Content uploaded by Jianwei Wang
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Jianwei Wang on Mar 01, 2020
Content may be subject to copyright.
Articles
www.thelancet.com Published online January 24, 2020 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5
1
Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel
coronavirus in Wuhan, China
Chaolin Huang*, Yeming Wang*, Xingwang Li*, Lili Ren*, Jianping Zhao*, Yi Hu*, Li Zhang, Guohui Fan, Jiuyang Xu, Xiaoying Gu,
Zhenshun Cheng, Ting Yu, Jiaan Xia, Yuan Wei, Wenjuan Wu, Xuelei Xie, Wen Yin, Hui Li, Min Liu, Yan Xiao, Hong Gao, Li Guo, Jungang Xie,
Guangfa Wang, Rongmeng Jiang, Zhancheng Gao, Qi Jin, Jianwei Wang†, Bin Cao†
Summary
Background A recent cluster of pneumonia cases in Wuhan, China, was caused by a novel betacoronavirus, the
2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV). We report the epidemiological, clinical, laboratory, and radiological characteristics
and treatment and clinical outcomes of these patients.
Methods All patients with suspected 2019-nCoV were admitted to a designated hospital in Wuhan. We prospectively
collected and analysed data on patients with laboratory-confirmed 2019-nCoV infection by real-time RT-PCR and
next-generation sequencing. Data were obtained with standardised data collection forms shared by the International
Severe Acute Respiratory and Emerging Infection Consortium from electronic medical records. Researchers also
directly communicated with patients or their families to ascertain epidemiological and symptom data. Outcomes
were also compared between patients who had been admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) and those who
had not.
Findings By Jan 2, 2020, 41 admitted hospital patients had been identified as having laboratory-confirmed 2019-nCoV
infection. Most of the infected patients were men (30 [73%] of 41); less than half had underlying diseases (13 [32%]),
including diabetes (eight [20%]), hypertension (six [15%]), and cardiovascular disease (six [15%]). Median age was
49·0 years (IQR 41·0–58·0). 27 (66%) of 41 patients had been exposed to Huanan seafood market. One family cluster
was found. Common symptoms at onset of illness were fever (40 [98%] of 41 patients), cough (31 [76%]), and myalgia or
fatigue (18 [44%]); less common symptoms were sputum production (11 [28%] of 39), headache (three [8%] of 38),
haemoptysis (two [5%] of 39), and diarrhoea (one [3%] of 38). Dyspnoea developed in 22 (55%) of 40 patients (median
time from illness onset to dyspnoea 8·0 days [IQR 5·0–13·0]). 26 (63%) of 41 patients had lymphopenia. All 41 patients
had pneumonia with abnormal findings on chest CT. Complications included acute respiratory distress syndrome
(12 [29%]), RNAaemia (six [15%]), acute cardiac injury (five [12%]) and secondary infection (four [10%]). 13 (32%) patients
were admitted to an ICU and six (15%) died. Compared with non-ICU patients, ICU patients had higher plasma levels
of IL2, IL7, IL10, GSCF, IP10, MCP1, MIP1A, and TNFα.
Interpretation The 2019-nCoV infection caused clusters of severe respiratory illness similar to severe acute respiratory
syndrome coronavirus and was associated with ICU admission and high mortality. Major gaps in our knowledge of
the origin, epidemiology, duration of human transmission, and clinical spectrum of disease need fulfilment by future
studies.
Funding Ministry of Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, National Natural Science
Foundation of China, and Beijing Municipal Science and Technology Commission.
Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
Coronaviruses are enveloped non-segmented positive-
sense RNA viruses belonging to the family Coronaviridae
and the order Nidovirales and broadly distributed in
humans and other mammals.1 Although most human
coronavirus infections are mild, the epidemics of
the two betacoronaviruses, severe acute respiratory
syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV)2–4 and Middle East
respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV),5,6 have
caused more than 10 000 cumulative cases in the past
two decades, with mortality rates of 10% for SARS-CoV
and 37% for MERS-CoV.7,8 The coronaviruses already
identified might only be the tip of the iceberg, with
potentially more novel and severe zoonotic events to be
revealed.
In December, 2019, a series of pneumonia cases of
unknown cause emerged in Wuhan, Hubei, China,
with clinical presentations greatly resembling viral
pneumonia.9 Deep sequencing analysis from lower
respiratory tract samples indicated a novel coronavirus,
which was named 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV).
Thus far, more than 800 confirmed cases, including in
health-care workers, have been identified in Wuhan, and
several exported cases have been confirmed in other
provinces in China, and in Thailand, Japan, South Korea,
and the USA.10–13
Published Online
January 24, 2020
https://doi.org/10.1016/
S0140-6736(20)30183-5
See Online/Comment
https://doi.org/10.1016/
S0140-6736(20)30184-7 and
https://doi.org/10.1016/
S0140-6736(20)30185-9
*Contributed equally
†Joint corresponding authors
Jin Yin-tan Hospital, Wuhan,
China (Prof C Huang MD,
Prof L Zhang MD, T Yu MD,
J Xia MD, Y Wei MD,
Prof W Wu MD, Prof X Xie MD);
Department of Pulmonary and
Critical Care Medicine, Center
of Respiratory Medicine,
National Clinical Research
Center for Respiratory Diseases
(Y Wang MD, G Fan MS,
X Gu PhD, H Li MD,
Prof B Cao MD), Institute of
Clinical Medical Sciences
(G Fan, X Gu), and Department
of Radiology (M Liu MD),
China-Japan Friendship
Hospital, Beijing, China;
Institute of Respiratory
Medicine, Chinese Academy of
Medical Sciences, Peking Union
Medical College, Beijing, China
(Y Wang, G Fan, X Gu, H Li,
Prof B Cao); Department of
Respiratory Medicine, Capital
Medical University, Beijing,
China (Y Wang, H Li, Prof B Cao);
Clinical and Research Center of
Infectious Diseases, Beijing
Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical
University, Beijing, China
(Prof X Li MD, Prof R Jiang MD);
NHC Key Laboratory of
Systems Biology of Pathogens
and Christophe Merieux
Laboratory, Institute of
Pathogen Biology
(Prof L Ren PhD, Y Xiao MS,
Prof L Guo PhD, Q Jin PhD,
Prof J Wang PhD), and Institute
of Laboratory Animal Science
(Prof H Gao PhD), Chinese
Academy of Medical Sciences
and Peking Union Medical
College, Beijing, China; Tongji
Hospital (Prof J Zhao MD,
Prof J Xie MD), and Department
Articles
2
www.thelancet.com Published online January 24, 2020 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5
of Pulmonary and Critical Care
Medicine, The Central Hospital
of Wuhan (Y Hu MD, W Yin MD),
Tongji Medical College,
Huazhong University of Science
and Technology, Wuhan, China;
Tsinghua University School of
Medicine, Beijing, China
(J Xu MDc); Department of
Respiratory medicine,
Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan
University, Wuhan, China
(Prof Z Cheng MD); Department
of Pulmonary and Critical Care
Medicine, Peking University
First Hospital, Beijing, China
(Prof G Wang MD); Department
of Pulmonary and Critical Care
Medicine, Peking University
People’s Hospital, Beijing,
China (Prof Z Gao MD); and
Tsinghua University-Peking
University Joint Center for Life
Sciences, Beijing, China
(Prof B Cao)
Correspondence to:
Prof Bin Cao, Department of
Pulmonary and Critical Care
Medicine, China-Japan
Friendship Hospital,
Beijing 100029, China
caobin_ben@163.com
or
Prof Jianwei Wang, NHC Key
Laboratory of Systems Biology of
Pathogens and Christophe
Merieux Laboratory, Institute of
Pathogen Biology, Chinese
Academy of Medical Sciences
and Peking Union Medical
College, Beijing 100730, China
wangjw28@163.com
We aim to describe epidemiological, clinical, laboratory,
and radiological characteristics, treatment, and outcomes
of patients confirmed to have 2019-nCoV infection, and to
compare the clinical features between intensive care unit
(ICU) and non-ICU patients. We hope our study findings
will inform the global community of the emergence of
this novel coronavirus and its clinical features.
