etc. According to our findings, Api-products were composed of various perilous components listed down. Toxic heavy metals such as arsenic, cadmium, mercury, and lead were detected in abundance. Lead (120–487000 μg/kg), cadmium (30–25400 μg/kg) and arsenic (9.3–1370 μg/kg) were spotted in bee pollen followed by propolis (cadmium, 30–930 μg/kg) and honey (lead, 1.71–2530 μg/kg) above the acceptable level. Additionally, bifenthrin, triadimefon, lambda-cyhalothrin, and chlorpyrifos were major pesticides found in bee products, except in royal jelly. Also, honey and royal jelly samples were predominantly detected with antibiotics such as tetracyclines, quinolone, nitroimidazole, and sulfonamide. Pathogens (C. botulinum, Bacillus spp., Zygosaccharomyces, Aspergillus spp.) were mostly identified in bee pollen and honey. Still, there is a shortage of evidence related to royal jelly and bee bread which signifies huge research gaps. Furthermore, the current paper emphasises various detection techniques, safety issues, and toxicological concerns related to Api-products, which alarms the urgency of establishing global safety regulations in the future.
... Bee bread is formed from the fermentation of mixtures of nectar, pollen and digestive enzymes secreted from the bee's salivary glands [26,27]. The chemical compositions of bee bread are mainly comprised of proteins, free amino acids, carbohydrates, fatty acids, a wide range of sugars and high reducing sugars [28,29] and vitamins [30]. Moreover, each bee bread has a different composition which varies from different regions, climatic and seasonal variations, floral origins [31,32] and soil type [27]. ...
Bee bread (BB) has traditionally been used as a dietary supplement to treat liver problems. This study evaluated the therapeutic effects of Heterotrigona itama BB from Malaysia on obesity-induced hepatic lipid metabolism disorder via the regulation of the Keap1/Nrf2 pathway. Male Sprague Dawley rats were fed with either a normal diet or high-fat diet (HFD) for 6 weeks to induce obesity. Following 6 weeks, obese rats were treated either with distilled water (OB group), BB (0.5 g/kg body weight/day) (OB + BB group) or orlistat (10 mg/kg body weight/day) (OB + OR group) concurrent with HFD for another 6 weeks. BB treatment suppressed Keap1 and promoted Nrf2 cytoplasmic and nuclear translocations, leading to a reduction in oxidative stress, and promoted antioxidant enzyme activities in the liver. Furthermore, BB down-regulated lipid synthesis and its regulator levels (SIRT1, AMPK), and up-regulated fatty acid β-oxidation in the liver of obese rats, being consistent with alleviated lipid levels, improved hepatic histopathological changes (steatosis, hepatocellular hypertrophy, inflammation and glycogen expression) and prevented progression to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. These results showed the therapeutic potentials of H. itama BB against oxidative stress and improved lipid metabolism in the liver of obese rats possibly by targeting the Keap1/Nrf2 pathway, hence proposing its role as a natural supplement capable of treating obesity-induced fatty liver disease.
... They play a critical role as pollinators of agricultural crops, wild flora, and natural vegetation, and are an effective biological monitor of environmental contaminants, acting as collectors for airborne particulates and dust deposited on the surfaces on which they land. Honey bees are also source of honey, royal jelly, propolis, bee pollen, bee bread, venom, and wax [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]. ...
The most significant pollinators of crops globally are thought to be honey bees. Unfortunately, bee loss is an issue brought on by a variety of circumstances, such as pesticide use, poor nutrition, parasitic mites, and climate change. The spore-forming unicellular fungi Nosema apis and N. ceranae cause nosemosis, a serious microsporidian disease of adult European honey bees. The disease has an effect on honeybee productivity and reproduction. Antibiotic fumagillin is still used in some countries for the treatment of Nosema sp. infection. However, using fumagillin has adverse effects on human health, as well as on honey bee physiology. Therefore, there are trends to develop non-antibiotic alternatives with already existing therapeutics. The present work attempts to emphasize the natural compounds now available for treating nosemosis. Abstract: The honey bee is an important economic insect due to its role in pollinating many agricultural plants. Unfortunately, bees are susceptible to many pathogens, including pests, parasites, bacteria , and viruses, most of which exert a destructive impact on thousands of colonies. The occurrence of resistance to the therapeutic substances used against these organisms is rising, and the residue from these chemicals may accumulate in honey bee products, subsequently affecting the human health. There is current advice to avoid the use of antibiotics, antifungals, antivirals, and other drugs in bees, and therefore, it is necessary to develop alternative strategies for the treatment of bee diseases. In this context, the impact of nosema diseases (nosemosis) on bee health.
... Additionally, the biochemical and molecular characterization for three subspecies of honey bee workers explained the high genetic gap of 0.25 separating the Egyptian A. m. lamarckii subspecies from the other two subspecies, A. m. ligustica (Italian), and A. m. carnica (Carniolan) [14]. Here, we aimed to shed the light on the history of beekeeping in Egypt and the Egyptian honeybee subspecies A. m. lamarckii, reviewing their morphology, genetic analysis, distinctive characters, and defensive behaviors as part of our efforts to study honeybee and its bee products [15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24]. ...
The Egyptian honeybee (Apis mellifera lamarckii) is one of the honeybee subspecies known for centuries since the ancient Egypt civilization. The subspecies of the Egyptian honeybee is distinguished by certain traits of appearance and behavior that were well-adapted to the environment and unique in a way that it is resistant to bee diseases, such as the Varroa disease. The subspecies is different than those found in Europe and is native to southern Egypt. Therefore, a special care should be paid to the vulnerable A. m. lamarckii subspecies and greater knowledge about the risk factors as well as conservation techniques will protect these bees. Additionally, more qualitative and quantitative measures will be taken to obtain deep insights into the A. m. lamarckii products’ chemical profile and biological characters.
... In this review, we will focus on the synergistic interactions between RJ and commonly used cancer drugs as part of our ongoing projects about honeybees and bee products [20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30]. ...
Cancer is one of the major causes of death globally. Currently, various methods are used to treat cancer, including radiotherapy, surgery, and chemotherapy, all of which have serious adverse effects. A healthy lifestyle, especially a nutritional diet, plays a critical role in the treatment and prevention of many disorders, including cancer. The above notion, plus the trend in going back to nature, encourages consumers and the food industry to invest more in food products and to find potential candidates that can maintain human health. One of these agents, and a very notable food agent, is royal jelly (RJ), known to be produced by the hypopharyngeal and mandibular salivary glands of young nurse honeybees. RJ contains bioactive substances, such as carbohydrates, protein, lipids, peptides, mineral salts and polyphenols which contribute to the appreciated biological and pharmacological activities. Antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and antibacterial impacts are among the well-recognized benefits. The combination of RJ or its constituents with anticancer drugs has synergistic effects on cancer disorders, enhancing the drug’s effectiveness or reducing its side effects. The purpose of the present review is to emphasize the possible interactions between chemotherapy and RJ, or its components, in treating cancer illnesses.
