Technical ReportPDF Available

Metrics Evaluating Multivariate Design Alternatives: Application of the Friedman’s Two-way Analysis of Variance by Ranks: A Personal Reflection

January 2020

DOI:10.13140/RG.2.2.17885.15849/1

Report number: Version S
Affiliation: Michigan State University

Authors:

Jon Burley

Michigan State University

Xiaoying Li

Nanjing Forestry University

Shuyue He

Nanjing Forestry University

A technical report illustrating the application of Friedman's Two-way Analysis of Variance by Ranks, a non-parametric approach to assess statistical differences in planning and design treatments with various environmental metrics as blocks across each treatment. The report also offers personal reflections by Dr. Jon Bryan Burley, FASLA on this topic and research in planning and design and includes a literature review in planning and design on the subject. The report includes equations and tables necessary to complete the analysis.

Agro-campus Ouest is part of the Rennes University system in France. It contains the oldest landscape architecture program in Europe, started in 1878 at Versailles as the École National Superiéur d'Horticulture and then moved to Angers, France, not to be confused with the current landscape program at Versailles. The program was as part of the Institut National d'Horticulture et de Paysage before merging with Rennes University. Currently the degree is a master's of landscape sciences engineer. The students are top quality with much of their education being geography and technology based, reflecting changes in the demands for science-based education-but they can design exceptionally well and be as creative as anyone (Copyright © 2011, Jon Bryan Burley, all rights reserved, used by permission).

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Michigan State University W.J. Beal Botanical Garden is the oldest continuously operated university botanical garden of its kind in the United States, established in 1873. Inspired by Charles Darwin, Beal improved corn yield by a breeding program that led to yields of 53%. Like many campuses around the world, the whole campus is an arboretum and outdoor laboratory. Besides learning plants many campuses are beginning to teach students how to quantify landscape metrics (Copyright © 2018, Shuyue He, all rights reserved, used by permission).

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After a lecture and workshop, this image presents Dr. Burley with landscape architecture students and professionals at the University of the Philippines Diliman for a group photograph. Landscape Architecture is taught around much of the world. These students have great enthusiasm and talent. (Copyright © 2017, Jon Bryan Burley, all rights reserved, used by permission).

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Indonesian, Japanese, Filipino/Filipina, and Malaysian landscape architecture students attending a surface mine reclamation workshop at the University of Bogor, Indonesia. International cooperation and teamwork is now commonplace in landscape architecture. Students from each of these nations/schools were very dedicated and had excellent abilities with both hand-drawing and computer communication tools. Dr. Burley was a speaker and juror at this workshop. The students combined technical knowledge with their creative and presentation skills (Copyright © 2018, ILAWS, all rights reserved, used by permission).

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Dr. Burley drawing in Seoul, South Korea and lecturing in at Seoul National University concerning measuring visual quality and landscape perception implications for planners and designers (Copyright © 2017, Jon Bryan Burley, all rights reserved, used by permission).

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Figures - uploaded by Jon Burley

Content may be subject to copyright.

Content uploaded by Jon Burley

Content may be subject to copyright.

Content uploaded by Jon Burley

Content may be subject to copyright.

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.17885.15849/1

!!! !

Metrics(Evaluating(Multivariate(Design(

Alternatives:(

Application(of(the(Friedman’s(Two-way(

Analysis(of(Variance(by(Ranks:(

A(Personal(Reflection(

Dr.!Jon!Bryan!Burley,!FASLA,!Michigan!State!University!

Dr.!Xiaoying!Li,!Nanjing!Forestry!University!

Dr.!Shuyue!He,!Nanjing!Forestry!University!

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.17885.15849/1

Cover(

On!the!cover!page!are!several!photographs:!a!view!of!Mount!Vesuvius!from!Napoli,!Italy,!a!view!of!the!city,!and!

an!image!of!ancient!Greek!ruins!discovered!below!a!church!in!Napoli.!!By!some!scholars!and!historians,!Napoli!is!

often!overlooked!because!of!the!dominance!of!Rome!(theology)!and!Florence!(arts),!as!promoted!by!the!claims!

from!these!two!cities!(Rome!and!Florence).!!Such!a!perspective!concerning!the!importance!of!Rome!and!Florence!

was!proclaimed!at!one!of!the!fountains!at!Villa!Lante,!north!of!Rome.!!The!fountain!features!two!river!gods:!one!

for!the!Arno!River!in!Florence,!and!the!other!for!the!Tiber!River!in!Rome;!thereby,!the!fountains!emphasized!the!

prominence!of!Rome!and!Florence.!!However,!Napoli!has!the!University!of!Naples!Federico!II,!where!Dr.!Burley!

lectured!in!2009,!discussing!the!application!of!fractals!to!generate!naturalistic!design.!!This!university!was!

founded!in!1224!and!is!the!oldest!public!non-sectarian!university!in!the!world,!a!school!where!Saint!Thomas!

Aquinas!was!a!student!and!then!a!teacher.!Napoli!should!be!known!as!the!city!of!Science.!!Many!people!consider!

Napoli!a!transportation!hub!on!the!way!to!see!the!nearby!Pompeii!ruins,!but!actually!Napoli,!in!many!respects!is!

far!more!interesting!to!explore!and!understand,!with!a!very!long!history!of!learning!and!knowledge!in!law,!

astronomy,!physics,!engineering,!biological!sciences,!art,!literature,!music,!and!theater,!and!it!should!not!be!

overlooked!as!the!City!of!Science.!!In!many!respects,!University!of!Naples!Federico!II!is!the!predecessor!of!the!

American!public!research!university.!!It!is!interesting!to!note,!that!Pliny!the!Elder,!the!author!of!Naturalis)

Historia,!(a!book!that!became!the!model!and!standard!for!writing!encyclopedias!and!reference!works)!was!

stationed!at!Napoli!for!a!short!time!until!his!death!from!an!eruption!of!Mount!Vesuvius.!!Anyone!interested!in!

nature,!science,!and!technology!should!read!Naturalis)Historia.!!Napoli!may!deserve!a!more!dignified!position!in!

the!narrative!concerning!the!history!of!science!and!the!development!of!the!university!system.!!For!this!reason,!