Methods
Patients
Following the pneumonia cases of unknown cause
reported in Wuhan and considering the shared history
of exposure to Huanan seafood market across the
patients, an epidemiological alert was released by the
local health authority on Dec 31, 2019, and the market
was shut down on Jan 1, 2020. Meanwhile, 59 suspected
cases with fever and dry cough were transferred to a
designated hospital starting from Dec 31, 2019. An
expert team of physicians, epidemiologists, virologists,
and government ocials was soon formed after the
alert.
Since the cause was unknown at the onset of these
emerging infections, the diagnosis of pneumonia of
unknown cause in Wuhan was based on clinical
characteristics, chest imaging, and the ruling out of
common bacterial and viral pathogens that cause
pneumonia. Suspected patients were isolated using
airborne precautions in the designated hospital, Jin Yin-
tan Hospital (Wuhan, China), and fit-tested N95 masks
and airborne precautions for aerosol-generating
procedures were taken. This study was approved by the
National Health Commission of China and Ethics
Commission of Jin Yin-tan Hospital (KY-2020-01.01).
Written informed consent was waived by the Ethics
Commission of the designated hospital for emerging
infectious diseases.
Procedures
Local centres for disease control and prevention collected
respiratory, blood, and faeces specimens, then shipped
them to designated authoritative laboratories to detect the
pathogen (NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of
Pathogens and Christophe Mérieux Laboratory, Beijing,
China). A novel coronavirus, which was named 2019-nCoV,
was isolated then from lower respiratory tract specimen
and a diagnostic test for this virus was developed soon
after that.14 Of 59 suspected cases, 41 patients were
confirmed to be infected with 2019-nCoV. The presence of
2019-nCoV in respi ratory specimens was detected by next-
generation se quencing or real-time RT-PCR methods. The
primers and probe target to envelope gene of CoV were
used and the sequences were as follows: forward primer
5′-TCAGAATGCCAATCTCCCCAAC-3′; reverse primer
5′-AAAGGTCCACCCGATACATTGA-3′; and the probe
5′CY5-CTAGTTACACTAGCCATCCTTACTGC-3′BHQ1.
Conditions for the amplifications were 50°C for 15 min,
95°C for 3 min, followed by 45 cycles of 95°C for 15 s and
60°C for 30 s.
Initial investigations included a complete blood count,
coagulation profile, and serum biochemical test (including
renal and liver function, creatine kinase, lactate dehydro-
genase, and electrolytes). Respiratory specimens, including
nasal and pharyngeal swabs, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid,
sputum, or bronchial aspirates were tested for common
viruses, including influenza, avian influenza, respiratory
syncytial virus, adenovirus, parainfluenza virus, SARS-CoV
and MERS-CoV using real-time RT-PCR assays approved
by the China Food and Drug Administration. Routine
bacterial and fungal examinations were also performed.
Given the emergence of the 2019-nCoV pneumonia
cases during the influenza season, antibiotics (oral and
intravenous) and osel tamivir (orally 75 mg twice daily)
were empirically administered. Corticosteroid therapy
Research in context
Evidence before this study
Human coronaviruses, including hCoV-229E, OC43, NL63,
and HKU1, cause mild respiratory diseases. Fatal coronavirus
infections that have emerged in the past two decades are severe
acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and the
Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. We searched
PubMed and the China National Knowledge Infrastructure
database for articles published up to Jan 11, 2020, using the
keywords “novel coronovirus”, “2019 novel coronavirus”,
or “2019-nCoV”. No published work about the human infection
caused by the 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) could be
identified.
Added value of this study
We report the epidemiological, clinical, laboratory, and
radiological characteristics, treatment, and clinical outcomes of
41 laboratory-confirmed cases infected with 2019-nCoV.
27 (66%) of 41 patients had a history of direct exposure to the
Huanan seafood market. The median age of patients was
49·0 years (IQR 41·0–58·0), and 13 (32%) patients had underlying
disease. All patients had pneumonia. A third of patients were
admitted to intensive care units, and six died. High concentrations
of cytokines were recorded in plasma of critically ill patients
infected with 2019-nCoV.
Implications of all the available evidence
2019-nCoV caused clusters of fatal pneumonia with clinical
presentation greatly resembling SARS-CoV. Patients infected
with 2019-nCoV might develop acute respiratory distress
syndrome, have a high likelihood of admission to intensive care,
and might die. The cytokine storm could be associated with
disease severity. More efforts should be made to know the
whole spectrum and pathophysiology of the new disease.
Articles
www.thelancet.com Published online January 24, 2020 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5
3
(methylprednisolone 40–120 mg per day) was given as
a combined regimen if severe community-acquired
pneumonia was diagnosed by physicians at the
designated hospital. Oxygen support (eg, nasal cannula
and invasive mechanical ventilation) was administered
to patients according to the severity of hypoxaemia.
Repeated tests for 2019-nCoV were done in patients
confirmed to have 2019-nCoV infection to show viral
clearance before hospital discharge or discontinuation of
isolation.
Data collection
We reviewed clinical charts, nursing records, laboratory
findings, and chest x-rays for all patients with laboratory-
confirmed 2019-nCoV infection who were reported by
the local health authority. The admission data of
these patients was from Dec 16, 2019, to Jan 2, 2020.
