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A Citizen Science State of the World’s Wetlands Survey
Abstract and Figures
Citizen science is increasingly recognised as a valuable approach to improve the knowledge and understanding required for robust environmental management. We report on the results of a citizen science survey conducted on the status and trends of over 500 wetlands from across the globe. Whilst many wetlands were reported as being in fair or good ecological character state, many (particularly those already in a poor state) were reported as deteriorating. Although designated Ramsar Sites were reported as currently having a slightly better state than other wetlands, widespread deterioration of Ramsar Sites as well as other wetlands was reported. Significant regional differences were reported on the state of wetlands and their extent of improvement or deterioration. Large wetlands, particularly in Africa but also in Latin America and the Caribbean, were reported to be in a worse, and increasingly deteriorating, state than smaller wetlands in North America, Europe and Oceania. Numerous drivers are contributing to degradation and loss of wetlands. However, our data suggest that positive outcomes can be delivered where local community awareness, implementation of conservation measures, cultural values/traditions, tourism and forestry are proactively integrated in order to achieve the wise use of wetlands.
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... However, over the past one to two decades there has been increasing evidence that current approaches to wetland management, whether protection, conservation, or restoration, have failed to reduce the rates of loss and deg-radation globally (Ramsar Convention on Wetlands 2018; Darrah et al. 2019;Davidson et al. 2020a;McInnes et al. 2020). Further, the creation of human-made wetlands has failed to keep pace with the rate of loss (e.g., Dahl 2011;Darrah et al. 2019), and even when created, constructed wetlands often do not deliver the full suite of ecosystem services provided by the original wetland (Fennessy et al. 2008;Mitsch and Hernandez 2013;Neubauer 2014). ...
... In 1971, almost 50 years ago, the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands was established by governments because of increasing concerns over wetland loss and degradation -and its impacts on wetland-dependent species. But since 1970 the area of wetlands has progressively continued to decline, through deliberate drainage and conversion, in all parts of the world (Davidson 2014;Darrah et al. 2020;McInnes et al. 2020). Deterioration in the state of our remaining wetlands is becoming progressively more widespread, including for designated Wetlands of International Importance Yet the world's governments are continuing with "business as usual." ...
... (Ramsar Sites)McInnes et al. 2020). Populations of freshwater species have declined since 1970 far more than species depending on other biomes (Ramsar Convention on Wetlands 2018). ...
Humans have had a close association with wetlands for millennia. There is ample evidence to demonstrate that human well-being is closely linked with the condition of wetlands, whether that is described through measures of wetland health or wetland integrity, or by agreements to maintain their ecological character (Gardner and Davidson 2007; Pritchard 2018), or more anthropocentrically, through the provision of ecosystem services. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment included an exploration of the consequences of wetland change for human well-being and recommended a conceptual shift in decision and policy making to ensure the long-term future of the ecosystem services provided and supported by wetlands.
... Article 3.1 of the Ramsar Convention requires the wise use of all wetlands under a state's jurisdiction. McInnes et al. (2020) described how different local community observation measures may contribute to the wise use of wetlands. Contributions in knowledge and research must be shared inter-partes, as set out in Article 4.3 of the Ramsar Convention, which states unequivocally that «Contracting Parties shall encourage research and the exchange of data and publications regarding wetlands and their flora and fauna». ...
... This obligation has a direct bearing on wetlands. McInnes et al. (2020) submit that there is an integral link between wise use and CS, and efforts have been made to develop wetland tools that local people in South Africa can utilize to better understand wetlands management (Dumakude and Graham, 2017). These efforts have the potential to bolster and maintain the ecological integrity of wetlands. ...
Revista de revisión por pares de ciencia e ingeniería de carácter multidisciplinar centrada en la investigación y el desarrollo de diversos ámbitos relacionados con la sostenibilidad.