Napoli!is!featured!on!the!cover!of!this!document!as!an!acknowledgement!to!the!city’s!academic!importance.!

The!landscapes!and!settings!of!Italy,!Greece,!and!Turkey!are!all!important!in!the!development!and!history!of!

science,!as!well!as!many!places!in!S.W.!Asia!and!N.E.!Africa.!!In!addition,!these!settings!are!interesting!places!to!

study!landscape!change!and!development.!!Natural!forces,!and!cultures!influence!the!use!and!configuration!of!

the!environmental!continually.!!Each!place!on!the!earth!has!a!history!and!continues!to!evolve.!!At!this!point!in!

time,!the!2020s,!science,!technology,!the!arts,!and!the!developing!body!of!knowledge!addressing!landscape!

metrics!are!now!important!aspects!in!current!landscape!architectural!thinking.!!!

The!photographs!on!the!cover!are!Copyright!©!2009,!Jon!Bryan!Burley,!all!rights!reserved,!used!by!permission.!!

The!drawings!are!of!Mount!Vesuvius!(Copyright!©!2009,!Jon!Bryan!Burley,!all!rights!reserved,!used!by!

permission),!the!amphitheater!in!Priene,!Turkey,!a!Greek!city!(Copyright!©!2006,!Jon!Bryan!Burley,!all!rights!

reserved,!used!by!permission),!and!a!fountain!at!Pompeii!(Copyright!©!2005,!Jon!Bryan!Burley,!all!rights!

reserved,!used!by!permission).!

Published!by:!

Whitemud!Academics!

A!vanity!press!from!the!Táozi!Shan!Gardens,!in!Gratiot!County,!Michigan,!USA!

Whitemud!is!a!weathered!volcanic!ash!found!on!the!northern!great!plains!of!North!America,!deposited!in!late!

Cretaceous!times;!Dr.!Burley!is!a!weathered!academic!residing!in!his!peach!mountain!garden,!writing!papers,!oil!

painting,!playing!music!on!his!various!guitars,!and!reminiscing!about!his!younger!days!living!adjacent!to!

Whitemud!Creek,!in!Alberta,!Canada.!

Dr.!Burley!can!be!contacted!on!ResearchGate.!

Metrics(Evaluating(Multivariate(Design(Alternatives:(

Application(of(the(Friedman’s(Two-way(Analysis(of(Variance(by(Ranks:(

A(Personal(Reflection!

Version!S!--!Copyright!2020!©,!Dr.!Jon!Bryan!Burley,!Dr.!Xiaoying!Li,!Dr.!Shuyue!He,!all!rights!

reserved,!used!by!permission.!!

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.17885.15849/1

Metrics(Evaluating(Multivariate(Design(

Alternatives:(

Application(of(the(Friedman’s(Two-way(

Analysis(of(Variance(by(Ranks:(

A(Personal(Reflection(

Dr.!Jon!Bryan!Burley,!FASLA,!Michigan!State!University!

Dr.!Xiaoying!Li,!Nanjing!Forestry!University!

Dr.!Shuyue!He,!Nanjing!Forestry!University!

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.17885.15849/1

Table(of(Contents(

(

Forward(

Dr.!Hao!Wang,!President!Nanjing!Forestry!University!

Preface(

(Dr.!Jon!Bryan!Burley,!FASLA,!Michigan!State!University!

Dr.!Xiaoying!Li,!Nanjing!Forestry!University!

Dr.!Shuyue!He,!Nanjing!Forestry!University!

Introduction(((((((((1(

(

Evolution(of(Design(Evaluation:(an(Overview( ( ( ( 2(

(

Treatments,(Factors,(Variables,(Observation(Set,(Blocks( ( 5(

(

Origins(of(Analysis(of(Variance( ( ( ( ( ( 9(

(

Non-parametric((((((((11(

(

Concept(of(squares(and(the(Chi-square(distribution( ( ( 13(

(

Friedman’s(Two-way(Analysis(of(Variance(by(Ranks( ( ( 14(

(

Precedents(((((((((19(

(

Limitations(((((((((26(

(

Closing(statement( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 29(

(

Literature(Cited((((((((30(

(

Appendix(((((((((34(

(

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.17885.15849/1

Forward(

I!have!known!Dr.!Jon!Bryan!Burley,!FASLA!since!2007.!!He!came!to!my!University!(Nanjing!Forestry!

University)!and!gave!a!lecture!about!statistical!modeling!in!surface!mine!reclamation!research.!!At!

that!time,!Chinese!universities!in!planning!and!design!were!exploring!opportunities!to!expand!their!

analytic!abilities!and!be!comparable!with!institutions!around!the!world.!!Since!then,!Dr.!Burley!has!

lectured!at!Nanjing!Forestry!University!many!times!and!has!given!lectures!at!other!prominent!

universities!in!China!too.!!He!has!also!engaged!over!a!dozen!Nanjing!Forestry!University!planning!and!

design!professors!at!Michigan!State!University!as!visiting!professors,!publishing!many!papers!of!

scientific!merit!with!them.!!He!has!a!network!of!similar!minded!people!in!France,!Portugal,!Indonesia,!

Japan,!Turkey,!Germany,!the!United!Kingdom,!Canada,!and!the!United!States.!!He!has!introduced!my!

faculty!to!this!international!group.!

I!believe!that!Dr.!Burley!is!an!excellent!scholar,!typical!of!the!many!great!landscape!

architectural!academics!in!the!United!States.!!In!addition,!he!is!generous!with!his!time!and!

enthusiastic!about!landscape!research.!!Jon!enjoys!storytelling,!which!includes!discussing!research!

methods,!his!opinions,!ideas,!and!experience.!!It!is!my!hope!that!the!reader!will!appreciate!Dr.!

Burley’s!unique!style!of!conveying!ideas!about!conducting!research!methods.!!My!students!and!

faculty!have!admired!his!commitment,!cheerful!nature,!and!generosity!on!the!topic.!!I!also!admire!