Epidemiological, clinical, laboratory, and radiological
characteristics and treatment and outcomes data were
obtained with standardised data collection forms
(modified case record form for severe acute respira-
tory infection clinical characterisation shared by the
International Severe Acute Respiratory and Emerging
Infection Consortium) from electronic medical records.
Two researchers also independently reviewed the data
collection forms to double check the data collected. To
ascertain the epidemiological and symptom data, which
were not available from electronic medical records, the
researchers also directly communicated with patients or
their families to ascertain epidemiological and symptom
data.
Cytokine and chemokine measurement
To characterise the eect of coronavirus on the production
of cytokines or chemokines in the acute phase of the
illness, plasma cytokines and chemokines (IL1B, IL1RA,
IL2, IL4, IL5, IL6, IL7, IL8 (also known as CXCL8), IL9,
IL10, IL12p70, IL13, IL15, IL17A, Eotaxin (also known as
CCL11), basic FGF2, GCSF (CSF3), GMCSF (CSF2),
IFNγ, IP10 (CXCL10), MCP1 (CCL2), MIP1A (CCL3),
MIP1B (CCL4), PDGFB, RANTES (CCL5), TNFα, and
VEGFA were measured using Human Cytokine Standard
27-Plex Assays panel and the Bio-Plex 200 system
(Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA, USA) for all patients according
to the manufacturer’s instructions. The plasma samples
from four healthy adults were used as controls for cross-
comparison. The median time from being transferred to
a designated hospital to the blood sample collection was
4 days (IQR 2–5).
Detection of coronavirus in plasma
Each 80 µL plasma sample from the patients and contacts
was added into 240 µL of Trizol LS (10296028; Thermo
Fisher Scientific, Carlsbad, CA, USA) in the Biosafety
Level 3 laboratory. Total RNA was extracted by Direct-zol
RNA Miniprep kit (R2050; Zymo research, Irvine, CA,
USA) according to the manufacturer’s instructions and
50 µL elution was obtained for each sample. 5 µL RNA
was used for real-time RT-PCR, which targeted the
NP gene using AgPath-ID One-Step RT-PCR Reagent
(AM1005; Thermo Fisher Scientific). The final reaction
mix concentration of the primers was 500 nM and probe
was 200 nM. Real-time RT-P CR was per formed using the
following conditions: 50°C for 15 min and 95°C for 3 min,
50 cycles of amplification at 95°C for 10 s and 60°C for
45 s. Since we did not perform tests for detecting
infectious virus in blood, we avoided the term viraemia
and used RNAaemia instead. RNAaemia was defined as a
positive result for real-time RT-PCR in the plasma sample.
Definitions
Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and shock
were defined according to the interim guidance of WHO
For more on the International
Severe Acute Respiratory and
Emerging Infection Consortium
see https://isaric.tghn.org/
Figure 1: Date of illness onset and age distribution of patients with laboratory-confirmed 2019-nCoV
infection
(A) Number of hospital admissions by age group. (B) Distribution of symptom onset date for laboratory-confirmed
cases. The Wuhan local health authority issued an epidemiological alert on Dec 30, 2019, and closed the Huanan
seafood market 2 days later.
0
<18 18–24 25–49 50–64 ≥65
5
10
15
20
Number of cases
Age (years)
A
General ward
Intensive care unit
Dec 1, 2019
Dec 10, 2019
Dec 11, 2019
Dec 12, 2019
Dec 13, 2019
Dec 14, 2019
Dec 15, 2019
Dec 16, 2019
Dec 17, 2019
Dec 18, 2019
Dec 19, 2019
Dec 20, 201
9
Dec 21, 2019
Dec 22, 2019
Dec 23, 2019
Dec 24, 2019
Dec 25, 2019
Dec 26, 2019
Dec 27, 2019
Dec 28, 2019
Dec 29, 2019
Dec 30, 2019
Dec 31, 2019
Jan 1, 2020
Jan 2, 2020
0
2
4
6
8
Number of cases
Onset date
B
No
Yes
Huanan seafood market exposure
Epidemiological alert
Market closed
Articles
4
www.thelancet.com Published online January 24, 2020 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5
for novel coronavirus.9 Hypoxaemia was defined as arterial
oxygen tension (PaO₂) over inspiratory oxygen fraction
(FIO₂) of less than 300 mm Hg.15 Acute kidney injury was
identified and classified on the basis of the highest serum
creatinine level or urine output criteria according to the
kidney disease improving global outcomes classification.16
Secondary infection was diagnosed if the patients had
clinical symptoms or signs of nosocomial pneumonia or
bacteraemia, and was combined with a positive culture of a
new pathogen from a lower respiratory tract specimen
(including the sputum, transtracheal aspirates, or bron-
choalveolar lavage fluid, or from blood samples taken ≥48 h
after admission).17 Cardiac injury followed the definition
used in our previous study in H7N9 patients.18 In brief,
cardiac injury was diagnosed if serum levels of cardiac
biomarkers (eg, troponin I) were above the 99th percentile
upper reference limit, or new abnormalities were shown in
electrocardiography and echocardiography.
Statistical analysis
Continuous variables were expressed as median (IQR)
and compared with the Mann-Whitney U test; categorical
variables were expressed as number (%) and compared
by χ² test or Fisher’s exact test between ICU care and
no ICU care groups. Boxplots were drawn to describe
plasma cytokine and chemokine concentrations.
A two-sided α of less than 0·05 was considered statis-
tically significant. Statistical analyses were done using the
SAS software, version 9.4, unless otherwise indicated.
Role of the funding source
The funder of the study had no role in study design, data
collection, data analysis, data interpretation, or writing of
the report. The corresponding authors had full access to
all the data in the study and had final responsibility for
the decision to submit for publication.
Results
By Jan 2, 2020, 41 admitted hospital patients were
identified as laboratory-confirmed 2019-nCoV infection in
Wuhan. 20 [49%]) of the 2019-nCoV-infected patients were
aged 25–49 years, and 14 (34%) were aged 50–64 years
(figure 1A). The median age of the patients was 49·0 years
(IQR 41·0–58·0; table 1). In our cohort of the first
41 patients as of Jan 2, no children or adolescents were
infected. Of the 41 patients, 13 (32%) were admitted to the
ICU because they required high-flow nasal cannula or
higher-level oxygen support measures to cor rect
hypoxaemia. Most of the infected patients were
men (30 [73%]); less than half had underlying diseases
(13 [32%]), including diabetes (eight [20%]), hypertension
(six [15%]), and cardiovascular disease (six [15%]).