... All these properties pave the way for the use of bee bread as a complementary ingredient in traditional medicines or nanoparticle production. In addition to the prediction that bee bread can be used in the production of nanoparticles, from bee products nanoparticles; it has been stated that it can be used in advanced imaging, probing and cancer treatment [9]. Figure 1 shows a section of the bee bread sample used in the study. ...
Bee bread is a food product obtained by fermenting bee pollen with honey and storing it in honeycomb cells. In this fermentation, phenolic compounds remain unaffected and unchanged. Bee bread contains approximately; 35% sugar, 24-35% carbohydrate, 20-22% protein, 3.5% lactic acid, 2.43% mineral, 1.6% lipid and 1.6% fat. Within the scope of the study, biocompatible iron nanoparticles were synthesized (BB@FeNPs) by utilizing the potential reducing powers of these components contained in bee bread. The characterization of obtained bee bread-based nanoparticles; was performed using spectroscopic techniques such as ultraviolet-visible light spectrophotometer, fourier transform infrared spectrophotometer, and x-ray diffraction spectrometry. Scanning electron microscopy was used as a microscopic method in the characterization of nanoparticles. In addition, the sun protection factor (SPF) of the synthesized nanoparticles was determined by ultraviolet spectrophotometry. Although the studies in recent years tend to search for bioactive molecules of natural origin, no nanoparticle synthesis with bee bread has been encountered in the literature. This study is important as it is a first in the synthesis of metal nanoparticles with bee bread.
... All these properties pave the way for the use of bee bread as a complementary ingredient in traditional medicines or nanoparticle production. In addition to the prediction that bee bread can be used in the production of nanoparticles, from bee products nanoparticles; it has been stated that it can be used in advanced imaging, probing and cancer treatment [9]. Figure 1 shows a section of the bee bread sample used in the study. ...
Bee bread is a food product obtained by fermenting bee pollen with honey and storing it in honeycomb cells. In this fermentation, phenolic compounds remain unaffected and unchanged. Bee bread contains approximately; there are 35% sugar, 24-35% carbohydrate, 20-22% protein, 3.5% lactic acid, 2.43% mineral, 1.6% lipid and 1.6% fat. Within the scope of the study, biocompatible iron nanoparticles were synthesized (BB@FeNPs) by utilizing the potential reducing powers of these components contained in bee bread. Characterization of obtained bee bread-based nanoparticles; were performed using spectroscopic techniques such as ultraviolet-visible light spectrophotometer, fourier transform infrared spectrophotometer, and x-ray diffraction spectrometry. Scanning electron microscopy was used as a microscopic method in the characterization of nanoparticles. In addition, the sun protection factor (SPF) of the synthesized nanoparticles was determined by ultraviolet spectrophotometry. Although the studies in recent years tend to search for bioactive molecules of natural origin, no nanoparticle synthesis with bee bread has been encountered in the literature. This study is important as it is a first in the synthesis of metal nanoparticles with bee bread.
... Pollen is rich in nutrients, including ca. 5.9 to 11.5% fat, .20% protein, diverse fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidant substances (39,40), which play vital roles in bee metabolism and hormone regulation (41)(42)(43). During winter, without foraging and brood-rearing, bees mainly consume honey (5) but much less pollen (44)(45)(46). ...
The abilities to survive winter and to adapt to major food changes are key traits that have enabled successful range expansion of the honey bees from the tropic to temperate climate. Our results highlighted a new possibility that gut bacteria may have played an important role in host survival of the severe winter condition.
... Honeybees are one of the few animals that can create fermented food, such as honey and bee bread. Bee bread contains approximately 15-28% proteins, 8-10% moisture, 3-9% lipids, 24-35% carbohydrates, 3-5% minerals (Bleha et al., 2019;Khalifa et al., 2020), and a variety of bacteria (Anderson et al., 2013;Disayathanoowat et al., 2020) and fungal communities (Disayathanoowat et al., 2020), and the nutrient composition of bee bread varies with different plant sources (Mayda et al., 2020), bee species (Capcarova et al., 2019), and production areas (Sobral et al., 2017;Urcan et al., 2018;Bleha et al., 2019). Some evidence shows that the nutritional components of bee pollen change significantly during the process of transformation into bee bread (DeGrandi-Hoffman et al., 2013;Mayda et al., 2020). ...
The intestinal microbial community composition of different bee species typically has host specificity, yet little is known about the underlying formation mechanism. There are signs that dietary habits vary in different bee species, suggesting that there may be close relationships between dietary habits and intestinal microorganisms. We explored this hypothesis by comparing the dietary habits and gut microbiota of two common bee species (Apis mellifera L. and Apis cerana cerana) in China. Bee bread and midgut samples from wild and laboratory-reared bees were collected, and the differences in intestinal microbial community composition and growth and development before and after the change in dietary habits of different bee species were compared. We found that the two sympatric species had different dietary specializations and similar metagenomic diversities. The microbiota composition differed between the two species. Moreover, we revealed that changes in native dietary habits destroyed the intestinal microbiota community composition, negatively affecting the growth and development of honeybees.
... due to the lactic acid formation during the fermentation process (Vásquez and Olofsson, 2009), and the concentration of lactic acid is sixfold higher than in pollen (Nagai et al., 2004). Bee bread is claimed to have a broader range of sugars and greater reducing sugars compared to pollen (Anđelković et al., 2014;Khalifa et al., 2020). Each bee bread has a different composition which varies from different regions, climatic and seasonal variations, floral origins (Baltrušaityte et al., 2007;Urcan et al., 2017), and soil type (Vásquez and Olofsson, 2009). ...
Pollen and bee bread are valuable apitherapeutic products owing to their high-potential medical and nutritional applications. They are rich in nutritional properties such as proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, lipids and fatty acids, phenolic compounds, enzymes, and coenzymes together with vitamins and bioelements, which are essential for maintaining human health. They demonstrate various potential biological activities with health-promoting properties such as antioxidant, hepatoprotective, antiobesity, antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, antifungal, antiviral, antiradiation, and anticancer attributed to their natural antioxidants, including mostly phenolic compounds. The liver plays a major role in the metabolism of various substances. The intake of dietary components is crucial for liver health which can be beneficial or detrimental to the healthy or diseased liver. This chapter provides a general overview of the functional properties of pollen and bee bread related to liver health, their safety, and future warranted research.