LAF’s!desire!to!assist!the!profession!is!advancing!knowledge!and!promoting!the!profession!of!

landscape!architecture.!

Dr.!Hao!Wang,!President!of!Nanjing!Forestry!University!

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.17885.15849/1

Figure(1.!!Alberta!Muskeg!3,!an!oil!painting!from!the!northern!lands!in!Canada,!the!land!where!Dr.!

Burley!discovered!landscape!architecture!through!a!professor!at!the!University!of!Alberta!(Copyright!

©!1993,!Jon!Bryan!Burley,!all!rights!reserved,!used!by!permission).!!Most!landscape!architectural!

academics!and!professionals!often!have!an!interesting!story!concerning!where!they!“came!from”!and!

how!they!were!introduced!to!landscape!architecture.!!

Preface(

Part(I(

Planners!and!designs!often!share!great!curiosity!concerning!the!environment.!!They!enjoy!learning!

and!are!compelled!to!seek!methods,!knowledge,!and!ideas!that!improved!their!abilities!and!enhance!

the!quality!of!the!environments!they!manage,!protect,!plan,!design,!and!create.!!The!intent!of!this!

document!is!to!contribute!to!this!quest.!

While!planners!and!designers!share!much!in!common,!each!person!also!has!individual!

interests!and!professional!goals.!!Landscape!architects!enjoy!integrating!knowledge!from!many!

diverse,!broad!subject!areas!and!disciplines!in!the!social!sciences,!natural!sciences,!health!sciences,!

law!and!policy,!design!arts,!building!arts,!engineering,!and!technology.!!In!many!respects,!it!is!what!

makes!them!landscape!architects--!the!ability!to!comprehensively!combine!this!information!to!make!

thoughtful!and!informed!decisions!about!the!configuration!and!use!of!the!environment.!

There!are!many!assessment!tools!that!may!be!useful!for!landscape!architects!but!may!be!less!

well!known!to!the!planning!and!design!community.!!Some!are!quite!practical!and!fairly!easy!to!apply.!!

As!practitioners!engage!metrics!to!assess!the!value!of!their!projects!and!compare!design!alternatives,!

these!practical!statistical!tools!may!provide!insight!into!the!differences!between!plans!or!projects.!!

The!Friedman’s!Two-way!Analysis!of!Variance!procedure!is!one!of!these!potentially!useful!statistical!

tools.!

There!are!several!people!I!would!like!to!thank:!the!late!R.!H.!Knowles!from!the!University!of!

Alberta!and!a!graduate!of!the!University!of!Michigan;!Peter!Olin,!Roger!B.!Martin,!the!late!Dr.!Gus!

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.17885.15849/1

Hard!from!the!University!of!Minnesota;!Charlie!Thomsen,!Dr.!Norm!Kenkel,!and!Alexander!E.!Rattray!

from!the!University!of!Manitoba;!Ken!Polakowski,!Dr.!Gary!Fowler,!Dr.!Rachel!Kaplan.!Dr.!Paul!Webb,!

and!the!late!Terry!J.!Brown!from!the!University!of!Michigan;!my!PhD.!cohort!colleagues!Dr.!Bill!

Sullivan!now!at!the!University!of!Illinois,!Dr.!Kathy!Wolfe!now!in!the!Pacific!northwest,!Clare!Ginger!

at!the!University!of!Vermont,!Patrick!Mooney!at!the!University!of!British!Columbia,!and!Shishir!Rival!

now!in!India;!and!finally!my!current!network!of!research!colleagues!Dr.!Trisha!Machemer!Michigan!

State!University,!Dr.!Zhi!Yue!Nanjing!Forestry!University,!Dr.!Zheng!Chen!Tongji!University,!Dr.!

Chongqing!Liu!Jiangxi!Agricultural!University,!Dr.!Luis!Loures!Portugal,!Dr.!Ruja!Yilmaz!Turkey,!Dr.!

Vincent!Bouvier!Agro-campus!Ouest!Angers,!France,!and!Dr.!Youichi!Kuni!Nodai!University!Tokyo,!

Japan.!!And!finally,!there!are!four!friends!I!must!thank:!Craig!A.!Churchward,!David!W.!Nelson,!

William!Pierce,!and!Paul!Nieratko.!!!

I!admire!the!Landscape!Architecture!Foundation!(LAF)!who!have!the!great!foresight!to!serve!

the!profession,!the!environment,!and!the!inhabitants!of!the!world.!!I!greatly!appreciate!the!efforts!of!

Mark!Francis!and!his!dissemination!of!the!case!study!method!for!application!and!communication!by!

investigators!and!practitioners.!!It!was!a!good!topic!for!LAF!to!promote!to!assist!the!profession.!!But,!

there!is!much!more!information!concerning!techniques!and!methods!that!can!be!disseminated.!!I!

hope!that!this!document!will!also!be!pertinent!to!the!profession.!!I!also!appreciate!what!ResearchGate!

has!accomplished,!a!European!social!networking!site!for!academics!to!share!papers!and!other!

scholarly!documents,!to!ask!questions!and!to!find!colleagues.!!Academics!are!discovering!that!there!is!

much!more!to!communicate!concerning!arts!and!science!than!the!restrictive!gatekeeper!

requirements!of!journals!and!the!efforts!of!book!publishers!(both!helpful!and!necessary).!Academics!

are!placing!useful!educational!materials!and!reports!that!by-pass!these!publishing!houses.!!

Academics!are!now!free!to!offer!their!insights!and!advice!in!a!less!restrictive!manner.!!On!the!other!

hand,!in!this!less!restrictive!environment,!academics!have!the!responsibility!to!remain!as!

professional!as!possible,!civil!in!manners,!truthful,!and!not!give-in!to!pseudo-science,!making!false!

claims.!