27 (66%) patients had direct exposure to Huanan
seafood market (figure 1B). Market exposure was similar
between the patients with ICU care (nine [69%]) and
those with non-ICU care (18 [64%]). The symptom onset
date of the first patient identified was Dec 1, 2019. None
of his family members developed fever or any respiratory
symptoms. No epidemiological link was found between
the first patient and later cases. The first fatal case,
who had continuous exposure to the market, was
admitted to hospital because of a 7-day history of fever,
cough, and dyspnoea. 5 days after illness onset, his wife,
a 53-year-old woman who had no known history of
exposure to the market, also presented with pneumonia
and was hospitalised in the isolation ward.
The most common symptoms at onset of illness were
fever (40 [98%] of 41 patients), cough (31 [76%]), and
myalgia or fatigue (18 [44%]); less common symptoms
All patients (n=41) ICU care (n=13) No ICU care (n=28) p value
Characteristics
Age, years 49·0 (41·0–58·0) 49·0 (41·0–61·0) 49·0 (41·0–57·5) 0·60
Sex ·· ·· ·· 0·24
Men 30 (73%) 11 (85%) 19 (68%) ··
Women 11 (27%) 2 (15%) 9 (32%) ··
Huanan seafood market
exposure
27 (66%) 9 (69%) 18 (64%) 0·75
Current smoking 3 (7%) 0 3 (11%) 0·31
Any comorbidity 13 (32%) 5 (38%) 8 (29%) 0·53
Diabetes 8 (20%) 1 (8%) 7 (25%) 0·16
Hypertension 6 (15%) 2 (15%) 4 (14%) 0·93
Cardiovascular disease 6 (15%) 3 (23%) 3 (11%) 0·32
Chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease
1 (2%) 1 (8%) 0 0·14
Malignancy 1 (2%) 0 1 (4%) 0·49
Chronic liver disease 1 (2%) 0 1 (4%) 0·68
Signs and symptoms
Fever 40 (98%) 13 (100%) 27 (96%) 0·68
Highest temperature, °C ·· ·· ·· 0·037
<37·3 1 (2%) 0 1 (4%) ··
37·3–38·0 8 (20%) 3 (23%) 5 (18%) ··
38·1–39·0 18 (44%) 7 (54%) 11 (39%) ··
>39·0 14 (34%) 3 (23%) 11 (39%) ··
Cough 31 (76%) 11 (85%) 20 (71%) 0·35
Myalgia or fatigue 18 (44%) 7 (54%) 11 (39%) 0·38
Sputum production 11/39 (28%) 5 (38%) 6/26 (23%) 0·32
Headache 3/38 (8%) 0 3/25 (12%) 0·10
Haemoptysis 2/39 (5%) 1 (8%) 1/26 (4%) 0·46
Diarrhoea 1/38 (3%) 0 1/25 (4%) 0·66
Dyspnoea 22/40 (55%) 12 (92%) 10/27 (37%) 0·0010
Days from illness onset to
dyspnoea
8·0 (5·0–13·0) 8·0 (6·0–17·0) 6·5 (2·0–10·0) 0·22
Days from first admission
to transfer
5·0 (1·0–8·0) 8·0 (5·0–14·0) 1·0 (1·0–6·5) 0·002
Systolic pressure, mm Hg 125·0 (119·0–135·0) 145·0 (123·0–167·0) 122·0 (118·5–129·5) 0·018
Respiratory rate
>24 breaths per min
12 (29%) 8 (62%) 4 (14%) 0·0023
Data are median (IQR), n (%), or n/N (%), where N is the total number of patients with available data. p values
comparing ICU care and no ICU care are from χ² test, Fisher’s exact test, or Mann-Whitney U test. 2019-nCoV=2019
novel coronavirus. ICU=intensive care unit.
Table 1: Demographics and baseline characteristics of patients infected with 2019-nCoV
Articles
www.thelancet.com Published online January 24, 2020 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5
5
were sputum production (11 [28%] of 39), headache
(three [8%] of 38), haemoptysis (two [5%] of 39), and
diarrhoea (one [3%] of 38; table 1). More than half of
patients (22 [55%] of 40) developed dyspnoea. The median
duration from illness onset to dyspnoea was 8·0 days
(IQR 5·0–13·0). The median time from onset of symp-
toms to first hospital admission was 7·0 days (4·0–8·0),
to shortness of breath was 8·0 days (5·0–13·0), to ARDS
was 9·0 days (8·0–14·0), to mechanical venti lation was
10·5 days (7·0–14·0), and to ICU admission was 10·5 days
(8·0–17·0; figure 2).
The blood counts of patients on admission showed
leucopenia (white blood cell count less than 4 × 10⁹/L;
ten [25%] of 40 patients) and lymphopenia (lymphocyte
count <1·0 × 10⁹/L; 26 [63%] patients; table 2). Pro-
thrombin time and D-dimer level on admission were
higher in ICU patients (median prothrombin time
12·2 s [IQR 11·2–13·4]; median D-dimer level 2·4 mg/L
[0·6–14·4]) than non-ICU patients (median prothrombin
time 10·7 s [9·8–12·1], p=0·012; median D-dimer level
0·5 mg/L [0·3–0·8], p=0·0042). Levels of aspartate
amino transferase were increased in 15 (37%) of
41 patients, including eight (62%) of 13 ICU patients
and seven (25%) of 28 non-ICU patients. Hypersensitive
troponin I (hs-cTnI) was increased substantially in
five patients, in whom the diagnosis of virus-related
cardiac injury was made.
Most patients had normal serum levels of procalcitonin
on admission (procalcitonin <0·1 ng/mL; 27 [69%] patients;
table 2). Four ICU patients developed secondary infec-
tions. Three of the four patients with secondary infection
had procalcitonin greater than 0·5 ng/mL (0·69 ng/mL,
1·46 ng/mL, and 6·48 ng/mL).
On admission, abnormalities in chest CT images were
detected among all patients. Of the 41 patients, 40 (98%)
had bilateral involvement (table 2). The typical findings
of chest CT images of ICU patients on admission were
bilateral multiple lobular and subsegmental areas of
consolidation (figure 3A). The representative chest CT
findings of non-ICU patients showed bilateral ground-
glass opacity and subseg mental areas of consolidation
(figure 3B). Later chest CT images showed bilateral
ground-glass opacity, whereas the consolidation had
been resolved (figure 3C).
Initial plasma IL1B, IL1RA, IL7, IL8, IL9, IL10, basic
FGF, GCSF, GMCSF, IFNγ, IP10, MCP1, MIP1A, MIP1B,
PDGF, TNFα, and VEGF concentrations were higher in
both ICU patients and non-ICU patients than in healthy
adults (appendix pp 6–7). Plasma levels of IL5, IL12p70,
IL15, Eotaxin, and RANTES were similar between healthy
adults and patients infected with 2019-nCoV. Further
comparison between ICU and non-ICU patients showed
that plasma concentrations of IL2, IL7, IL10, GCSF, IP10,
MCP1, MIP1A, and TNFα were higher in ICU patients
than non-ICU patients.