Globally, the use of natural products as remedies for poultry health calls for a systematic exploration of their potential. Furthermore, there is an increasing popularity and utilization of bee-based products due to their inherent benefits. The current review was aimed at analysing empirical results, biological activities and secondary metabolites of bee pollen that are beneficial to the poultry industry. Eligible literature was retrieved from different databases. The findings from the literature search indicated that bee-collected pollen has received attention from researchers owing to its positive effects as a possible growth promoter in poultry production. It contains antioxidants, antimicrobials, emulsifiers, vitamins and minerals which can meet the biochemical and functional needs of poultry flocks. We identified a minimum of 17 research articles that captured various observations on the effects of bee pollen in poultry. The most common observations were on growth performance and gastrointestinal morphology. The search results also indicated that there are several factors such as floral species, climatic conditions and soil types which influence the nutritional composition of bee pollen. Studies gathered revealed that the antioxidant properties found in bee pollen are due to the phenolic compounds it possesses. Overall, there is a lack of empirical evidence on the health effects of supplementing bee pollen indicating a major knowledge gap that requires more research.
Beebread serves not only as a vital food source for bees but also as a significant reservoir of microbes for their intestinal tracts. The distribution of beebread in honeycomb cells is characterized by distinct vertical patterns; however, the vertical distribution patterns of the physicochemical characteristics and microbial composition of beebread remain unclear. In this study, we collected beebread samples from nine colonies in three representative ecosystems (forest, forest-urban, and urban-farmland ecosystems) and systematically assessed the physicochemical characteristics and bacterial diversity in three beebread layers (lower, middle, and upper). We found that upper beebread samples had lower pH; higher proportions of fructose and sucrose; and lower proportions of total solids, crude protein, and ash compared to lower samples. Moreover, 16S rDNA sequencing showed that the dominant bacterial phyla and genera were relatively simple and highly conserved across the three ecosystems. Overall, the microbial community richness of upper beebread was significantly higher than that of lower beebread, and Bacteroidetes and Acidobacteria were significantly decreased in lower compared to upper beebread. Meanwhile, the relative abundance of dominant taxa in the same beebread layer differed by ecosystem types. These findings suggest that bees employ fermentation processes to selectively enrich microbes present in flower pollen, leading to homogenous and relatively stable microbial diversity in beebread. Our study expands on the current understanding of beebread and highlights the significance of fermentation in its production. Furthermore, our findings provide a useful reference for further in-depth exploration of the interactions between food, food microbes, and bee gut microbes.
IMPORTANCE
Bees are a valuable model for investigating the relationship between environmental factors, gut microbiota, and organismal health. Beebread, produced from collected pollen, is a natural food source and a primary reservoir of gut microorganisms. Although pollen typically has diverse bacterial species, beebread has low species richness and bacterial abundance. Consequently, considerable attention has been paid to the adaptive strategies employed by honey bees to cope with the microorganisms within their food environment during co-evolution with plants. This study identified the distribution patterns of beebread's physicochemical characteristics, showing how bees use fermentation to enrich specific microbes. These findings help understand the relationship between environmental and food-associated microbes and bee intestinal microbiota. They also bridge gaps in the literature and provide a valuable reference for studying the complex interplay between these factors.
Bee bread, known as a natural fermented food, was made by combining pollen and nectar with bee saliva and storing it in a beehive. This bee product contains many bio-features. However, accurate analysis of these features is possible with the right extraction technique. If the extraction techniques are supported by advanced instrumental devices, the extraction efficiency of the sample also directly increases. In fact, if these techniques are integrated with scientific mathematical methods, analyses can be performed with a more accurate approach in the trial design. For this reason, in this study, extraction options were determined using surface response methodology in bee bread with known bioactive properties. For this purpose, the bee bread sample was extracted with the ultra-sound homogenizer by using different percentage ratios of ethanol (30, 50, and 70%), different times (5, 10, and 15 min), and different ultrasonic amplitudes (10, 15, and 20%). The antioxidant activities of the extracts were determined using ferric-reducing antioxidant power and cupric ion-reducing antioxidant capacity assays and supported with total phenolic content values. According to the results obtained, the extraction condition in which 10 min, 70% ethanol, and 10% ultrasonic amplitude were used in the experimental design was determined to be the most ideal extraction condition. In this condition, the total phenolic content was 16.007±0.076 mg GAE/g sample, the FRAP value was 44.376±1.706 μmol FeSO4.7H2O/g sample, and the CUPRAC value was 198.533±5.163 μmol Trolox/g sample, which were analyzed as the highest values. Supporting the study-related modeling approach with a diverse set of alternatives would shed light on future investigations and allow the bio-component quantity of this natural product to be revealed with more accuracy.
Pollen grains, honey, and lactic acid bacteria are combined to make bee bread, which serves as the hive's primary source of nutrition. This study evaluated a Turkish bee bread concerning the total phenolic content, antiradical, and antimicrobial activity against Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella Typhimurium. The Folin-Ciocalteu method was applied to determine the total phenolic content (TPC) in bee bread's aqueous extracts and DPPH was used to assess the extract's radical scavenging activity. The extract's antibacterial activity on foodborne bacteria were evaluated using minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC). The current study determined the TPC of bee bread to be 24.45 ± 3.75 g of GAE/mg. The DPPH assay results indicated that the water-soluble extract of bee bread (1 mg/mL) had a scavenging activity of 3.40±2.99%. In this study, the bee bread extract's antibacterial effect on S. aureus, E. coli, S. Typhimurium, and B. cereus in various concentrations (6.25 to 25 mg/mL). The bee bread contains phenolic compounds and showed antiradical activity. Also, it has antibacterial activity on all of the tested bacteria. This research contributes to the knowledge of the bioactive properties of this unexplored natural material.
Arılar tarafından farklı bitki kaynaklarından toplanan polenlerde meydana gelen laktik asit fermantasyonu sonucunda oluşturulan bir ürün olan arı ekmeği yapısında karbohidratlar, proteinler, aminoasitler, yağ asitleri, organik asitler, enzimler, vitaminler, fenolik bileşikler ve mineraller gibi birçok biyoaktif bileşen bulundurmaktadır. Arı ekmeğinin bileşimi polen kaynağına ve üretildiği ortamdaki coğrafik ve iklimsel özelliklere bağlı olarak değişkenlik gösterebilmektedir. Arı ekmeği zengin kimyasal bileşimi sayesinde antimikrobiyal, antioksidan, antikanser ve probiyotik özellikler olmak üzere sağlık üzerine çeşitli olumlu etkilere sahiptir. Belirtilen etkilerine ilişkin ortaya konulan çalışmalar ile arı ekmeğinin bilinirliği ve arı ekmeğine karşı olan ilgi artmaktadır. Buradan hareketle bu derlemede arı ekmeğinin üretimi, bazı fiziksel ve kimyasal özellikleri, sağlık üzerine etkileri ve bir gıda olarak kullanım potansiyelinin değerlendirilmesi amaçlanmıştır.