Finally,!I!wish!to!thank!my!co-authors!Xiaoying!Li!(one!of!the!first!academics!I!was!to!meet!

during!my!first!visit!to!China!in!2005!and!who!I!consider!my!Chinese!sister)!and!Shuyue!He!(who!

became!a!visiting!professor!at!MSU!this!past!year).!!They!have!helped!to!shape!and!craft!the!

manuscript,!adding!and!removing!quotations!and!improving!the!clarity!and!ease!of!the!document.!!

Many!of!the!quotations!in!the!book!are!from!the!stories!that!I!told!Xiaoying!Li!and!Shuyue!He!as!we!

sat!in!an!office!at!Michigan!State!University!discussing!research.!!Both!scholars!were!interested!in!

much!more!than!just!conveying!techniques,!but,!wondered!about!my!personal!journey!to!be!able!to!

conduct!research.!

Dr.!Jon!Bryan!Burley,!FASLA,!!

Michigan!State!University!!

Part(II(

As!an!associate!professor!at!the!College!of!Landscape!Architecture,!Nanjing!Forestry!University,!

China.!Dr.!Jon!Bryan!Burley!invited!me!as!a!visiting!scholar!to!come!to!Michigan!State!University!in!

March!2018.!!I!have!greatly!enjoyed!working!with!him.!!I!met!Dr.!Burley!at!a!landscape!architectural!

academic!conference!at!Tongji!University!in!Shanghai!in!2005.!!It!was!clear!he!liked!meeting!new!

people,!especially!young!academics!in!the!early!stages!of!their!career.!!After!this!meeting,!we!kept!in!

professional!communications,!eventually!publishing!a!paper!together!at!an!International!Federation!

of!Landscape!Architects!meeting!in!Suzhou.!Jiangsu,!P.R.!of!China.!!I!believe!that!my!colleague,!Dr.!

Burley,!is!a!somewhat!different!type!of!professor!who!has!a!wide!range!of!interests!and!unique!

insights,!integrating!a!broad!set!of!topics!and!knowledge-bases.!!We!have!discussed!many!topics!

together.!!When!I!ask!him!about!one!of!his!interests,!garden!plants,!he!said!that!he!especially!admired!

both!the!floriferous!temperate!magnolias!and!hardy!azaleas,!plus!little!green!nothings!(plants!that!

often!go!unnoticed!by!others).!!Traveling!in!China,!he!often!knew!and!appreciated!plants!that!many!of!

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.17885.15849/1

us!in!China!often!did!not!know,!nor!use!and!went!underappreciated,!as!he!is!widely!read,!constantly!

consuming!information!related!to!his!many!interests.!!His!own!personal!garden!is!an!amazing!

collection!of!unusual!plants,!such!as!the!inclusion!of!Magnolia)zenii,!Cheng.!!His!enthusiasm!was!

great.!!Not!only!did!he!collect!and!propagate!this!plant!in!his!own!garden,!but!also!insisted!upon!a!

field!trip!to!Baohua!Mountain!near!Nanjing!to!visit!the!natural!habitat!of!this!rare!magnolia!endemic!

to!one!small!mountain!in!China,!bringing!some!of!us!with!him!on!his!excursions.!!He!could!recognize!

and!name!plants!that!he!had!not!ever!seen!life,!except!for!reading!about!them!in!books.!!His!

knowledge!and!enthusiasm!amazed!us.!!He!seemed!to!know!China!in!places!and!settings!many!of!us!

did!not!expect,!nor!even!know.!!He!studies!these!plants!and!writes!articles!about!them.!!He!has!a!

great!passion!for!the!environment!and!the!life-forms!existing!on!the!planet.!

When!we!work!and!collaborate!with!him!to!do!some!research,!he!always!stresses!the!

importance!of!scientific!methods!in!research!and!building!new!knowledge.!!For!other!aspiring!

academics,!he!likes!to!tell!his!stories!in!his!own!way!of!speaking!(somewhat!slow!and!deliberate!but!

engaging,!compelling,!and!interesting),!interpreting!events!and!activities.!!A!discussion!with!Dr.!

Burley!is!rarely!a!short!conversation.!!He!will!explain!how!he!studied!statistics!during!his!master's!

degree!and!how!to!solve!scientific!problems!in!the!research!for!a!topic/subject.!!Dr.!Burley!always!

encourages!you!when!you!communicate!with!him.!!Also,!he!provides!insight!to!help!you!understand!

the!significance!of!the!comprehensive!discipline!of!landscape!architecture.!!He!relates!his!

understanding!of!the!importance!of!scientific!research!methods!through!his!stories.!!He!is!interested!

in!more!than!just!the!practical!mechanics!of!how!to!conduct!or!accomplish!a!procedure.!!Thus,!his!

stories,!descriptions,!and!communications!are!not!short,!taking!time!to!digest!and!comprehend.!!I!

hope!that!you!will!appreciate!his!unique!style!as!much!as!I!have!enjoyed!my!time!working!with!him.!

In!closing,!I!wish!to!thank!Dr.!Hao!Wang!who!was!my!PhD!and!master’s!tutor.!!He!is!a!

professor!with!leadership!and!decision-making!skills.!!I!am!grateful!to!Nanjing!Forestry!University!

who!support!teachers!to!explore!the!world!and!work!with!others.!!I!am!also!thankful!to!my!family!

who!are!the!source!of!my!efforts.!

Dr.!Xiaoying!LI!

Nanjing!Forestry!University!

Part(III(

I!am!Dr.!He!Shuyue,!an!associate!professor!at!the!College!of!Landscape!Architecture,!Nanjing!Forestry!

University,!China!and!a!colleague!of!Xiaoying!Li.!!I!did!not!know!Dr.!Burley!as!well!as!Xiaoying!Li!did.!!

