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Abstract

Species diversification can increase resilience of British forests if diversifying species are adapted to site, genetically variable, and do not harm existing forests. Immediate increase in resilience is best achieved using native or well-established exotic species, rather than ‘alternative’ species. ‘Alternative’ species currently lack adequate information on site requirements and appropriate seed sources, and there has been little assessment of their potential for damaging existing forests through pest/pathogen transfer and invasive behaviour. Future use of ‘alternative’ species for diversification should be contingent on rigorous biological risk assessment, results from forestry scale trials, and the establishment of sustainable British seed sources

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... To our knowledge no direct evidence of increased disease resistance in larch in mixed compared with monospecific stands yet exists. However, recent work has linked greater tree species diversity with a reduction in disease risk from P. ramorum (Haas et al., 2011), and the diversification of forest composition away from monocultures of many species may reduce the risk of catastrophic loss of the entire stand to a pathogen such as P. ramorum (Ennos et al., 2020), assuming the admixed species are not also susceptible. This evidence, coupled with the clear suitability of larch species to a range of GB conditions presented here suggests that the future role of larch as a component of more diverse, mixed-species forests (and the resistance of larch to P. ramorum in these mixtures) is a much-needed area of future research (alongside efforts to identify genetic resistance and inoculation trials) before larch species are abandoned entirely, particularly on drier sites where the risk from this pathogen might be lower. ...
... ACC is likely to alter the range of tree species that can be established in Great Britain (Ennos et al. 2020), with areas in the southeast predicted to become Mediterranean (i.e., prolonged summer droughts) by 2080 under a high emissions scenario (Ray et al. 2010). Much of the work in GB on future species suitability has used the Ecological Site Classification (ESC) which predicts suitability of a range of tree species based on climatic and soil variables (Ray 2008a, 2008b, Ray et al. 2010. ...
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The forests of Great Britain (GB) are an important resource, which are under threat from climate change and exotic pests and diseases. The forest sector has been proactive in launching initiatives and supporting activities to improve the resistance and resilience of forests in GB. These interventions can be directed at forests at a range of scales, from genetic to national. This article describes the range of potential and actual actions focused on adapting Britain’s forests to climate change and damage from pests and diseases. However, there are also barriers to improving the resilience of forests in GB and these are also discussed.
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Masting behaviour of Sitka spruce Picea sitchensis may influence Eurasian siskin Spinus spinus breeding ecology as breeding siskins specialize on spruce seeds. We caught siskins and other small passerines over 16 years using mist nets adjacent to large plantations of mature Sitka spruce. We sexed, aged, measured and weighed the birds and collected feather samples from fledglings to measure nitrogen and carbon stable isotope ratios. Siskins departed in late summer, and returned, and bred earlier in years of higher cone abundance. Nitrogen and carbon isotopes indicated that siskins fed their chicks on Sitka spruce seeds in most years, and more so in years of high cone production. More siskins were caught following heavy rainfall, when the cones had closed, encouraging the birds to seek alternative food sources. Fledglings were not heavier or larger in years with higher cone crops but were more numerous. However, the age ratio of siskins caught the following year was unaffected by cone crop. Given their reliance on Sitka spruce seeds, climate change may have a major impact on siskin numbers by altering the availability of Sitka spruce seeds, either through changes in masting patterns or cone opening, or due to climate-related changes in forestry practices. Siskins represent a valuable study system to conservation ecology, where a native species is ecologically reliant on introduced taxa.
... Forestry and Land Scotland, 2020 60 Climate change can have detrimental impacts on woodlands from increases in temperature and changes in rainfall patterns, wind speed, cloud cover and humidity. These changes may affect the growth and distribution of tree species with implications for management 36 . ...
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To manage emerging forest diseases and prevent their occurrence in the future, it is essential to determine the origin(s) of the pathogens involved and identify the management practices that have ultimately caused disease problems. One such practice is the widespread planting of exotic tree species within the range of related native taxa. This can lead to emerging forest disease both by facilitating introduction of exotic pathogens, and by providing susceptible hosts on which epidemics of native pathogens can develop. We used microsatellite markers to determine the origins of the pathogen Dothistroma septosporum responsible for the current outbreak of Dothistroma needle blight (DNB) on native Caledonian Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) populations in Scotland, and evaluated the role played by widespread planting of two exotic pine species in the development of the disease outbreak. We distinguished three races of D. septosporum in Scotland, one of low genetic diversity associated with introduced lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), one of high diversity probably derived from the DNB epidemic on introduced Corsican pine (Pinus nigra subsp. laricio) in England, and a third of intermediate diversity apparently endemic on Caledonian Scots pine. These races differed for both growth rate and exudate production in culture. Planting of exotic pine stands in the UK appears to have facilitated the introduction of two exotic races of D. septosporum into Scotland which now pose a threat to native Caledonian pines both directly and through potential hybridisation and introgression with the endemic race. Our results indicate that both removal of exotic species from the vicinity of Caledonian pine populations, and restriction of movement of planting material are required to minimise the impact of the current DNB outbreak. They also demonstrate that planting exotic species that are related to native species reduces rather than enhances the resilience of forests to pathogens.