The aim of the study was to compare the nutritional value and bioactivity of honey enriched with a 10% addition of natural bee bread and its substitutes obtained as a result of laboratory fermentation of bee pollen. Physicochemical parameters, antioxidant properties, as well as the bioaccessibility of proteins using an in vitro static digestion model were analyzed. The bioactivity of the obtained enriched honeys was tested using the yeast model. The research indicates the similarity of honeys with the addition of “artificial bee bread” to honey with natural ones. During in vitro digestion, good bioaccessibility of the protein from the tested products was demonstrated. The ability of the products to protect yeast cells against hydrogen superoxide-induced oxidative stress was demonstrated using a qualitative spot test, which was stronger in the case of enriched honey than in pure rapeseed control honey. Significant inhibition of the growth of both strains of yeast exposed to bee pollen-enriched honeys was also demonstrated. Furthermore, all tested samples showed significant genoprotective activity against the genotoxic effect of zeocin and the reduction of the number of DNA double-strand breaks by a minimum of 70% was observed.
Bee bread (BB) is a fermented mixture of bee pollen, is rich in proteins, amino acids, fatty acids, polyphenols, flavonoids, as well as other bioactive compounds, and is considered functional food for humans. In this study, we explored an innovative green synthesis of colloidal silver nanoparticles, using BB extracts as reducing and stabilizing agents. A preliminary chemical characterization of the BB extracts was conducted. The plasmonic response of the as-synthesized silver nanoparticles (BB-AgNPs) was evaluated by UV–Vis spectroscopy, while their hydrodynamic diameter and zeta potential were investigated by dynamic light spectroscopy (DLS). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis pointed out polydisperse NPs with quasi-spherical shapes. The newly synthesized nanoparticles showed good antioxidant activity against the tested free radicals, DPPH, ABTS•+, and FRAP, the best results being obtained in the case of ABTS•+. BB-AgNPs exhibited good antibacterial activity on the tested Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial strains: herein S. aureus, B. cereus, E. faecalis, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. enteritidis, and on yeast C. albicans, respectively. The inhibition diameters varied between 7.67 ± 0.59 and 22.21 ± 1.06 mm, while the values obtained for minimum inhibitory concentration varied between 0.39 and 6.25 µg/mL. In vitro antiproliferative activity was tested on colon adenocarcinoma, ATCC HTB-37 cell line, and the results have shown that the green synthetized BB-AgNPs induced a substantial decrease in tumor cell viability in a dose-dependent manner with an IC50 ranging from 24.58 to 67.91 µg/mL. Consequently, more investigation is required to comprehend the processes of the cytotoxicity of AgNPs and develop strategies to mitigate their potentially harmful effects while harnessing their antimicrobial properties.
In this study, it was aimed to determine the effect of different drying methods (with microwave and hot air) on the change of color values as well as the nutrient and bioactive content of fresh bee bread. In addition, drying characteristics were investigated. Microwave and hot air drying were applied at different microwave powers (210, 350, and 490 W) and temperatures (40, 50, and 60 °C). The control group was obtained by the traditional method. When drying times were compared, they were found to be 210, 180, and 150 minutes for dried samples at 40, 50, and 60 °C; and 32, 20, and 18 minutes for dried samples at 210, 350, and 490 W, respectively. The lower moisture ratio and the highest effective diffusion coefficient were obtained with microwave drying thanks to a short time. It was determined that the most suitable thin layer drying model was Midilli for both methods. The microwave is found to have a mostly positive effect on the bioactive contents. Regardless of the drying conditions, moisture, ash, protein, carbohydrate, and fat ratios were observed to vary in the ranges of 4.9‐8.2%, 1.61‐2.67%, 17.47‐32.54%, 39.92‐60.84%, and 7.10‐8.89%, respectively. The lowest color difference was obtained in the dried sample at 210 W. As a result, it has been determined that the microwave drying method is more suitable for preserving the nutritional and bioactive content of the bee bread during drying. This study is the first to investigate the drying characteristics of bee bread.
Globally, the use of natural products as remedies for poultry health calls for a systematic exploration of their potential. Furthermore, there is an increasing popularity and utilization of bee-based products due to their inherent benefits. The current review was aimed at analysing empirical results, biological activities and secondary metabolites of bee pollen that are beneficial to the poultry industry. Eligible literature was retrieved from different databases. The findings from the literature search indicated that bee-collected pollen has received attention from researchers owing to its positive effects as a possible growth promoter in poultry production. It contains antioxidants, antimicrobials, emulsifiers, vitamins and minerals which can meet the biochemical and functional needs of poultry flocks. We identified a minimum of 17 research articles that captured various observations on the effects of bee pollen in poultry. The most common observations were on growth performance and gastrointestinal morphology. The search results also indicated that there are several factors such as floral species, climatic conditions and soil types which influence the nutritional composition of bee pollen. Studies gathered revealed that the antioxidant properties found in bee pollen are due to the phenolic compounds it possesses. Overall, there is a lack of empirical evidence on the health effects of supplementing bee pollen indicating a major knowledge gap that requires more research.
Bee products, which have been used in various fields throughout history, have rich nutritional content and bioactive properties. Bee products play an important role in treatment of diseases. Bee pollen, one of the bee products, is the reproductive cell of seed plants. Bee bread is pollen that is naturally preserved, fermented with the secretions of bees. Bee pollen and bee bread, which have high nutritional content and antioxidant properties, are of interest to consumers with their beneficial effects on health. Food matrices enriched with functional bee pollen and bee bread should be at an acceptable level in terms of both flavor and sensory properties. In this study, studies on food products enriched with bee pollen and bee bread (perga) were examined. In the review, it was seen that food products enriched with bee pollen and bee bread have rich nutritional content, an increase in the antioxidant capacity of these products.
Bee pollen is a natural cocktail of floral nectar, flower pollen, enzymes, and salivary
secretions produced by honeybees. Bee pollen is one of the bee products most enriched in proteins,
polysaccharides, polyphenols, lipids, minerals, and vitamins. It has significant health and medicinal impact and provides protection against many diseases, including diabetes, cancer, infectious, and cardiovascular. Bee pollen is commonly promoted as a cost-effective functional food. In particular, bee pollen has been applied in clinical trials for allergies and prostate illnesses, with a few investigations on cancer and skin problems. However, it is involved in several patents and health recipes to combat chronic health problems. This review aimed to highlight the clinical trials and patents involving
bee pollen for different cases and to present the role of bee pollen as a supplementary food and a potential product in cosmetic applications.