But!she!encouraged!me!to!become!a!visiting!professor!for!a!year!at!Michigan!Sate!University!to!work!

with!Dr.!Burley.!!Like!Xiaoying!Li,!Dr.!Jon!Bryan!Burley!invited!me!to!Michigan!State!University,!as!a!

visiting!scholar!in!March!2018.!!During!the!time!at!MSU,!I!participated!in!several!research!projects!

with!Dr.!Burley.!!He!is!an!admirable!scholar!(in!the!tradition!of!historical!Chinese!literati—writing,!

drawing,!playing!music,!collecting,!and!studying)!with!a!deep!knowledge!of!soil!analysis,!hydrology,!

plants,!animals,!natural!history,!human!history,!landscape!engineering,!construction,!and!the!social!

sciences.!!His!profound!knowledge!in!interdisciplinary!fields!facilitating!and!demonstrating!his!

extraordinary!insight!and!judgment!concerning!both!humanities!and!scientific!research!in!landscape!

architecture!has!benefited!me!a!lot!by!cooperating!with!him.!!I!first!met!him!when!he!insisted!upon!

visiting!a!maple!mountain!near!Nanjing,!a!mountain!well!known!for!its!fall!color!display,!visited!by!

many!locals,!but!almost!completely!unknown!to!foreigners.!!I!was!surprised!that!he!knew!about!this!

mountain!and!passionately!wanted!to!visit!it.!!Upon!our!arrival,!builders!were!constructing!a!new!

structure!near!the!entrance!of!the!mountain.!!I!am!greatly!interested!in!these!construction!techniques!

and!before!beginning!the!tour,!I!was!drawn!to!the!construction!site!off!the!walkways,!behind!fences!

and!walls!--typically!not!something!visitors!will!seek!nor!wander!around!within.!!When!I!entered!the!

construction!site,!there!already!was!Dr.!Burley,!taking!pictures!and!talking!to!the!construction!

workers.!!Obviously,!Dr.!Burley!was!very!curious!and!very!comfortable!on!a!construction!site.!!I!

instantly!knew!that!Dr.!Burley!was!a!different!type!of!visitor!and!that!we!had!similar!curiosities,!

ideas,!and!interests.!!During!our!tour!of!the!mountain,!he!looked!at!everything,!slowly!examining!

plants,!and!making!sketches!of!landscape!environments.!!He!was!not!a!typical!tourist.!!He!knew!the!

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.17885.15849/1

plants!of!the!mountain!better!than!we!did,!especially!the!vast!and!varied!maples!native!to!China,!

plants!that!he!had!never!even!seen,!expect!in!books!and!with!pictures.!!His!sketches!of!landscapes!

were!memorable,!and!through!his!time!sketching,!he!would!meet!other!artists!visiting!the!mountain,!

who!would!be!interested!in!what!this!American!was!drawing.!!In!the!middle!of!a!sketch,!he!could!stop!

what!he!was!doing,!and!spend!time!sharing!images!of!past!drawings!and!paintings!he!had!created.!!

He!made!new!friends!easily.!!He!would!also!engage!and!humor!Chinese!school!children!visiting!the!

mountain!during!their!fieldtrip.!!On!a!long!walk!up!the!mountain,!upon!arriving!at!a!scenic!deck!

“look-out,”!there!was!Dr.!Burley!obediently!using!a!broom,!sweeping!the!deck!of!debris,!humoring!

everyone.!!It!was!interesting!to!see!how!comfortable!he!was!in!a!foreign!land.!!He!did!not!have!to!see!

everything,!but!what!he!saw!in!the!short!time!he!had,!he!visited!well!and!always!had!a!great!sense!of!

happiness!and!temperament.!

Based!on!Dr.!Burley's!decades-long!study!around!the!world,!he!has!established!a!unique!

perspective!and!research!method!for!current!studies,!situations,!and!the!evolution!of!the!global!

landscape.!!As!a!landscape!architectural!professional!teacher!from!China,!I!was!amazed!at!the!depth!

and!breadth!of!Dr.!Burley's!understanding!of!Chinese!traditional!culture!and!Chinese!traditional!

gardens,!as!well!as!his!subsequent!research!on!a!large!number!of!Chinese!gardens!and!landscapes.!!

He!was!able!to!see!the!research!opportunities!in!settings!and!places,!common!to!many,!but!never!

studied.!!He!applied!the!data!collected!from!these!research!results!to!publish,!articles!and!fold!his!

experiences!into!daily!teaching!at!Michigan!State!University.!!It!has!played!an!important!role!in!

helping!the!Western!world!understand!and!recognize!the!inheritance!and!development!of!traditional!

Chinese!gardens!and!modern!landscapes!with!renewed!vigor!and!enthusiasm.!!It!is!my!hope!that!

readers!of!this!LAF!document!concerning!landscape!metrics!analysis,!that!the!readers!gather!a!sense!

of!this!enthusiasm!and!pursue!their!passions!for!the!environment.!!It!is!clear!to!me!that!Dr.!Burley’s!

passion!for!people,!culture,!art,!landscapes,!and!environmental!research!is!much!more!than!a!job,!it!is!

his!very!essence.!!Being!a!landscape!architectural!academic!is!not!his!job,!but!rather,!from!the!

beginning,!even!before!college,!that!is!what!he!was!and!is!during!his!lifetime.!

In!the!development!of!this!manuscript/document,!we!(Xiaoying!Li!and!myself)!found!the!

antecedent!accounts!revealed!by!Dr.!Burley!helpful!in!understanding!the!topic.!!It!is!one!thing!to!

understand!the!procedure!or!methodology;!it!is!another!to!understand!the!context!of!the!procedure!

or!methodology!to!one’s!own!career!and!journey.!!His!comments!gave!us!both!much!to!consider!for!

our!own!personal!academic!and!professional!activities.!!We!both!thought!this!was!so!essential,!we!

encouraged!him!to!include!his!personal!observations!and!journey!by!the!two!of!us!posing!questions,!

and!for!him!to!respond,!much!in!the!way!the!American!Society!of!Landscape!Architects!(ASLA)!had!

interviewed!him!and!published!the!interview!on!their!web!pages.!!For!us!this!style!is!quite!normal!as!

it!is!the!style!of!the!Confucius)Analects!and!the!Mencius!a!collection!of!philosophical!anecdotes!and!

conversations!as!written!by!Mengzi!(Mencius)!in!the!fourth!century!BC.,!where!questions!are!asked!

of!a!learned!person!(sage)!and!the!sage!gives!a!response.!!Dr.!Burley!will!strongly!protest!that!he!is!

not!a!sage,!only!an!insignificant!student!of!the!environment,!writing!papers!that!no!one!reads,!

painting!and!sketching!images!that!no!one!sees,!and!playing!guitar!that!no!one!hears.!!But!for!those!of!

us!who!know!him,!he!is!our!advisor!and!colleague!whom!we!marvel!at!his!diverse!talents.!!He!is!the!

closest!to!a!Renaissance!man!that!we!have!ever!met;!although!Dr.!Burley!will!say!we!should!meet!

more!people.!Most!of!us!of!Chinese!origin!have!adopted!Western!names.!!Xiaoying!Li!and!her!

colleague!Rong!Chen!gave!Dr.!Burley!the!adopted!Chinese!name!in!2005!of!Meng!Gu!Li—Meng!for!