All patients had pneumonia. Common compli cations
included ARDS (12 [29%] of 41 patients), followed by
RNAaemia (six [15%] patients), acute cardiac injury
(five [12%] patients), and secondary infection (four [10%]
patients; table 3). Invasive mechanical ventilation was
required in four (10%) patients, with two of them (5%) had
refractory hypoxaemia and received extracorporeal mem-
brane oxygenation as salvage therapy. All patients were
administered with empirical antibiotic treatment, and
38 (93%) patients received antiviral therapy (osel tamivir).
Additionally, nine (22%) patients were given systematic
corticosteroids. A comparison of clinical features between
patients who received and did not receive systematic
corticosteroids is in the appendix (pp 1–5).
As of Jan 22, 2020, 28 (68%) of 41 patients have been
dis charged and six (15%) patients have died. Fitness
for discharge was based on abatement of fever for at
least 10 days, with improvement of chest radiographic
evidence and viral clearance in respiratory samples from
upper respiratory tract.
Discussion
We report here a cohort of 41 patients with laboratory-
confirmed 2019-nCoV infection. Patients had serious,
sometimes fatal, pneumonia and were admitted to the
designated hospital in Wuhan, China, by Jan 2, 2020.
Clinical presentations greatly resemble SARS-CoV.
Patients with severe illness developed ARDS and
required ICU admission and oxygen therapy. The time
between hospital admission and ARDS was as short
as 2 days. At this stage, the mortality rate is high for
2019-nCoV, because six (15%) of 41 patients in this cohort
died.
The number of deaths is rising quickly. As of
Jan 24, 2020, 835 laboratory-confirmed 2019-nCoV
infec tions were reported in China, with 25 fatal
cases. Reports have been released of exported cases in
many provinces in China, and in other countries;
Figure 2: Timeline of 2019-nCoV cases after onset of illness
Onset Admission
Dyspnoea
Acute respiratory
distress syndrome
Intensive care
unit admission
7
8
9
10·5
Median time
Number of cases
Days
41
(100%)
41
(100%)
21
(51%)
11
(27%)
16
(39%)
See Online for appendix
Articles
6
www.thelancet.com Published online January 24, 2020 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5
some health-care workers have also been infected in
Wuhan. Taken together, evidence so far indicates
human transmission for 2019-nCoV. We are concerned
that 2019-nCoV could have acquired the ability for
ecient human trans mission.19 Airborne precautions,
such as a fit-tested N95 respirator, and other personal
protective equipment are strongly recommended. To
prevent further spread of the disease in health-care
settings that are caring for patients infected with
2019-nCoV, onset of fever and respiratory symp-
toms should be closely moni tored among health-care
workers. Testing of respiratory specimens should be
done immediately once a diagnosis is suspected. Serum
antibodies should be tested among health-care workers
All patients (n=41) ICU care (n=13) No ICU care (n=28) p value
White blood cell count, × 10⁹/L 6·2 (4·1–10·5) 11·3 (5·8–12·1) 5·7 (3·1–7·6) 0·011
<4 10/40 (25%) 1/13 (8%) 9/27 (33%) 0·041
4–10 18/40 (45%) 5/13 (38%) 13/27 (48%) ··
>10 12/40 (30%) 7/13 (54%) 5/27 (19%) ··
Neutrophil count, × 10⁹/L 5·0 (3·3–8·9) 10·6 (5·0–11·8) 4·4 (2·0–6·1) 0·00069
Lymphocyte count, × 10⁹/L 0·8 (0·6–1·1) 0·4 (0·2–0·8) 1·0 (0·7–1·1) 0·0041
<1·0 26/41 (63%) 11/13 (85%) 15/28 (54%) 0·045
≥1·0 15/41 (37%) 2/13 (15%) 13/28 (46%) ··
Haemoglobin, g/L 126·0 (118·0–140·0) 122·0 (111·0–128·0) 130·5 (120·0–140·0) 0·20
Platelet count, × 10⁹/L 164·5 (131·5–263·0) 196·0 (165·0–263·0) 149·0 (131·0–263·0) 0·45
<100 2/40 (5%) 1/13 (8%) 1/27 (4%) 0·45
≥100 38/40 (95%) 12/13 (92%) 26/27 (96%) ··
Prothrombin time, s 11·1 (10·1–12·4) 12·2 (11·2–13·4) 10·7 (9·8–12·1) 0·012
Activated partial thromboplastin time, s 27·0 (24·2–34·1) 26·2 (22·5–33·9) 27·7 (24·8–34·1) 0·57
D-dimer, mg/L 0·5 (0·3–1·3) 2·4 (0·6–14·4) 0·5 (0·3–0·8) 0·0042
Albumin, g/L 31·4 (28·9–36·0) 27·9 (26·3–30·9) 34·7 (30·2–36·5) 0·0066
Alanine aminotransferase, U/L 32·0 (21·0–50·0) 49·0 (29·0–115·0) 27·0 (19·5–40·0) 0·038
Aspartate aminotransferase, U/L 34·0 (26·0–48·0) 44·0 (30·0–70·0) 34·0 (24·0–40·5) 0·10
≤40 26/41 (63%) 5/13 (38%) 21/28 (75%) 0·025
>40 15/41 (37%) 8/13 (62%) 7/28 (25%) ··
Total bilirubin, mmol/L 11·7 (9·5–13·9) 14·0 (11·9–32·9) 10·8 (9·4–12·3) 0·011
Potassium, mmol/L 4·2 (3·8–4·8) 4·6 (4·0–5·0) 4·1 (3·8–4·6) 0·27
Sodium, mmol/L 139·0 (137·0–140·0) 138·0 (137·0–139·0) 139·0 (137·5–140·5) 0·26
Creatinine, μmol/L 74·2 (57·5–85·7) 79·0 (53·1–92·7) 73·3 (57·5–84·7) 0·84
≤133 37/41 (90%) 11/13 (85%) 26/28 (93%) 0·42
>133 4/41 (10%) 2/13 (15%) 2/28 (7%) ··
Creatine kinase, U/L 132·5 (62·0–219·0) 132·0 (82·0–493·0) 133·0 (61·0–189·0) 0·31
≤185 27/40 (68%) 7/13 (54%) 20/27 (74%) 0·21
>185 13/40 (33%) 6/13 (46%) 7/27 (26%) ··
Lactate dehydrogenase, U/L 286·0 (242·0–408·0) 400·0 (323·0–578·0) 281·0 (233·0–357·0) 0·0044
≤245 11/40 (28%) 1/13 (8%) 10/27 (37%) 0·036
>245 29/40 (73%) 12/13 (92%) 17/27 (63%) ··
Hypersensitive troponin I, pg/mL 3·4 (1·1–9·1) 3·3 (3·0–163·0) 3·5 (0·7–5·4) 0·08
>28 (99th percentile) 5/41 (12%) 4/13 (31%) 1/28 (4%) 0·017
Procalcitonin, ng/mL 0·1 (0·1–0·1) 0·1 (0·1–0·4) 0·1 (0·1–0·1) 0·031
<0·1 27/39 (69%) 6/12 (50%) 21/27 (78%) 0·0029
≥0·1 to <0·25 7/39 (18%) 3/12 (25%) 4/27 (15%) ··
≥0·25 to <0·5 2/39 (5%) 0/12 2/27 (7%) ··
≥0·5 3/39 (8%) 3/12 (25%)* 0/27 ··
Bilateral involvement of chest
radiographs
40/41 (98%) 13/13 (100%) 27/28 (96%) 0·68
Cycle threshold of respiratory tract 32·2 (31·0–34·5) 31·1 (30·0–33·5) 32·2 (31·1–34·7) 0·39
Data are median (IQR) or n/N (%), where N is the total number of patients with available data. p values comparing ICU care and no ICU care are from χ², Fisher’s exact test,
or Mann-Whitney U test. 2019-nCoV=2019 novel coronavirus. ICU=intensive care unit. *Complicated typical secondary infection during the first hospitalisation.