Keywords: bee pollen; diseases; functional foods; cosmetics
ABSTRACT
Insect pollination establishes an ecosystem service around the globe, providing compelling
budgetary and creative profits along with developmental values to humans and vital eco�friendly measures for the environment. It is, therefore, essential to understand how insect
pollinator populations and communities respond to rapidly changing environments if we are
to maintain healthy and effective pollinator services. Although insect pollinators are known
to provide ecosystem services to more than 80% of the world’s flowering plants (including
cultivated crops), a steep decline (�20–40%) in their population has created an alarming
situation for global biodiversity. Threats to bee populations in recent years have increased
awareness about the critical role of pollinators for life on earth, as pollinators are predicted
to persist only when all animal-pollinated plant species persist. Additionally, increased usage
of chemical pesticides may result in the collapse of pollinators which leads to a decrease in
food resource density and also facilitates the increasing isolation of natural habitats. So, to
overcome pollinators’ decline, joint efforts of all stakeholders are needed to increase their
numbers on the planet. We have to cut down the use of synthetic pesticides, ban highly
toxic pesticides, tackle problems related to colony collapse disorder (CCD), climate change,
habitat loss and provide much-needed help to the native pollinator species to revive their
natural habitats. So, this paper aims to focus on appreciating the services of insect pollina�tors and rescuing them from the threats leading to their extinctions which in turn will help
in enhancing global food production
Bee pollen is a natural cocktail of floral nectar, flower pollen, enzymes, and salivary secretions produced by honeybees. Bee pollen is one of the bee products most enriched in proteins, polysaccharides, polyphenols, lipids, minerals, and vitamins. It has a significant health and medicinal impact and provides protection against many diseases, including diabetes, cancer, infectious, and cardiovascular. Bee pollen is commonly promoted as a cost-effective functional food. In particular , bee pollen has been applied in clinical trials for allergies and prostate illnesses, with a few investigations on cancer and skin problems. However, it is involved in several patents and health recipes to combat chronic health problems. This review aimed to highlight the clinical trials and patents involving bee pollen for different cases and to present the role of bee pollen as a supplementary food and a potential product in cosmetic applications. Citation: Algethami, J.S.; El-Wahed, A.A.A.; Elashal, M.H.; Ahmed, H.R.; Elshafiey, E.H.; Omar, E.M.; Naggar, Y.A.; Algethami, A.F.; Shou, Q.; Alsharif, S.M.; et al. Bee Pollen: Clinical Trials and Patent Applications. Nutrients 2022, 14, 2858. https://doi.org/10.3390/ nu14142858 Academic Editor: Bahram H. Arjmandi
Pollen is the only source of protein in the honey bee colonies and it is very important for the development of brood, and consequently, for the development of the colony. Pollen and honey bee bread, collected by honey bees, represent a signifi cant source of protein for human consumption. Honey bee bread is the pollen which the bees collected from fl owers and stored in honeycomb cells. Unlike pollen, which is obtained from the pollen collectors, honey bee bread, in cells of the comb, passes through the fermentation process and under the infl uence of enzymes; one of the most valuable honey bee products is formed. It is extremely important both for the honey bee colonies, and for the human usage in apitherapy. For this study, ten honey bee colonies were selected. Pollen was sampled from the pollen collectors, and honey bee bread was sampled from the combs. The quality of pollen and honey bee bread was determined by the chemical composition, using standard methods used in food analysis. Total nitrogen was determined by Kjeldahl method. Micro-and macroelements were determined by spectrophotometric method.
The interactions between proteins and solvent components have been investigated for the sucrose/water system. Thermodynamic and kinetic measurements of the thermal unfolding of alpha-chymotrypsin, chymotrypsinogen, and ribonuclease were performed as a function of sucrose concentration. The alteration in protein-solvent interactions in the presence of sucrose was also studied by density measurements and analyzed by multicomponent thermodynamic theory. Sucrose does not induce a conformational change in three proteins studied, although it does induce a small change in the circular dichroism spectrum of ribonuclease. The enthalpy of thermal unfolding shows little dependence on the concentration of sucrose, while the apparent activation energy of the unfolding process is increased by the addition of sucrose. The results from the protein-solvent interaction study indicate that sucrose is preferentially excluded from the protein domain, increasing the free energy of the system. Thermodynamically this leads to protein stabilization since the unfolded state of the protein becomes thermodynamically even less favorable in the presence of sucrose. The exclusion of sucrose from the protein domain seems to be related to the higher cohesive force of the sucrose water solvent system since all the experimental observations can be correlated with the effect of sucrose on the surface tension of water.
Aluminum toxicity might be related to oxidative stress, and the antioxidant activity and protective effect of bee bread, which contains pollen, honey and bees’ enzymes, on aluminum induced blood and hepato-renal toxicity was investigated in rats. Chemical analysis and antioxidant capacity of bee bread were conducted. The animal experiment in rats included; group 1: received distilled water (10 ml/kg b.wt), group 2: received aluminum chloride (662.2 mg/kg b.wt), group 3: received aluminum chloride (662.2 mg/kg b.wt) and ethanolic extract of the bee bread (500 mg/kg b.wt), and group 4: received aluminum chloride (662.2 mg/kg b.wt) and ethanolic extract of the bee bread (750 mg/kg b.wt). Doses were given once daily via a gavage. C-reactive protein, transaminases, urea, creatinine, creatinine clearance, sodium and potassium and urine sodium and potassium were determined on day 28 of the experiment. Bee bread contained protein, fat, fiber, ash, carbohydrate, phenol and flavonoids and it exhibited antioxidant activity. Aluminum caused a significant elevation of blood urea, transaminase, C-reactive protein and monocyte count and significantly decreased hemoglobin. These changes were significantly ameliorated by the use of bee bread. Bee bread has an antioxidant property, and exhibited a protective effect on aluminum induced blood and hepato-renal toxicity and elevation of inflammatory markers C-reactive protein, leukocyte and monocyte counts.