Mencius!because!he!was!like!a!mentor!and!teacher,!and!for!Gu!Li,!Mongolian!oak!(Quercus)mongolica!

Fisch.!and!Ledeb.)!because!he!claimed!he!was!partially!of!Mongolian!or!northeastern!Asian!ancestry!

(less!than!5%)!by!way!of!his!northeastern!European!relatives.!!The!Mongolian!oak!is!hardy!to!zone!3,!

much!like!the!places!were!Jon!lived!as!a!boy—Upper!Peninsula!of!Michigan,!northern!Minnesota,!and!

central!Alberta,!Canada.!!He!signs!his!paintings!“Bur!Oak”!a!nickname!given!to!him!by!his!classmates!

at!the!University!of!Minnesota.!!This!hardy!character!to!with!his!propensity!to!advise!and!teach!

seemed!fitting!as!a!name!for!him.!!It!is!also!my!hope!that!readers!appreciate!the!text!and!journey!that!

Dr.!Burley!has!undertaken!to!be!able!to!communicate!his!ideas!about!statistically!comparing!

landscape!metrics.!

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.17885.15849/1

I!would!like!to!thank!College!of!Landscape!Architecture!in!Nanjing!Forestry!University!for!

their!support!and!funding!for!my!study!during!this!year!in!USA,!which!gives!me!the!opportunity!to!

work,!study!and!research!with!Dr.!Burley.!

Dr.!Shuyue!He!

Nanjing!Forestry!University!

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.17885.15849/1

Metrics(Evaluating(Multivariate(Design(Alternatives:(

Application(of(the(Friedman’s(Two-way(Analysis(of(

Variance(by(Ranks:(

A(Personal(Reflection(

(

Dr.!Jon!Bryan!Burley,!FASLA,!Michigan!State!University!

Dr.!Xiaoying!Li,!Nanjing!Forestry!University!

Dr.!Shuyue!He,!Nanjing!Forestry!University!

Figure(2.!!Nanjing!Forestry!University!(NFU)!was!established!in!1902!as!Central!University!but!later!

named!Nanjing!Forestry!University!in!1952,!is!famous!for!the!study!of!woody!plants!such!as!the!

naming!and!classification!of!Dawn!Redwood!(Metasequoia)glyptostroboides!Hu!and!W.C.!Cheng!1948).!!

The!landscape!architecture!program!and!now!college!(in!1999)!was!started!in!1956!and!is!one!of!

oldest!in!China,!back!then!focusing!upon!residential!green!space!design/city!afforestation.!!Today!the!

school!teaches!the!breadth!of!the!profession.!!Nanjing!means!“south!capital”!as!it!was!the!nation’s!

capital!at!the!beginning!of!the!Ming!Dynasty.!NFU!is!adjacent!to!the!Golden!Purple!Mountain,!home!of!

the!Xiaoling!Tomb!(the!first!Ming!Emperor’s!tomb,!plus!other!tombs!and!mausoleums)!and!next!to!

Xuan!Wu!Hu!(a!famed!lake!and!stroll!park!north!of!the!Nanjing!City!Wall)!(Copyright!©!2007,!Jon!

Bryan!Burley,!all!rights!reserved,!used!by!permission).!

Introduction(

In!academia,!scientific!methods!and!analytical!techniques!often!dominate!much!of!

the!current!daily!activity,!conferences,!and!literature.!!Knowledge!is!rapidly!

expanding.!!But!500!years!ago!across!much!of!Europe!and!much!earlier!in!Greece,,!

this!was!not!necessarily!the!case.!!In!a!simplified!explanation/description,!academia!

in!Europe!was!often!comprised!of!the!Trivium!(the!place!were!three!roads!meet—

grammar,!dialectic!(reasoned!debate),!and!rhetoric!to!form!undergraduate!

education)!and!the!Quadrivium!(four!ways—arithmetic,!geometry,!music!

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(harmonics),!and!astronomy,!leading!to!graduate!education).!!For!much!of!the!

history!in!the!profession!of!landscape!architecture!and!for!many!other!professions!

(starting!in!the!mid-1800s),!science!still!had!little!to!offer;!after!all,!landscape!

architecture!and!other!professions!are!fundamentally!arts!(making!professional!

decisions!in!an!uncertain!world—including!engineering,!law,!medicine,!

communications,!performing!arts,!fine!arts,!and!the!construction!industry),!meaning!

that!it!is!an!endeavor!where!the!practitioner!must!decide!what!to!do!in!a!thoughtful!

but!relatively!timely!manner!(Burley!and!Machemer!2016).!!In!contrast,!science!is!

the!act!of!describing!and!seeking!the!truth!(the!truth!as!close!as!humans!can!

determine/discern)!about!phenomena!and!conditions!in!the!environment,!studying!

the!universe!with!no!implied!time!limit!necessary,!as!new!knowledge!is!discovered!

and!described,!discovery!by!discovery!(Burley!and!Machemer!2016).!!Back!in!the!

1800s,!most!of!science!could!be!conveyed!in!a!few!courses!in!natural!history!