... BACKGROUND I n July 2020, we reported in Wetland Science and Practice (WSP) that a collaboration among the Ramsar Section of the Society of Wetland Scientists (SWS), the World Wetland Network (WWN), the Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust (WWT), the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the Open University, the Institute for Land, Water and Society, (ILWS), Charles Sturt University, and the Cobra Collective was launching a second citizen science survey of the state of the world's remaining wetlands (McInnes et al. 2020a). The 2020 survey was a follow up to a similar survey conducted in 2017 by a similar coalition (McInnes et al. 2020b). ...
... The 2017 survey generated 500 useable responses from across the world and from a great diversity of respondents. The analysis of the results provided an insight to the global status and trends of wetlands (McInnes et al. 2020b), sadly echoing the conclusions in other assessments, such as Ramsar Convention (2018) and Davidson et al. (2020), that many of the world's remaining wetlands are in a deteriorating state. However, significant differences were reported from different parts of the world, and with large wetlands, in Africa and Latin America and the Caribbean, being reported to be in a worse, and increasingly deteriorating, state than smaller wetlands in North America, Europe and Oceania (McInnes et al. 2020b). ...
In July 2020, we reported in Wetland Science and Practice (WSP) that a collaboration among the Ramsar Section of the Society of Wetland Scientists (SWS), the World Wetland Network (WWN), the Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust (WWT), the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the Open University, the Institute for Land, Water and Society, (ILWS), Charles Sturt University, and the Cobra Collective was launching a second citizen science survey of the state of the world’s remaining wetlands. The 2020 survey was a follow up to a similar survey conducted in 2017 by a similar coalition
... The Caribbean has widespread participation in the Ramsar Convention, with nearly 70 coastal Ramsar sites in the 19 nations that are party to the Convention. Un-fortunately, a 2020 citizen science survey reported significantly greater deterioration and wetland loss in this region compared to other areas worldwide (McInnes et al. 2020). ...
The growing conservation finance gap presents a critical challenge to wetlands protection. However, the growing interest in nature-based solutions may help close this gap. In this paper, we review the various factors that might impact the viability of blue carbon as a market mechanism for supporting implementation of wetland protection programs, such as the Ramsar Convention, financially in the Caribbean. We conduct a literature review to ascertain the compatibility of the existing program mechanisms with different valuation methods, including an overview of requirements for accessing markets, a summary of market values that might be considered, and a broad overview of the potential value of mangrove carbon stocks in the Caribbean. We find that the existing coastal wetland carbon stocks of the Caribbean hold enormous monetizable potential, as the region boasts large expanses of some of the most productive carbon sequestering ecosystems, especially mangroves. However, there are still substantial gaps in our understanding of these stocks, including the exact extent of different ecosystem types and estimates of their carbon stocks under different geological, hydrological, and environmental conditions. Blue carbon financing could be a viable funding source to promote the wise use of coastal wetlands by supporting ongoing as well as future restoration efforts.
... Furthermore, it is recommended that scientists utilise informal and non-scientific gatherings as opportunities to engage with the public and deliberate on the pros and cons of constructed wetlands restoration, such as PIW, especially in combating climate change. By actively interacting with local stakeholders, scientists and environmental managers can foster support for wetland restoration initiatives, ultimately enhancing the effectiveness of wetland restoration and conservation efforts (Jilbert et al., 2020;Mcinnes et al., 2020). ...
Constructed wetlands aid in climate change mitigation and adaptation, ensuring the sustainability of our earth system. Constructed wetlands are a terrific ecosystem that possesses incredible nature values, both instrumental and intrinsic values, through the concept of the carbon-water nexus. As a result, the management of constructed wetlands must take into account their significance as vital resources that boost their resilience in strategies for mitigating and adapting to climate change. Hence, this study attempts to determine the importance of nature values of constructed wetlands among stakeholders of Paya Indah Wetlands, Malaysia, in the context of the carbon-water nexus. The research instrument used was the structured questionnaire, using the Likert scale known as the Intrinsic-Instrumental Assessment Tool. The survey was conducted on 382 respondents, comprising PERHILITAN conservation staff, local communities and visitors as the stakeholders of Paya Indah Wetlands, Malaysia. Methods used for analysing data were descriptive and ANOVA analyses using SPSS version 26. Overall, the descriptive analysis shows that all the measured nature values have a high level of importance among the stakeholders. Furthermore, the analysis shows a significant difference in objective intrinsic values, revealing that subjective intrinsic value is appreciated by the stakeholders as the most important nature value, followed by instrumental values, while objective intrinsic values are the least important among the stakeholders. The importance of instrumental values is higher among the PERHILITAN conservation staff. In contrast, visitors and local communities perceive the intrinsic values of Paya Indah Wetlands as the most important in addressing climate change. This study provides empirical data and information to the socio-ecology research to clarify the importance of nature values, leading decision-makers to prioritise the ecosystem functions and benefits. In addition, this study supports climate change mitigation and adaptation planning and justifies a plan for integrated constructed wetlands conservation.