Table 2: Laboratory findings of patients infected with 2019-nCoV on admission to hospital
Articles
www.thelancet.com Published online January 24, 2020 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5
7
before and after their exposure to 2019-nCoV for iden-
tification of asymp tomatic infections.
Similarities of clinical features between 2019-nCoV and
previous betacoronavirus infections have been noted. In
this cohort, most patients presented with fever, dry
cough, dyspnoea, and bilateral ground-glass opacities on
chest CT scans. These features of 2019-nCoV infection
bear some resemblance to SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV
infections.20,21 However, few patients with 2019-nCoV
infection had prominent upper respiratory tract signs
and symptoms (eg, rhinorrhoea, sneezing, or sore
throat), indicating that the target cells might be located in
the lower airway. Furthermore, 2019-nCoV patients rarely
developed intestinal signs and symptoms (eg, diarrhoea),
whereas about 20–25% of patients with MERS-CoV or
SARS-CoV infection had diarrhoea.21 Faecal and urine
samples should be tested to exclude a potential alternative
route of transmission that is unknown at this stage.
The pathophysiology of unusually high pathogenicity
for SARS-CoV or MERS-CoV has not been completely
understood. Early studies have shown that increased
amounts of proinflammatory cytokines in serum (eg,
IL1B, IL6, IL12, IFNγ, IP10, and MCP1) were associated
with pulmonary inflammation and extensive lung
damage in SARS patients.22 MERS-CoV infection was
also reported to induce increased concentrations of
proinflammatory cytokines (IFNγ, TNFα, IL15, and
IL17).23 We noted that patients infected with 2019-nCoV
also had high amounts of IL1B, IFNγ, IP10, and MCP1,
probably leading to activated T-helper-1 (Th1) cell re-
sponses. Moreover, patients requiring ICU admission
had higher concentrations of GCSF, IP10, MCP1, MIP1A,
and TNFα than did those not requiring ICU admission,
suggesting that the cytokine storm was associated with
disease severity. However, 2019-nCoV infection also
initiated increased secretion of T-helper-2 (Th2) cytokines
(eg, IL4 and IL10) that suppress inflammation, which
diers from SARS-CoV infection.22 Further studies are
necessary to characterise the Th1 and Th2 responses in
2019-nCoV infection and to elucidate the pathogenesis.
Autopsy or biopsy studies would be the key to understand
the disease.
In view of the high amount of cytokines induced by
SARS-CoV,22,24 MERS-CoV,25,26 and 2019-nCoV infections,
corticosteroids were used frequently for treatment of
patients with severe illness, for possible benefit by
reducing inflammatory-induced lung injury. However,
current evidence in patients with SARS and MERS
Figure 3: Chest CT images
(A) Transverse chest CT images from a 40-year-old man showing bilateral
multiple lobular and subsegmental areas of consolidation on day 15 after
symptom onset. Transverse chest CT images from a 53-year-old woman
showing bilateral ground-glass opacity and subsegmental areas of consolidation
on day 8 after symptom onset (B), and bilateral ground-glass opacity on day 12
after symptom onset (C).
A
B
C
Articles
8
www.thelancet.com Published online January 24, 2020 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5
suggests that receiving corticosteroids did not have an
eect on mortality, but rather delayed viral clearance.27–29
Therefore, corticosteroids should not be routinely given
systemically, according to WHO interim guidance.30
Among our cohort of 41 laboratory-confirmed patients
with 2019-nCoV infection, corticosteroids were given to
very few non-ICU cases, and low-to-moderate dose of
corticosteroids were given to less than half of severely
ill patients with ARDS. Further evidence is urgently
needed to assess whether systematic corticosteroid
treatment is beneficial or harmful for patients infected
with 2019-nCoV.
No antiviral treatment for coronavirus infection has been
proven to be eective. In a historical control study,31 the
combination of lopinavir and ritonavir among SARS-CoV
patients was associated with substantial clinical benefit
(fewer adverse clinical outcomes). Arabi and colleagues
initiated a placebo-controlled trial of interferon beta-1b,
lopinavir, and ritonavir among patients with MERS
infection in Saudi Arabia.32 Preclinical evidence showed
the potent ecacy of remdesivir (a broad-spectrum
antiviral nucleotide prodrug) to treat MERS-CoV and
SARS-CoV infections.33,34 As 2019-nCoV is an emerging
virus, an eective treatment has not been developed for
disease resulting from this virus. Since the combination
of lopinavir and ritonavir was already available in the
designated hospital, a randomised controlled trial has
been initiated quickly to assess the ecacy and safety of
combined use of lopinavir and ritonavir in patients
hospitalised with 2019-nCoV infection.
Our study has some limitations. First, for most of the
41 patients, the diagnosis was confirmed with lower
respiratory tract specimens and no paired nasopharyngeal
swabs were obtained to investigate the dierence in the
viral RNA detection rate between upper and lower
respiratory tract specimens. Serological detection was not
done to look for 2019-nCoV antibody rises in 18 patients
with undetectable viral RNA. Second, with the limited
number of cases, it is dicult to assess host risk factors
for disease severity and mortality with multivariable-
adjusted methods. This is a modest-sized case series of
patients admitted to hospital; collection of standardised
data for a larger cohort would help to further define the
clinical presentation, natural history, and risk factors.