Ageing is often accompanied by chronic inflammation. A fat-and sugar-rich Western-type diet (WTD) may accelerate the ageing phenotype. Cell culture studies have indicated that artepillin C-containing Brazilian green propolis exhibits anti-inflammatory properties. However, little is known regarding its anti-inflammatory potential in mouse liver in vivo. In this study, female C57BL/6NRj wild-type mice were fed a WTD, a WTD supplemented with Brazilian green propolis supercritical extract (GPSE) encapsulated in γ-cyclodextrin (γCD) or a WTD plus γCD for 10 weeks. GPSE-CD did not affect the food intake, body weight or body composition of the mice. However, mRNA levels of the tumour necrosis factor α were significantly downregulated (p < 0.05) in these mice compared to those in the WTD-fed controls. Furthermore, the gene expression levels of other pro-inflammatory markers, including serum amyloid P, were significantly (p < 0.001) decreased following GPSE-γCD treatment. GPSE-γCD significantly induced hepatic ferritin gene expression (p < 0.01), which may contribute to its anti-inflammatory properties. Conversely, GPSE-γCD did not affect the biomarkers of endogenous antioxidant defence, including catalase, glutathione peroxidase-4, paraoxonase-1, glutamate cysteine ligase and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor-2 (Nrf2). Overall, the present data suggest that dietary GPSE-γCD exhibits anti-inflammatory, but not antioxidant activity in mouse liver in vivo. Thus, GPSE-γCD has the potential to serve as a natural hepatoprotective bioactive compound for dietary-mediated strategies against chronic inflammation.
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a common progressive disease that is typically characterized by the permanent loss of functional nephrons. As injured nephrons become sclerotic and die, the remaining healthy nephrons undergo numerous structural, molecular, and functional changes in an attempt to compensate for the loss of diseased nephrons. These compensatory changes enable the kidney to maintain fluid and solute homeostasis until approximately 75% of nephrons are lost. As CKD continues to progress, glomerular filtration rate decreases, and remaining nephrons are unable to effectively eliminate metabolic wastes and environmental toxicants from the body. This inability may enhance mortality and/or morbidity of an individual. Environmental toxicants of particular concern are arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury. Since these metals are present throughout the environment and exposure to one or more of these metals is unavoidable, it is important that the way in which these metals are handled by target organs in normal and disease states is understood completely.
Researchers use several different analytical techniques, such as ORAC, ABTS·+, or FRAP, for measuring the antioxidant capacity of bioactive compounds. However, many authors do not take into account that these three techniques have different objectives. This contribution reports on the use of two types of tests to evaluate the antioxidant activity of four stilbene tests based first on the hydrogen atom transfer reaction (ORAC method) and the second on the single electron transfer reaction (ABTS·+ and FRAP assays). For the ORAC assay, the greatest antioxidant activity was shown by resveratrol, followed by oxyresveratrol, pterostilbene, and pinosylvin, while in the ABTS.+ assay, the highest antioxidant capacity was presented by oxyresveratrol, followed by resveratrol, pinosylvin, and finally pterostilbene. In the FRAP assay, the reducing activity shown by all the stilbenes was below that obtained for trolox. The role of phenolic hydroxyl groups was studied. The technique used should be selected taking into account the objectives and the conditions of the medium.
Graphical Abstractᅟ
Bee bread (BB) is a fermented mixture of plant pollen, honey, and bee saliva that worker bees use as food for larvae, and for young bees to produce royal jelly. In the present study, five BB samples, collected from Apis mellifera iberiensis hives located in different apiaries near Bragança, in the northeast region of Portugal, and one BB commercial sample were characterized by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to a diode array detector and electrospray mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD-ESI/MS) in terms of phenolic compounds, such as flavonoid glycoside derivatives. Furthermore, the samples were screened, using in vitro assays, against different human tumor cell lines, MCF-7 (breast adenocarcinoma), NCI-H460 (non-small cell lung cancer), HeLa (cervical carcinoma) and HepG2 (hepatocellular carcinoma), and also against non-tumor liver cells (porcine liver cells, PLP2). The main phenolic compounds found were flavonol derivatives, mainly quercetin, kaempferol, myricetin, isorhamnetin and herbacetrin glycoside derivatives. Thirty-two compounds were identified in the six BB samples, presenting BB1 and BB3 with the highest contents (6802 and 6480 μg/g extract, respectively) and the highest number of identified compounds. Two isorhamnetin glycoside derivatives, isrohamnetin-O-hexosyl-O-rutinoside and isorhamnetin-O-pentosyl-hexoside, were the most abundant compounds present in BB1; on the other hand, quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside was the most abundant flavonol in BB3. However, it was not possible to establish a correlation between the flavonoids and the observed low to moderate cytotoxicity (ranging from >400 to 68 μg/mL), in which HeLa and NCI-H460 cell lines were the most susceptible to the inhibition. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report characterizing glycosidic flavonoids in BB samples, contributing to the chemical knowledge of this less explored bee product.
Aims:
This study investigates the antimicrobial activity in Staphylococcus aureus isolates (MSSA - Methicillin Sensitive Staphylococcus aureus and MRSA - Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus) and antioxidant activity of green propolis, Baccharis dracunculifolia DC extracts and Artepillin C(™) .
Methods and results:
The amount of Artepillin C in different extracts was determined by HPLC analysis. Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations 90 (MIC90) was determined using 40 isolates of Staphylococcus aureus inoculated in Müeller-Hinton agar culture medium containing the green-propolis and Baccharis dracunculifolia DC extracts. PVEE (green propolis ethanolic extract) and BDEH (Baccharis dracunculifolia hexanic extract) showed the greatest antimicrobial activity with MIC90 values of 246.3 and 295.5 μg/mL, respectively. Green propolis ethanolic and hexanic extracts (PVEE and PVEH respectively) showed the greatest antioxidant activity assessed by DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazylradical) with IC50 values of 13.09 and 95.86 μg/mL, respectively.
Conclusions:
Green propolis ethanolic is displays better antimicrobial and antioxidant activities compared to other extracts. These activities may be related to the presence of Artepillin C in synergism with the other constituents of the extracts.
Significance and impact of the study:
In this study, the antimicrobial activity of the extracts of green propolis and Baccharis dracunculifolia DC demonstrated in MRSA an MSSA clinical isolates indicated that they can be important tools to treat infections caused by these bacteria. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Published systematic reviews concluded that there is moderate to strong evidence to infer a potential role of lead and cadmium, widespread environmental metals, as cardiovascular risk factors. For other non-essential metals, the evidence has not been appraised systematically. Our objective was to systematically review epidemiologic studies on the association between cardiovascular disease in adults and the environmental metals antimony, barium, chromium, nickel, tungsten, uranium, and vanadium. We identified a total of 4 articles on antimony, 1 on barium, 5 on chromium, 1 on nickel, 4 on tungsten, 1 on uranium, and 0 on vanadium. We concluded that the current evidence is not sufficient to inform on the cardiovascular role of these metals because of the small number of studies. Few experimental studies have also evaluated the role of these metals in cardiovascular outcomes. Additional epidemiologic and experimental studies, including prospective cohort studies, are needed to understand the role of metals, including exposure to metal mixtures, in cardiovascular disease development.