... There have been many successful cases where traditional and community knowledge have been used alongside contemporary scientific practices for managing wetlands (Carbonell et al. 2001;Ens et al. 2012: Pyke et al 2018, but unless these are extended and expanded in time and space we fear that current high rates of wetland loss and degradation (Darrah et al. 2019;McInnes et al. 2020;Simpson et al. 2021) will continue. One way of contributing to the effort to ensure that these approaches are extended and expanded is to explore and develop effective methods for sharing knowledge between local communities, wetland researchers, and managers. ...
Successful management of wetlands is increasingly making more use of traditional and contemporary community knowledge of wetlands in addition to the knowledge obtained from scientific investigations (Ens et al. 2012; Pyke et al. 2018). For this to happen, wetland managers need ways to tap into such knowledge, including respecting protocols around ownership of and access to such knowledge, and appreciating its value. However, at the same time the rapid advancement of science and technology and changes in societal values has led to the loss of valuable traditional knowledge, or such knowledge being ignored in favor of an over-reliance on modern scientific techniques. Mechanisms available through wetland centres (Finlayson 2018; Gevers et al. 2018), education outreach initiatives (Finlayson et al. 2013) and engagement with schools (M. Bartlett 2019, pers. comm.) go some way towards tapping into the value of these knowledge sources. However, much more is needed if the mutual benefits that can come from sharing knowledge are to be realized. This is more the case with the intensification of the threats to wetlands from climate change and sea level rise, invasive non-native species, and pollution. Given the difficulties associated with managing wetlands and ensuring there are sufficient funds to both collect and make use of contemporary scientific information, having access to knowledge provided by local communities may prove invaluable when addressing the harmful outcomes from these phenomena, in addition to assisting with efforts to ensure local communities are effectively engaged in wetland management. There have been many successful cases where traditional and community knowledge have been used alongside contemporary scientific practices for managing wetlands (Carbonell et al. 2001; Ens et al. 2012: Pyke et al 2018), but unless these are extended and expanded in time and space we fear that current high rates of wetland loss and degradation (Darrah et al. 2019; McInnes et al. 2020; Simpson et al. 2021) will continue. One way of contributing to the effort to ensure that these approaches are extended and expanded is to explore and develop effective methods for sharing knowledge between local communities, wetland researchers, and managers. This could start with the increasing sources of knowledge about the values and benefits derived from wetlands as well as that about management responses to the pressing problems for wetland management. The latter are well known, and yet, continue, with steps to stop and reverse wetland loss and degradation being acknowledged as insufficient (Ramsar Convention on Wetlands 2018). As part of ongoing programs run through organizations such as the Sydney Olympic Park Authority in Australia and the Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust in the United Kingdom (UK) a symposium on Methods for Sharing Wetland Knowledge and Exploring Future Needs and Solutions was held at the INTECOL International Wetland Conference in Christchurch, New Zealand in October 2021. The symposium had three objectives, namely to: 1) explore the wealth and usefulness of traditional and community knowledge about wetlands; 2) identify gaps in knowledge-sharing tools, techniques and mechanism; and 3) explore ways forward. The symposium was intended to revisit the effectiveness of current approaches and programs in wetland awareness, education and training, and suggest measures for future improvements. It was further expected that in the future there would also be an emphasis on newer communication approaches, such as webinars and twitter conferences, alongside traditional and local community knowledge, which in themselves are based on having participatory approaches to ensure knowledge is shared in an open way. Provided below is an overview of the key issues that were included in the presentations in the symposium.