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The finding of Phytophthora ramorum — the pathogen that causes sudden oak death in four California native trees — on rhododendron in Europe led us to hypothesize that its host range in California's natural forests was much greater than previously suspected. In addition to the affected oak species, we have now identified an additional 13 species from 10 plant families that act as hosts for P. ramorum in California. Our data indicates that nearly all of the state's main tree species in mixed-evergreen and redwood-tanoak forests — including the coniferous timber species coast redwood and Douglas fir — may be hosts for P. ramorum. The broad host range of P. ramorum, the variability of symptoms among different hosts and the ability of the pathogen to disperse by air suggests that it may have the potential to cause long-term, landscape-level changes in California forests.
Article
The North-American Northern red oak (Quercus rubra L.) introduced to European forests over 200 years ago, spreads spontaneously in various types of forest ecosystems. At the same time the retreat of native pedunculate oak (Q. robur L.) has been observed. We aimed to recognize the extent of natural regeneration and recruitment of pedunculate (PO) and red oak (RO) in managed forests (central Poland) on sites typical of oak-pine mixed forest, as well as to identify habitat conditions which favour the occurrence of native oak and spread of the alien oak. The abundance and heights of juveniles of both oaks, as well as the impacts of the canopy, nurse and burial effects, on distribution and occurrence of oak specimens were studied on 1000 study plots (1 m 2 each), in two transects crossing the Scots pine-pedunculate oak forest (POF) and the Scots pine-northern red oak forest (ROF). We revealed an advantage of introduced RO over native PO in natural regeneration, recruitment and spread. However, we did not find direct (interspecific) competition between PO and RO recruits. RO predominance over PO resulted from more effective colonization of empty niches by the alien oak in POF (suitable for both species), and the abundant establishment of RO seedlings and saplings within ROF. In contrast, PO was not able to re-colonize ROF. The regeneration of RO was microsite-limited in ROF gaps in the regeneration phase (probably due to site moisture deficiency) and under closed RO canopy in the recruitment phase (due to low light availability), and microsite-favoured under mature tree crowns due to the burial effect of the litter layer (and higher light availability under heterogeneous canopy). In POF, RO regeneration was microsite-favoured due to the burial effect of a dense moss layer and the nurse effect of shrubs, including conspecifics. PO regeneration was also microsite-favoured due to the burial effect of the moss layer, but its recruitment was herbivore-limited there (due to browsing). The co-occurrence of PO and RO specimens, both in POF and ROF, resulted from forest community structure, oak ecology and behaviour of acorn dispersers. Because the native PO is at a disadvantage in its native range caused by a lower share of mature trees in forested areas, strong impacts of fungal pathogens and high pressure by insects and large herbivores (also noted in our study), the introduced oak is able to become a serious competitor.
Article
The heavy reliance of British forestry on Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.) presents a risk in a time of changing climate and increasing incidence of pests and diseases. Three experiments were established in 1987 to examine alternative species including hybrids of Sitka spruce and white spruce (Picea glauca (Moench) Voss.) (SS x WS). After 29 years, the height and diameter growth of the best-performing hybrid families was as good as that of unimproved Queen Charlotte Islands (Haida Gwaii) Sitka spruce at two sites, with slightly reduced diameter growth being the only difference at the third site. The SS x WS hybrid families also outperformed white spruce and Engelmann spruce. Performance of the hybrid families was variable and strongly associated with parentage; selection of both female and male parents should be an important consideration in any future research and breeding programmes. There was no evidence that the hybrid families performed disproportionately well at the drier of the three sites and further work would be required to investigate relative drought tolerance. The results show that the SS x WS hybrid families could be an alternative to Sitka spruce and contribute to increasing forest diversity to develop more resilient forests.
Article
Both plantation forests and native woodlands are currently facing challenges in the form of rapid climatic change and unprecedented increases in damage by exotic pests and diseases. To combat these problems it has been proposed that a range of novel exotic tree species (non-native species that have not yet undergone thorough operational testing or previously been grown at a forestry scale) should be grown as part of an adaptive management strategy, and that non-native (including novel) species should be introduced into native woodland. Justifications for this policy are that novel exotic species are required to maintain forest productivity under climate change, to create a more diverse, and by implication more resilient forest, and to substitute for native species threatened by introduced pests and pathogens. Here we examine these arguments in the context of British forestry, where there is a long history of utilising non-native species. On the basis of this documented experience we conclude that in the commercial sector of British forestry, where production is the main objective, there are strong arguments for undertaking a programme of rigorous testing and domestication of a very limited number of the most promising novel exotics which, in addition to good timber and growth, also have attributes that will allow the development of more naturalistic silvicultural systems and a move away from current clear-fell regimes. However this must be undertaken within a comprehensive risk assessment framework, where candidate species are rigorously screened both for any biosecurity threats, and their potential for causing ecological damage if they become invasive outside their initial planting sites. Widespread planting of candidate species should only be recommended after the completion of full species and provenance trials, and when reliable sources of appropriately adapted seed have been established. Conversely where conservation of biodiversity is an objective we find no support for introduction of any non-native species. This is based on the greater ecological and economic risk they pose compared to the use of native species. Use of non-natives is likely to lead to an increase rather than a decrease in pest and disease problems, and to hinder rather than support the retention of threatened native tree species and their associated biodiversity.