Bee venom and its main constituent melittin (MEL) have been extensively studied in the treatment of tumors. However, the non-specific cytotoxicity and hemolytic activity have hampered the clinical application. Currently, a number of research groups have reported a series of optimization strategies, including gene therapy, recombinant immunotoxin incorporating MEL or MEL nanoparticles, targeting tumor cells to attenuate the cytotoxicity and improve its antitumor efficiency and therapeutic capabilities, which have shown very promising in overcoming some of these obstacles. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge regarding anticancer effects of bee venom and its main compound MEL on different kinds of tumor cells as well as elucidate their possible anticancer mechanisms. It could be concluded that MEL exerts multiple effects on cellular functions of cancerous cells such as proliferation, apoptosis, metastasis, angiogenesis as well as cell cycle, and the anticancer processes involve diverse signal molecules and regulatory pathways. We also highlight the recent research progress for efficient delivery of MEL peptide, thus providing new ideas and hopeful strategies for the in vivo application of MEL.
Palynological spectrum, proximate and fattyacid (FA) composition of eight bee bread samples of different botanical origins were examined and significant variations were observed. The samples were all identified as monofloral, namely Castanea sativa (94.4 %), Trifolium spp. (85.6 %), Gossypium hirsutum (66.2 %), Citrus spp. (61.4 %) and Helianthus annuus (45.4 %). Each had moisture content between 11.4 and 15.9 %, ash between 1.9 and 2.54 %, fat between 5.9 and 11.5 %, and protein between 14.8 and 24.3 %. A total of 37 FAs were determined with most abundant being (9Z,12Z,15Z)-octadeca-9,12,15-trienoic, (9Z,12Z)- -octadeca-9,12-dienoic, hexadecanoic, (Z)-octadec-9-enoic, (Z)-icos-11-enoic and octadecanoic acids. Among all, cotton bee bread contained the highest level of ω-3 FAs, i.e. 41.3 %. Unsaturated to saturated FA ratio ranged between 1.38 and 2.39, indicating that the bee bread can be a good source of unsaturated FAs.
This study shows the results of application LC/MS/MS for assay of the content of α-tocopherol and coenzyme Q10 in bee products of animal origin, i.e. royal jelly, beebread and drone homogenate. The biological matrix was removed using extraction with n-hexane. It was found that drone homogenate is a rich source of coenzyme Q10 . It contains only 8 ± 1 µg/g of α-tocopherol and 20 ± 2 µg/g of coenzyme Q10 . The contents of assayed compounds in royal jelly were: 16 ± 3 µg /g and 8 ± 0.2 µg/g of α-tocopherol and coenzyme Q10 , respectively. Beebread appeared to be the richest of α-tocopherol. Its level was 80 ± 30 µg/g while the level of coenzyme Q10 was only 11.5 ± 0.3 µg/g.
Fatty acids were identified in monofloral beebread (BB) and bee pollen (BP) loads collected from Trifolium pratense L. A gas chromatography method was used to identify and quantify fatty acids: Thirty-five fatty acids were identified in BB and 42 in BP. A high amount of the healthy n-3 fatty acids was found. The ratio of polyunsaturated fatty acids n-3 to n-6 reached a value of 8.42 and 3.35 in the latter products. The proteomic analysis also was performed on the manually collected T. pratense pollen, and the most abundant protein groups were subjected to mass spectrometry analysis. Proteins identified in T. pratense pollen are involved in the main cellular functions (cell membrane formation, organelles traffic, and mainly metabolic processes). Because of the composition of fatty acids in BB and BP and a variety of proteins present in pollen, these products are considered to be favorable for human nutrition and health.
Trifolium pratense pollen protein 2DE analysis.
Bee pollen and bee bread from stationary apiaries in the southwest Polish Legnica-Glogow copper district (LGOM) were analyzed for Cr, Pb, Cd and As by ICP-AES. Their concentrations in both products were As > Cr > Pb > Cd. Concentrations in bee pollen were higher than in bee bread. Average Cr, Pb, As and Cd concentrations in bee products were 0.138, 0.093, 0.325, and 0.019 mg kg−1, respectively. Chromium was the most problematic element in bee pollen because its concentration limit was exceeded in more than 50% of the samples. Differences in Cd level between bee pollen and bread were significant (p ≤ 0.05)
Bee bread is product with long history used mainly in folk medicine. Nowadays, bee bread is growing in commercial interest due to its high nutritional properties. The objective of this study was to determine biological activity of ethanolic extract of bee bread obtained from selected region of Ukraine-Poltava oblast, Kirovohrad oblast, Vinnica oblast, Kyiv oblast, Dnepropetrovsk oblast. The antioxidant activity was measured with the radical scavenging assays using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical as well as phosphomolybdenum assay. Total polyphenol content was determined with Folin-Ciocalteau reagent and total flavonoid content by aluminium-chloride method. Secondary was also evaluated antimicrobial activity in bee bread samples with disc diffusion method and minimum inhibitory concentrations. Antioxidant activity expressed as mg TEAC per g of dry weight (Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity) was the highest in bee bread from Poltava oblast in DPPH and also phosphomolybdenum method. Samples of bee bread contained high levels of total polyphenols (12.36 - 18.24 mg GAE - gallic acid equivalent per g of dry weight) and flavonoids (13.56 - 18.24 μg QE - quercetin equivalent per g of dry weight) with the best values of bee bread from Poltava oblast. An elevated level of antioxidant potential in the bee bread determines its biological properties, which conditioned of the biological active substances. The best antibacterial activity of bee bred with disc diffusion method was found against Bacillus thuringiensis CCM 19. The antibacterial activity inhibited by the bee bread extract in the present study indicate that best minimal inhibition concentration was against bacteria Escherichia coli CCM 3988 and Salmonella enterica subs. enterica CCM 3807.