Further studies in outpatient, primary care, or community
settings are needed to get a full picture of the spectrum of
clinical severity. At the same time, finding of statistical
tests and p values should be interpreted with caution,
and non-significant p values do not necessarily rule out
dierence between ICU and non-ICU patients. Third,
since the causative pathogen has just been identified,
kinetics of viral load and antibody titres were not available.
Finally, the potential exposure bias in our study might
account for why no paediatric or adolescent patients were
reported in this cohort. More eort should be made to
answer these questions in future studies.
Both SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV were believed to
originate in bats, and these infections were transmitted
directly to humans from market civets and dromedary
camels, respectively.35 Extensive research on SARS-CoV
and MERS-CoV has driven the discovery of many
SARS-like and MERS-like coronaviruses in bats. In 2013,
Ge and colleagues36 reported the whole genome sequence
of a SARS-like coronavirus in bats with that ability to use
human ACE2 as a receptor, thus having replication
potentials in human cells.37 2019-nCoV still needs to be
studied deeply in case it becomes a global health threat.
Reliable quick pathogen tests and feasible dierential
diagnosis based on clinical description are crucial for
clinicians in their first contact with suspected patients.
Because of the pandemic potential of 2019-nCoV, careful
surveillance is essential to monitor its future host
adaption, viral evolution, infectivity, transmissibility, and
pathogenicity.
Contributors
BC and JW had the idea for and designed the study and had full access
to all data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the
All patients (n=41) ICU care (n=13) No ICU care (n=28) p value
Duration from illness onset
to first admission
7·0 (4·0–8·0) 7·0 (4·0–8·0) 7·0 (4·0–8·5) 0·87
Complications
Acute respiratory distress
syndrome
12 (29%) 11 (85%) 1 (4%) <0·0001
RNAaemia 6 (15%) 2 (15%) 4 (14%) 0·93
Cycle threshold of
RNAaemia
35·1 (34·7–35·1) 35·1 (35·1–35·1) 34·8 (34·1–35·4) 0·3545
Acute cardiac injury* 5 (12%) 4 (31%) 1 (4%) 0·017
Acute kidney injury 3 (7%) 3 (23%) 0 0·027
Secondary infection 4 (10%) 4 (31%) 0 0·0014
Shock 3 (7%) 3 (23%) 0 0·027
Treatment
Antiviral therapy 38 (93%) 12 (92%) 26 (93%) 0·46
Antibiotic therapy 41 (100%) 13 (100%) 28 (100%) NA
Use of corticosteroid 9 (22%) 6 (46%) 3 (11%) 0·013
Continuous renal
replacement therapy
3 (7%) 3 (23%) 0 0·027
Oxygen support ·· ·· ·· <0·0001
Nasal cannula 27 (66%) 1 (8%) 26 (93%) ··
Non-invasive ventilation or
high-flow nasal cannula
10 (24%) 8 (62%) 2 (7%) ··
Invasive mechanical
ventilation
2 (5%) 2 (15%) 0 ··
Invasive mechanical
ventilation and ECMO
2 (5%) 2 (15%) 0 ··
Prognosis ·· ·· ·· 0·014
Hospitalisation 7 (17%) 1 (8%) 6 (21%) ··
Discharge 28 (68%) 7 (54%) 21 (75%) ··
Death 6 (15%) 5 (38%) 1 (4%) ··
Data are median (IQR) or n (%). p values are comparing ICU care and no ICU care. 2019-nCoV=2019 novel coronavirus.
ICU=intensive care unit. NA=not applicable. ECMO=extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. *Defined as blood levels of
hypersensitive troponin I above the 99th percentile upper reference limit (>28 pg/mL) or new abnormalities shown on
electrocardiography and echocardiography.
Table 3: Treatments and outcomes of patients infected with 2019-nCoV
Articles
www.thelancet.com Published online January 24, 2020 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5
9
data and the accuracy of the data analysis. YWa, GF, XG, JiXu, HL,
and BC contributed to writing of the report. BC contributed to critical
revision of the report. YWa, GF, XG, JiXu, and HL contributed to the
statistical analysis. All authors contributed to data acquisition,
data analysis, or data interpretation, and reviewed and approved the
final version.
Declaration of interests
All authors declare no competing interests.
Data sharing
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the
corresponding author on reasonable request. Participant data without
names and identifiers will be made available after approval from the
corresponding author and National Health Commission. After
publication of study findings, the data will be available for others to
request. The research team will provide an email address for
communication once the data are approved to be shared with others.
The proposal with detailed description of study objectives and statistical
analysis plan will be needed for evaluation of the reasonability to request
for our data. The corresponding author and National Health Commission
will make a decision based on these materials. Additional materials may
also be required during the process.
Acknowledgments
This work is funded by the Special Project for Emergency of the Ministry
of Science and Technology (2020YFC0841300) Chinese Academy of
Medical Sciences (CAMS) Innovation Fund for Medical Sciences
(CIFMS 2018-I2M-1-003), a National Science Grant for Distinguished
Young Scholars (81425001/H0104), the National Key Research and
Development Program of China (2018YFC1200102), The Beijing Science
and Technology Project (Z19110700660000), CAMS Innovation Fund for
Medical Sciences (2016-I2M-1-014), and National Mega-projects for
Infectious Diseases in China (2017ZX10103004 and 2018ZX10305409).
We acknowledge all health-care workers involved in the diagnosis and
treatment of patients in Wuhan; we thank the Chinese National Health
Commission for coordinating data collection for patients with 2019-nCoV
infection; we thank the International Severe Acute Respiratory and
Emerging Infections Consortium (ISARIC) for sharing data collection
templates publicly on the website; and we thank Prof Chen Wang and
Prof George F Gao for guidance in study design and interpretation of
results.
References
1 Richman DD, Whitley RJ, Hayden FG, eds. Clinical virology,
4th edn. Washington: ASM Press, 2016.
2 Ksiazek TG, Erdman D, Goldsmith CS, et al. A novel coronavirus
associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome. N Engl J Med
2003; 348: 1953–66.
3 Kuiken T, Fouchier RAM, Schutten M, et al. Newly discovered
coronavirus as the primary cause of severe acute respiratory
syndrome. Lancet 2003; 362: 263–70.
4 Drosten C, Günther S, Preiser W, et al. Identification of a novel
coronavirus in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome.
N Engl J Med 2003; 348: 1967–76.
5 de Groot RJ, Baker SC, Baric RS, et al. Middle East respiratory
syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV): announcement of the
Coronavirus Study Group. J Virol 2013; 87: 7790–92.
6 Zaki AM, van Boheemen S, Bestebroer TM, Osterhaus ADME,
Fouchier RAM. Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with
pneumonia in Saudi Arabia. N Engl J Med 2012; 367: 1814–20.
7 WHO. Summary of probable SARS cases with onset of illness
from 1 November 2002 to 31 July 2003. Dec 31, 2003. https://www.
who.int/csr/sars/country/table2004_04_21/en/ (accessed
Jan 19, 2020).