Article
Several key tree genera are used in planted forests worldwide, and these represent valuable global resources. Planted forests are increasingly threatened by insects and microbial pathogens, which are introduced accidentally and/or have adapted to new host trees. Globalization has hastened tree pest emergence, despite a growing awareness of the problem, improved understanding of the costs, and an increased focus on the importance of quarantine. To protect the value and potential of planted forests, innovative solutions and a better-coordinated global approach are needed. Mitigation strategies that are effective only in wealthy countries fail to contain invasions elsewhere in the world, ultimately leading to global impacts. Solutions to forest pest problems in the future should mainly focus on integrating management approaches globally, rather than single-country strategies. A global strategy to manage pest issues is vitally important and urgently needed. Copyright © 2015, American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Article
At present eucalypts are of no forest importance in Great Britain though a long history of introductions has shown that a few species are h t h hardy and fast growing. Systematic evaluation of potentially hardy species and provenances in the early 1980s coincided with an exceptionally cold winter in 1981/82. Although nearly all species were killed in experiments which experienced temperatures of between −19°C to −23°C, it was'found that some provenances of E. gunnii and the snow gums E. dcbeuzevillei and E. niphophila did possess sufficient cold-hardiness to survive well. Large plots of these species were established in 1983 to provide growth data under forest conditions. Mention is made of small trials of minor eucalypts and further evaluation of snow gum provenances hitherto uncollected. In the long term, eucalypts could be considered a short fibre pulp species for moderately exposed upland sites where yield classes of 12 to 16 on 10 year rotations could be expected. Their biomass potential appears at least comparable to that of poplars and willows. Work is reported on vegetative propagation and artificial testing of hardiness.
Article
Macedonian pine is little known in Britain as a forest tree. Information comes mainly from its native range in the Balkan mountains, and from specimen trees and young forest plots in Britain. Following a visit in 1982 to Yugoslavia and Bulgaria, the author describes the site conditions and ecological relations of this species to Scots pine, Norway spruce and Silver fir. Early growth is characteristically slow, even on favourable sites, though it improves after 6–10 years and basal area increment may later exceed that of other pines. Growth and behaviour in British stands (mainly 20 years old, but a few older ones) is recorded. Stands of P. peuce are typically healthy and have excellent form. Insect and fungal damage is minimal. Early timber tests show specific gravity and strength are low, but the wood is very stable in drying and could have a use in joinery. Seed from selected stands will now be used for provenance testing.
Article
Some of the environmental factors predisposing Corsican Pine to an epidemic disease known as dieback were studied. The disease is most prevalent on north-facing slopes, while south-facing slopes are normally unaffected. Trees on north-facing slopes produce poor height growth and those showing the poorest growth eventually succumb to the disease. A characteristic feature of the diseased slopes is the absence of sunlight in winter. Disease symptoms appear in this period of sun shadow. The effect of shade on disease susceptibility was therefore investigated. Large increases of infection by Brunchorstia pinea were found after 2, 4, 8 and 12 weeks artifical shading. Artificial shading caused reduction of the soluble carbohydrate content of the buds. Diseasesusceptible buds on north-facing slopes had comparable low carbohydrate contents, while the levels in resistant buds on south aspects were significantly greater. Soluble carbohydrate content at the end of the growing season was found to be similar in both aspects, but there was a steady decrease through the winter on the north-facing slope until by January the content was considerably lower than that on the south aspect. Dieback is therefore believed to be caused by fungal attack following loss of respiratory substrate during a prolonged period of low light intensity. Factors such as low growing season temperature and high humidities play a subsidiary role by reducing host vigour and increasing the fungal population.
Article
A series of species trials were set up to investigate the establishment and early growth (up to 14 years old) of 44 native and non-native tree species on a variety of different site types in lowland Britain. On good quality lowland afforestation sites, Platanus x hispanica (London plane) established and grew more successfully than the native trees tested, and may be an example of a species that could theoretically be established in anticipation of future climate change. Experiments on a variety of community woodland sites indicated that a range of exotic species, such as X Cupressocyparis leylandii (Leyland cypress), may have the potential for establishing a woodland cover on poorly restored land where few other trees would grow. However, on less challenging, better restored sites, a wide range of native species also grew successfully. Further long-term and larger scale trials on a wider variety of sites are required to confirm the potential of the species tested for British conditions. The results from these experiments also showed that relative growth rates of different species can vary through time, highlighting the danger in making premature judgements about species suitability based solely on very early tree growth.
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Non-native alder species (Alnus ssp.)
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What alternative tree species can we grow in western Britain? 85 years of evidence from the Kilmun Forest Garden
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