(geology,!climatology,!astronomy,!physics,!and!biology—back!then!relatively!little!

was!known!compared!to!now)!and!much!of!a!university!education!would!focus!upon!

philosophy!(normative/theological!beliefs),!languages,!literature,!music,!and!the!

general!arts/humanities.!!Schools!like!Michigan!State!University!(then!the!

Agricultural!College!of!the!State!of!Michigan),!the!first!American!land-grant!school,!

engaged!upon!a!journey!of!building!practical!scientific!knowledge!for!useful!

applications,!such!as!in!agriculture.!!This!scientific!approach!had!a!rough!beginning!

as!some!Michigan!residents!considered!a!science-based!approach!unnecessary.!But!

since!that!rough!initial!beginning,!at!Michigan!State!University!and!through!the!

contributions!of!universities!around!the!world,!the!volume!of!knowledge!in!science!

has!vastly!increased,!with!many!new!disciplines!and!an!explosion!of!scientific!

journals!in!chemistry,!social!sciences,!physics,!engineering,!biology,!and!technology.!!

Many!great!universities!around!the!world!are!heavily!engaged!in!this!quest!to!

discover!new!knowledge.!This!knowledge!about!the!universe!is!now!influencing!and!

contributing!to!the!planning!and!design!professions.!!The!practice!of!landscape!

architecture!has!evolved!and!changed,!gleaning!information!from!science!across!

many!disciplines!and!from!landscape!architectural!investigators.!!The!recent!

publication!by!ASLA!addressing!landscape!metrics!strongly!illustrates!the!changes!

that!are!occurring!in!the!profession!(McCoy,!Braco,!and!Mandel!2018).!!Projects!and!

proposals!are!being!qualitatively!examined!and!compared.!

Evolution(of(Design(Evaluation:(an(Overview(

While!in!the!past,!planners!and!designers!had!to!primarily!rely!upon!their!heuristic!

abilities,!wits,!sensibilities,!and!experiences!to!assess!design!alternatives,!selected!

individuals!have!searched!for!methods!to!develop!tools!to!assist!in!this!evaluation.!!

The!book!First)Principles)of)Landscape)Architecture!(Halligan!1946)!illustrates!how!

the!designer!had!to!formerly!rely!heavily!upon!their!intuitive!skills!and!normative!

principles!to!evaluate!design!proposals.!!And!while!it!remains!true!that!the!planner!

and!designer!must!still!rely!upon!this!skill,!since!World!War!II,!evaluation!tools!and!

procedures!have!been!more!widely!explored.!!Highlights!include!the!publication!of!

(Jones!1981)!who!compiled!numerous!examples!of!methodological!procedures!and!

approaches!to!be!considered!by!designers.!!Jones!(1981:!377-382)!does!discuss!the!

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general!method!to!rank!and!weight!alternatives,!however,!the!author!implies!that!

the!evaluation!would!be!based!upon!the!total!score,!an!index!for!evaluation.!!In!

addition,!Jones!(1981:!380)!cautiously!states!“This!absurdity!comes!of!the!false!

assumption!that!arithmetical!operations!can!be!applied!to!all!kinds!of!numerical!

data!whereas!in!fact!they!are!limited!to!data!that!are!known!to!be!measured!on!an!

interval!scale!or!on!a!interval!scale!…!!Ranks!and!weights!obtained!in!ignorance!of!

scaling!operations!can!be!as!misleading!as!measurements!taken!with!an!elastic!tape!

measure!or!as!naïve!as!the!attempt!to!calculate!the!total!size!of!an!object!by!adding!

its!weight!to!its!volume.”!!However,!metrics!in!measuring!the!properties!of!design!

projects!may!have!greatly!advanced!in!the!nearly!50!years!since!the!publication!of!

the!Jones’!revised!publication.!!And!Jones!chose!not!to!illustrate!how!rankings!of!

projects!across!various!metrics!can!be!statistically!compared!to!estimate!the!

likelihood!of!probable!differences,!although!within!academia!the!knowledge!base!of!

this!statistical!comparison!method!was!being!taught!at!universities!around!the!

world.!!“The!problem!of!analyzing!the!merits!of!various!alternatives!with!a!list!of!

criteria!became!apparent!to!me!as!an!undergraduate!at!the!age!of!21!in!1976!when!

comparing!design!ideas!for!a!housing!site!while!attending!the!University!of!

Minnesota.!!Each!alternative!had!beneficial!aspects.!!Creating!a!matrix!and!a!

numerical!index!to!assess!the!various!designs!assisted!me!in!thinking!about!the!

merits!of!the!proposals!and!was!a!good!educational!experience.!!Nevertheless,!I!felt!

the!process!left!me!desiring!more!insight!concerning!evaluation!tables!for!

comparing!the!merits!of!proposed!projects!for!a!site.!!This!curiosity!reinforced!my!

belief!that!graduate!school!education!may!provide!some!additional!answers!and!

opportunities!from!other!disciplines!to!explore!approaches!to!assess!alternatives.”!

explained!Dr.!Burley.!

Figure(3.!!Agro-campus!Ouest!is!part!of!the!Rennes!University!system!in!France.!!It!contains!the!

oldest!landscape!architecture!program!in!Europe,!started!in!1878!at!Versailles!as!the!École!National!

Superiéur!d’Horticulture!and!then!moved!to!Angers,!France,!not!to!be!confused!with!the!current!

landscape!program!at!Versailles.!!The!program!was!as!part!of!the!Institut!National!d’Horticulture!et!

de!Paysage!before!merging!with!Rennes!University.!!Currently!the!degree!is!a!master’s!of!landscape!

sciences!engineer.!!The!students!are!top!quality!with!much!of!their!education!being!geography!and!

technology!based,!reflecting!changes!in!the!demands!for!science-based!education—but!they!can!

design!exceptionally!well!and!be!as!creative!as!anyone!(Copyright!©!2011,!Jon!Bryan!Burley,!all!

rights!reserved,!used!by!permission).!