8 WHO. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV).
November, 2019. http://www.who.int/emergencies/mers-cov/en/
(accessed Jan 19, 2020).
9 WHO. Novel coronavirus – China. Jan 12, 2020. http://www.who.
int/csr/don/12-january-2020-novel-coronavirus-china/en/ (accessed
Jan 19, 2020).
10 WHO. Novel coronavirus – Thailand (ex-China). Jan 14, 2020.
http://www.who.int/csr/don/14-january-2020-novel-coronavirus-
thailand/en/ (accessed Jan 19, 2020).
11 WHO. Novel coronavirus – Japan (ex-China). Jan 17, 2020.
http://www.who.int/csr/don/17-january-2020-novel-coronavirus-
japan-ex-china/en/ (accessed Jan 19, 2020).
12 WHO. Novel coronavirus – Republic of Korea (ex-China).
Jan 21, 2020. http://www.who.int/csr/don/21-january-2020-novel-
coronavirus-republic-of-korea-ex-china/en/ (accessed Jan 23, 2020).
13 CDC. First travel-related case of 2019 novel coronavirus detected in
United States. Jan 21, 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/media/
releases/2020/p0121-novel-coronavirus-travel-case.html (accessed
Jan 23, 2020).
14 Tan W, Zhao X, Ma X, et al. A novel coronavirus genome identified
in a cluster of pneumonia cases — Wuhan, China 2019−2020.
http://weekly.chinacdc.cn/en/article/id/a3907201-f64f-4154-a19e-
4253b453d10c (accessed Jan 23, 2020).
15 Sanz F, Gimeno C, Lloret T, et al. Relationship between the
presence of hypoxemia and the inflammatory response measured
by C-reactive protein in bacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia.
Eur Respir J 2011; 38 (suppl 55): 2492.
16 Kidney disease: improving global outcomes (KDIGO) acute kidney
injury work group. KDIGO clinical practice guideline for acute kidney
injury. March, 2012. https://kdigo.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/
KDIGO-2012-AKI-Guideline-English.pdf (accessed Jan 23, 2020).
17 Garner JS, Jarvis WR, Emori TG, Horan TC, Hughes JM.
CDC definitions for nosocomial infections, 1988. Am J Infect Control
1988; 16: 128–40.
18 Gao C, Wang Y, Gu X, et al. Association between cardiac injury and
mortality in hospitalized patients infected with avian influenza A
(H7N9) virus. Crit Care Med 2020; published online Jan 20.
DOI:10.1097/CCM.0000000000004207.
19 Perlman S, Netland J. Coronaviruses post-SARS: update on
replication and pathogenesis. Nat Rev Microbiol 2009; 7: 439–50.
20 Lee N, Hui D, Wu A, et al. A major outbreak of severe acute
respiratory syndrome in Hong Kong. N Engl J Med 2003;
348: 1986–94.
21 Assiri A, Al-Tawfiq JA, Al-Rabeeah AA, et al. Epidemiological,
demographic, and clinical characteristics of 47 cases of Middle East
respiratory syndrome coronavirus disease from Saudi Arabia:
a descriptive study. Lancet Infect Dis 2013; 13: 752–61.
22 Wong CK, Lam CWK, Wu AKL, et al. Plasma inflammatory
cytokines and chemokines in severe acute respiratory syndrome.
Clin Exp Immunol 2004; 136: 95–103.
23 Mahallawi WH, Khabour OF, Zhang Q, Makhdoum HM,
Suliman BA. MERS-CoV infection in humans is associated with a
pro-inflammatory Th1 and Th17 cytokine profile. Cytokine 2018;
104: 8–13.
24 He L, Ding Y, Zhang Q, et al. Expression of elevated levels of
pro-inflammatory cytokines in SARS-CoV-infected ACE2+ cells in
SARS patients: relation to the acute lung injury and pathogenesis of
SARS. J Pathol 2006; 210: 288–97.
25 Faure E, Poissy J, Goard A, et al. Distinct immune response in
two MERS-CoV-infected patients: can we go from bench to bedside?
PLoS One 2014; 9: e88716.
26 Falzarano D, de Wit E, Rasmussen AL, et al. Treatment with
interferon-α2b and ribavirin improves outcome in MERS-Co V-
infected rhesus macaques. Nat Med 2013; 19: 1313–17.
27 Stockman LJ, Bellamy R, Garner P. SARS: systematic review of
treatment eects. PLoS Med 2006; 3: e343.
28 Lansbury L, Rodrigo C, Leonardi-Bee J, Nguyen-Van-Tam J,
Lim WS. Corticosteroids as adjunctive therapy in the treatment of
influenza. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2019; 2: CD010406.
29 Arabi YM, Mandourah Y, Al-Hameed F, et al. Corticosteroid therapy
for critically ill patients with Middle East respiratory syndrome.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2018; 197: 757–67.
30 WHO. Clinical management of severe acute respiratory infection
when novel coronavirus (nCoV) infection is suspected. Jan 11, 2020.
https://www.who.int/internal-publications-detail/clinical-
management-of-severe-acute-respiratory-infection-when-novel-
coronavirus-(ncov)-infection-is-suspected (accessed Jan 19, 2020).
31 Chu CM. Role of lopinavir/ritonavir in the treatment of SARS:
initial virological and clinical findings. Thorax 2004; 59: 252–56.
32 Arabi YM, Alothman A, Balkhy HH, et al. Treatment of Middle East
respiratory syndrome with a combination of lopinavir-ritonavir and
interferon-β1b (MIRACLE trial): study protocol for a randomized
controlled trial. Trials 2018; 19: 81.
Articles
10
www.thelancet.com Published online January 24, 2020 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5
33 Sheahan TP, Sims AC, Graham RL, et al. Broad-spectrum antiviral
GS-5734 inhibits both epidemic and zoonotic coronaviruses.
Sci Transl Med 2017; 9: eaal3653.
34 Sheahan TP, Sims AC, Leist SR, et al. Comparative therapeutic
ecacy of remdesivir and combination lopinavir, ritonavir,
and interferon beta against MERS-CoV. Nat Commun 2020; 11: 222.
35 Cui J, Li F, Shi Z-L. Origin and evolution of pathogenic
coronaviruses. Nat Rev Microbiol 2019; 17: 181–92.
36 Ge X-Y, Li J-L, Yang X-L, et al. Isolation and characterization of a bat
SARS-like coronavirus that uses the ACE2 receptor. Nature 2013;
503: 535–38.
37 Wang M, Hu Z. Bats as animal reservoirs for the SARS coronavirus:
hypothesis proved after 10 years of virus hunting. Virol Sin 2013;
28: 315–17.