Bee pollen constitutes a natural source of antioxidants such as phenolic acids and flavonoids, which are responsible for its biological activity. Research has indicated the correlation between dietary polyphenols and cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, anticancerogenic, immunostimulating, antianaemic effects, as well as their beneficial influence on osseous tissue. The beneficial effects of bee pollen on health result from the presence of phenolic acids and flavonoids which possess anti-inflammatory properties, phytosterol and linolenic acid which play an anticancerogenic role, and polysaccharides which stimulate immunological activity. Polyphenols are absorbed in the alimentary tract, metabolised by CYP450 enzymes, and excreted with urine and faeces. Flavonoids and phenolic acids are characterised by high antioxidative potential, which is closely related to their chemical structure. The high antioxidant potential of phenolic acids is due to the presence and location of hydroxyl groups, a carboxyl group in the immediate vicinity of ortho-diphenolic substituents, and the ethylene group between the phenyl ring and the carboxyl group. As regards flavonoids, essential structural elements are hydroxyl groups at the C5 and C7 positions in the A ring, and at the C3 and C4 positions in the B ring, and a hydroxyl group at the C3 position in the C ring. Furthermore, both, the double bond between C2 and C3, and a ketone group at the C4 position in the C ring enhance the antioxidative potential of these compounds. Polyphenols have an ideal chemical structure for scavenging free radicals and for creating chelates with metal ions, which makes them effective antioxidants in vivo.
Beebread is processed pollen stored in the cells of the honeycomb, with the addition of various enzymes and honey, which undergoes lactic acid fermentation. Ethanolic extracts (EBBs) were obtained from three different samples of beebread from Poland. Assays were carried out for the determination of chemical composition (GC/MS), for the total phenolic content, and for the antioxidant and cytotoxic activities. The effects of beebread extracts (10, 20, 30, 50, 100 μg/mL) on the viability of the glioblastoma cell line (U87MG) were studied after 24 h, 48 h, and 72 h. Our results indicated a time-dependent inhibitory effect on the viability of U87MG cells treated EBB. The main inhibitory effect of EBB was observed after 72 h; EBB treatment decreased cell viability to 49 - 66%.
Natural products have been used for several years in folk medicine. One such natural medicine is apitherapy; which is the medical use of honey, propolis, pollen, royal jelly, bee venom etc. The curative properties of honey bees and their products is receiving renewed and increasing attention from scientists – that have a number of medicinal applications. As people are realizing that modern medicine is not the soul remedy for infections today. So, many of us are looking back to the past for the alternative approaches with least possible side effects like apitherapy. This chapter throws a light on the use of bee products and its clinical importance in healthcare and dentistry. The developments in science have led to us a better understanding of the ingredients presents in the bee products and has generated great interest in its use for medical treatments. These bee products promote healing by improving circulation, decreasing inflammation, and stimulating a healthy immune response. Therefore, apitherapy being simple, convenient and available method are practiced in traditional self-heath care and also holds promise for the treatment of periodontal diseases, mouth ulcers, and other diseases of the oral cavity as well.
Bee pollen is a valuable apitherapeutic product greatly appreciated by the natural medicine because of its potential medical and nutritional applications. It demonstrates a series of actions such as antifungal, antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, anticancer immunostimulating, and local analgesic. Its radical scavenging potential has also been reported. Beneficial properties of bee pollen and the validity for their therapeutic use in various pathological condition have been discussed in this study and with the currently known mechanisms, by which bee pollen modulates burn wound healing process.
Different methods of extraction of perga from a honeycomb are observed. A number of extraction technologies which allow obtaining a high nutritional quality product with preserved vitamins for further production of medicines or alternative foodstuffs which are based on bee-keeping products are studied. A detailed analysis of the technologies and main technical characteristics of various units is given. It is concluded, that the highest productivity is reached by the technologies which are based on convective method and modern non-destructing methods, such as acoustic drying.
Honey bee hives are filled with stored pollen, honey, tree resins, and wax, all antimicrobial to differing degrees. Stored pollen is the nutritionally rich currency used for colony growth, and consists of 40-50% simple sugars. Many studies speculate that prior to consumption by bees, stored pollen undergoes long-term nutrient conversion, becoming more nutritious “bee bread” as microbes pre-digest the pollen. We quantified both structural and functional aspects associated with this hypothesis using behavioral assays, bacterial plate counts, microscopy, and 454 amplicon sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene from both newly-collected and hive-stored pollen. We found that bees preferentially consume fresh pollen stored for less than three days. Newly-collected pollen contained few bacteria, values which decreased significantly as pollen was stored >96 hours. The estimated microbe to pollen grain surface area ratio was 1:1,000,000 indicating a negligible effect of microbial metabolism on hive-stored pollen. Consistent with these findings, hive-stored pollen grains did not appear compromised according to microscopy. Based on year round 454 amplicon sequencing, bacterial communities of newly-collected and hive-stored pollen did not differ, indicating the lack of an emergent microbial community co-evolved to digest stored pollen. In accord with previous culturing and 16S cloning, acid resistant and osmotolerant bacteria like Lactobacillus kunkeei were found in greatest abundance in stored pollen, consistent with the harsh character of this microenvironment. We conclude that stored pollen is not evolved for microbially mediated nutrient conversion, but is a preservative environment due primarily to added honey, nectar, bee secretions and properties of pollen itself.This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Declines in insect pollinators in Europe have been linked to changes in land use. Pollinator nutrition is dependent on floral resources (i.e., nectar and pollen), which are linked to landscape composition. Here, we present a stratified analysis of the nutritional composition of beebread in managed honeybee hives with a view to examining potential sources of variation in its nutritional composition. Specifically, we tested the hypothesis that beebread composition correlates with local land use and therefore available floral resources. The results demonstrated that the starch, lipid, and moisture contents of beebread are all highly conserved across hives, whereas levels of protein and nonreducing sugar increased as the year progressed, reducing sugars, however, decreased during the first half of the year and then increased toward the end. Local land use around hives was quantified using data from the Countryside Survey 2007 Land Cover Map. Bee-bread protein content was negatively correlated with increasing levels of arable and horticultural farmland surrounding hives and positively correlated with the cover of natural grasslands and broadleaf woodlands. Reducing sugar content was also positively correlated with the amount of broad-leaved woodland in a 3 Km² radius from the hives. Previous studies on a range of invertebrates, including honeybees, indicate that dietary protein intake may have a major impact on correlates of fitness, including longevity and immune function. The finding that beebread protein content correlates with land use suggests that landscape composition may impact on insect pollinator well-being and provides a link between landscape and the nutritional ecology of socially foraging insects in a way not previously considered.
Pollen and fatty acid composition were studied in the beebread collected in spring and sum-mer. Willow pollen in spring beebread comprised 45.1 ± 3.0%, while rape pollen in summer beebread constituted 78.7 ± 4.5%. Twenty-two fatty acids were identified in beebread, including five ω-3, four ω-6 and three ω-9 polyunsaturated fatty acids. The ratio of ω-6 and ω-3 fatty acids was 1 : 1 in beebread samples where rape pollen constituted 45.1 ± 3.0% and 61.7 ± 4.0%, while this ratio was 2 : 1 in the beebread with a higher content of rape pollen, 78.7 ± 4.5%.