... The continued loss and degradation of wetlands throughout the early part of the 21st century Ramsar, 2018;Darrah et al., 2019;McInnes et al., 2020; see also Chapter 9) indicates a failure by wetland managers and policy-makers to come to grips with the increasing human impact on wetland resources, biodiversity, and ecosystem services. It is accompanied by an increasing recognition, possibly belatedly, that any reliance on wetland restoration as a solution to the loss and degradation of wetlands is unlikely to reverse the current trends (Chapter 15). ...
... Despite their small original footprint, a recent assessment shows that wetland extent, where data are available, declined by an average of 35% between 1970 and 2015, with the rate of loss increasing over that time (Darrah et al., 2019). To compound this loss, much of the remaining wetland area is degraded and continues to decline (Gardner and Finlayson, 2018;McInnes et al., 2020; see also Chapter 9). As wetlands are lost and degraded, the critical ecological processes or functions that they support are diminished or lost, as are the ecosystem services generated/produced by those processes. ...
Wetlands are vital in climate change mitigation, carbon and nutrient cycling, water quality improvement, flood regulation, wildlife habitat provision, and biodiversity maintenance. However, various threats undermine their integrity and capacity to provide these ecosystem services. In this review and quantitative analysis, we identified the most significant threats to inland wetlands, estimated soil organic carbon (SOC) storage and sequestration rates across regions and climate zones, and pinpointed the sources of uncertainties in global estimates. We found that natural system modification, pollution, biological resource use, agricultural and aquacultural activities, and water regulation are the top five threats, impacting 61 %, 59 %, 59 %, 52 %, and 46 % of Ramsar sites in inland wetlands, respectively. Management plans are lacking in 47–76 % of Ramsar sites globally and over 66 % in Least Developed Countries. Literature data show median SOC stocks of 118.7 Mg ha−1 in temperate and 150.3 Mg ha−1 in the 0–50 cm soil depth of tropical inland wetlands. Our analysis of data from Ramsar sites indicates lower median stocks of 87 Mg ha−1 in temperate and 105 Mg ha−1in tropical wetlands for the 0–100 cm depth, highlighting significant uncertainties. These uncertainties stem from inconsistent definitions of wetlands, inaccurate wetland area data, measurement errors, and variability in sampling and modelling. Addressing these issues requires improved mapping, monitoring, and standardized protocols. Additionally, raising awareness among policymakers and the public about the threats to wetlands, which can destabilize local livelihoods and global carbon and nutrient cycles, is crucial.
We review the mechanisms established by the Ramsar Convention for reporting on the status and change in the ecological character of wetlands. We assess the extent of their implementation and compliance, but not issues of the adequacy of their design nor the consequences of their extent of implementation. We conclude that, with the exception of qualitative national-scale reporting in triennial Contracting Party National Reports, there is inadequate implementation and compliance with most of these mechanisms, notably concerning required reporting under Article 3.2 of the Convention and the updating of the Information Sheet on Ramsar Wetlands (RIS). This limits the ability of the Convention to assess the status, and trends in status, of designated Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Sites), and to inform future decision-making and priority-setting for the wise use of all wetlands. As has been recognised by the Ramsar Convention, unless compliance with these mechanisms is improved, sufficient information will not be gathered through the mechanisms of Ramsar Convention to assess fully the Sustainable Development Goal 6.6.1 indicator supported by the Convention on change in the extent of water-related ecosystems over time.
Citizen scientists are increasingly engaged in gathering biodiversity information, but trade-offs are often required between public engagement goals and reliable data collection. We compared population estimates for 18 widespread butterfly species derived from the first 4 years (2011-2014) of a short-duration citizen science project (Big Butterfly Count [BBC]) with those from long-running, standardized monitoring data collected by experienced observers (U.K. Butterfly Monitoring Scheme [UKBMS]). BBC data are gathered during an annual 3-week period, whereas UKBMS sampling takes place over 6 months each year. An initial comparison with UKBMS data restricted to the 3-week BBC period revealed that species population changes were significantly correlated between the 2 sources. The short-duration sampling season rendered BBC counts susceptible to bias caused by interannual phenological variation in the timing of species' flight periods. The BBC counts were positively related to butterfly phenology and sampling effort. Annual estimates of species abundance and population trends predicted from models including BBC data and weather covariates as a proxy for phenology correlated significantly with those derived from UKBMS data. Overall, citizen science data obtained using a simple sampling protocol produced comparable estimates of butterfly species abundance to data collected through standardized monitoring methods. Although caution is urged in extrapolating from this U.K. study of a small number of common, conspicuous insects, we found that mass-participation citizen science can simultaneously contribute to public engagement and biodiversity monitoring. Mass-participation citizen science is not an adequate replacement for standardized biodiversity monitoring but may extend and complement it (e.g., through sampling different land-use types), as well as serving to reconnect an increasingly urban human population with nature.
Citizen science has advanced science for hundreds of years, contributed to many peer-reviewed articles, and informed land management decisions and policies across the United States. Over the last 10 years, citizen science has grown immensely in the United States and many other countries. Here, we show how citizen science is a powerful tool for tackling many of the challenges faced in the field of conservation biology. We describe the two interwoven paths by which citizen science can improve conservation efforts, natural resource management, and environmental protection. The first path includes building scientific knowledge, while the other path involves informing policy and encouraging public action. We explore how citizen science is currently used and describe the investments needed to create a citizen science program. We find that:
1. Citizen science already contributes substantially to many domains of science, including conservation, natural resource, and environmental science. Citizen science informs natural resource management, environmental protection, and policymaking and fosters public input and engagement.
2. Many types of projects can benefit from citizen science, but one must be careful to match the needs for science and public involvement with the right type of citizen science project and the right method of public participation.
3. Citizen science is a rigorous process of scientific discovery, indistinguishable from conventional science apart from the participation of volunteers. When properly designed, carried out, and evaluated, citizen science can provide sound science, efficiently generate high-quality data, and help solve problems.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320716301963
In this study, we have re-estimated the 2011 global monetary values of natural wetland ecosystem services using new information on the areas of different coastal and inland wetland classes, and included estimates for forested wetlands. The 2011 global monetary value of natural wetland ecosystem services is now estimated at Int20.4 trillion per year) of the total global ecosystem services monetary value of all natural wetland classes. There is a need to further refine these value estimates by factoring in other determinants of wetland ecosystem service monetary value, by disaggregating unit monetary values to each wetland class and by updating unit monetary values with more recent sources, especially for ecosystem services with no, or few, value estimates.
Indicators of status and trends in wetland extent are essential for monitoring progress towards the environmental
targets set by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) and the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. Here, we test the value of the Wetland Extent Trends (WET)
index as an updatable indicator of trends in wetland area and its application to global and regional scale assessments
and national reporting. We expand the indicator to include a regional trend for Latin America and the
Caribbean and a global human-made WET index. Based on a sample of over 2000 wetland records, natural
wetland extent declined on average by 35% globally, at an increasing rate from 1970 to 2015. Human-made
wetlands, however, increased by 233% from 1970 to 2014. The continuing decline in natural wetland extent
suggests that global targets will not be achieved without significant further efforts.
We compiled available data and information on the global and regional areas (Ramsar regions), and changes in area, of 22 classes of marine or coastal and inland wetlands. From those classes for which there is information, inland natural surface wetlands (forming ,77% of total surface wetland extent) are dominated by non-forested peatlands, marshes and swamps on alluvial soils, with peatlands forming ,33% of natural inland wetlands. The smaller area of marine or coastal wetlands (,10% of total wetland extent) is dominated by unvegetated tidal flats and saltmarshes. Largest areas of human-made wetlands for which there is information are rice paddy and water storage bodies, with a much smaller area of tropical oil palm and pulpwood plantations. These human-made wetlands are all increasing in area. The reported decline in global natural wetland area is occurring across almost all classes of inland and marine or coastal natural wetlands. Total global wetland area estimated from these wetland classes is between 15.2 Â 10 6 and 16.2 Â 10 6 km 2 , similar to recent global wetland area estimates derived from remote sensing. Given the considerable data gaps for area of wetland classes, even the most recent other estimates of global wetland extent are likely to be underestimates.
Agriculture and urbanization have disturbed three-quarters of global ice-free land surface, delivering huge amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus to freshwater ecosystems. These excess nutrients degrade habitat and threaten human food and water security at a global scale. Because most catchments are either currently subjected to, or recovering from anthropogenic nutrient loading, understanding the short- and long-term responses of river nutrients to changes in land use is essential for effective management. We analyzed a never-published, 18-year time series of anthropogenic (NO3- and PO43-) and naturally derived (dissolved silica) riverine nutrients in 13 catchments recovering from agricultural pollution in western France. In a citizen science initiative, high-school students sampled catchments weekly, which ranged from 26 to 1489km2. Nutrient concentrations decreased substantially over the period of record (19 to 50% for NO3- and 14 to 80% for PO43-), attributable to regional, national, and international investment and regulation, which started immediately prior to monitoring. For the majority of catchments, water quality during the summer low-flow period improved faster than during winter high-flow conditions, and annual minimum concentrations improved relatively faster than annual maximum concentrations. These patterns suggest that water-quality improvements were primarily due to elimination of discrete nutrient sources with seasonally-constant discharge (e.g. human and livestock wastewater), agreeing with available land-use and municipal records. Surprisingly, long-term nutrient decreases were not accompanied by changes in nutrient seasonality in most catchments, attributable to persistent, diffuse nutrient stocks. Despite decreases, nutrient concentrations in almost all catchments remained well above eutrophication thresholds, and because additional improvements will depend on decreasing diffuse nutrient sources, future gains may be much slower than initial rate of recovery. These findings demonstrate the value of citizen science initiatives in quantifying long-term and seasonal consequences of changes in land management, which are necessary to identify sustainable limits and predict recovery timeframes.
Using data from two independent UK citizen science schemes we investigate evidence for declines in abundance of Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus, a species that is particularly easy to record. One of the schemes (Nature's Calendar) involves phenological recording across various taxa and is open to the general public, the other (BirdTrack) targets more committed birdwatchers. Results show a very strong correlation between the two schemes and confirm their ability to detect the marked decline in the abundance of Common Cuckoo in the UK in the 21st century. Furthermore, the first scheme allows some tentative regional comparisons with data from a century earlier, and suggests regional differences in Common Cuckoo decline over the longer term.
Citizen science data are increasingly making valuable contributions to ecological studies. However, many citizen science surveys are also designed to encourage wide participation and therefore the participants have a range of natural history expertise, leading to variation and potentially bias in the data.
We assessed a recently proposed measure of observer expertise, calculated based on the average numbers of species recorded by observers. We investigated if this observer expertise score is associated with how often an observer reports any individual species. Species reporting rates increased monotonically with the observer's expertise score for 197 of 200 species, suggesting that this expertise score describes inter‐observer variation in the detectability of individual species.
Expertise scores were incorporated into single‐species occupancy models as a covariate, to explain inter‐observer variation in detectability. Including expertise as a detectability covariate led to improved model fit and improved predictive performance on validation data. The expertise score had a large effect on the estimated detectability, comparable in magnitude to the effect of the duration of the observation period.
Expertise scores were also included into single‐species occupancy models that estimated seasonal patterns in species occupancy and seasonal expertise effects. The addition of a seasonal effect of expertise led to improved model fit and increased predictive performance on validation data. The seasonal expertise accounted for bias that may be introduced by seasonal differences in the effect of expertise, caused by changes in the environment or species behaviour.
Measures of observer expertise included in models as a covariate can account for heterogeneity and bias introduced by variable expertise, although in this example the differences in estimated occupancy were small. This method of incorporating observer expertise can be used in any regression model of species occurrence, occupancy, abundance, or density to produce more reliable ecological inference and may be most important where citizen science schemes encourage wide participation. Overall, the results highlight the value of recording observer identity and other detectability covariates, to control for sources of bias associated with the observation process.