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Landscape!practitioners!and!academics!have!at!times!explored!and!borrowed!

techniques,!methods,!and!the!discoveries!developed!by!both!themselves!and!others!

to!assess!ideas!proposals!and!projects!in!the!built!environment!and!to!manage!the!

natural!environment.!!Historically,!the!late!Ian!McHarg!is!well-known!for!his!

application!and!promotion!of!spatial!land-planning!approaches!that!had!evolved!

from!groups!such!as!German!and!American!investigators!(Steinitz,!Parker,!and!

Jordan!1976)!but!he!also!borrowed!heavily!analysis!tools!from!the!natural!sciences!

in!ecology!to!understand!and!communicate!spatial!conditions!and!choices!(McHarg!

1969).!!Steiner!(1991),!and!the!late!John!T.!Lyle!(1985)!illustrate!some!

fundamentals!concerning!how!methods!partially!derived!from!the!natural!sciences!

are!blended!into!planning!and!design!analysis!to!understand!and!evaluate!design!

alternatives.!!The!Canadian!G.!Angus!Hills!(1961),!and!American!scholars!such!as!the!

late!Phil!Lewis!(1925-2017)!from!the!University!of!Wisconsin!who!wrote!Tomorrow)

by)Design:)a)Regional)Design)Process)for)Sustainability!(1996),!Julius!Fabos!who!

wrote!Planning)the)Total)Landscape:)a)Guide)to)Intelligent)Land)Use!(1979)!from!the!

University!of!Massachusetts,!Amherst,!and!Lewis!Hopkins!(1977)!provide!additional!

landscape!planning!examples!where!spatial!analysis!tools!provide!insight!into!the!

management!and!use!of!the!environment.!!Since!the!1970s,!the!literature!on!this!

topic!has!greatly!increased!in!volume.!!“I!suspect!that!the!list!of!approaches!

borrowed!by!planners!and!designers!is!extensive!and!may!be!worthy!of!a!detailed!

chronicle!by!someone!passionate!about!the!history!of!design!methods!that!were!

explored!and!adopted!by!planners!and!designers.!!I!certainly!know!only!a!small!

portion!of!that!history!and!can!cite!only!the!most!common!of!examples!for!

illustration!purposes.”!confides!Dr.!Burley.!

The!use!of!statistical!tools!in!the!evaluation!of!landscape!projects!has!been!

less!widely!employed!in!landscape!architecture.!!We!(Xiaoying!Li!and!Shuyue!He)!

asked!Dr.!Burley!how!he!was!able!to!navigate!and!direct!his!educational!path!

towards!landscape!science.!!“Back!in!the!1970s,!it!seemed!to!me!that!few!people!

interested!in!landscape!architecture!were!normally!attracted!to!scientific!landscape!

architecture!research!methods!and!applications.!!Naturally!and!typically!most!

individuals!studying!landscape!architecture!desired!to!be!practitioners.”!noted!Dr.!

Burley.!!“There!were!many!great!landscape!architects!to!emulate!as!role!models!for!

becoming!a!practitioner,!but!less-so!for!becoming!a!landscape!architectural!

researcher.!!In!the!early!1980s!I!was!lucky!to!meet!both!Dr.!Richard!Smardon!and!

Dr.!Jim!Palmer!at!a!CELA!meeting.!!It!was!clear!they!were!both!a!different!style!of!

landscape!architect,!with!scholarly!skills!similar!to!scholars!from!other!disciplines!at!

universities—they!had!managed!to!blend!planning!and!design!with!science.!!I!do!not!

know!how!they!were!able!to!navigate!their!careers!and!discover!their!special!

pathway,!but!both!people!were!very!giving!in!their!time,!encouraging!me!to!follow!a!

similar!course,!and!became!mentors!for!me!as!I!followed!their!careers!because!they!

were!role!models!for!the!path!that!I!had!chosen!as!a!young!boy.”!recalled!Dr.!Burley.!

Blending!scientific/statistical!tools!and!planning/design!is!not!an!easy!task.!!

It!takes!someone!who!is!willing!to!learn!as!much!as!possible!about!both!areas.!!Often!

planners!and!designers!do!not!have!the!time!to!focus!fully!upon!a!vast!knowledge-

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base!of!statistical!analysis!tools.!!It!became!apparent!and!is!illustrated!in!some!semi-

academic!articles,!where!the!depth!of!statistical!analysis!is!somewhat!limited,!

presenting!only!compiled!averages!and!histograms!as!the!final!results!when!the!

collected!data!had!much!more!to!offer!in!predictions,!probability,!and!relationships.!!

This!information!is!useful;!however!there!exists!a!host!of!statistical!analysis!

techniques!that!can!illicit!and!illuminate!the!differences!and!relationships!of!the!

data.!!Consequently,!the!Friedman!Two-way!Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks!

procedure!is!potentially!one!of!these!tools!that!planners!and!designers!could!employ!

in!their!professional!work.!!“I!believe!LAF,!IFLA,!ASLA,!CELA,!ECLAS,!various!

landscape!related!journals,!and!ResearchGate!are!appropriate!vehicles!to!reach!a!

wider!and!fully!international!audience.”!concludes!Dr.!Burley.!

Figure(4.!!Neither!Cambridge!University!nor!University!of!Oxford!University!have!landscape!

programs!(it!appears!that!Cambridge!has!architecture,!Oxford!has!urban!studies!and!garden!design),!

but!the!University!of!Cambridge!University!Botanical!Garden!has!a!collection!of!planted!trees!that!

were!newly!planted!trees!when!Charles!Darwin!studied!plants!on!the!site.!!There!are!many!fine!

landscape!architecture!programs!in!the!UK!and!Ireland.!!It!was!Darwin’s!professor!who!studied!

variations!in!Pinus)nigra!(J.F.!Arnold)!trees!in!Europe!that!inspired!Darwin!to!consider!the!mutability!

of!life-forms!(Copyright!©!2014,!Jon!Bryan!Burley,!all!rights!reserved,!used!by!permission).!

Treatments,(Factors,(Variables,(Observation(Set,(Blocks(

There!are!a!few!terms!and!concepts!that!are!useful!in!constructing!an!experimental!

design!to!assess!differences!in!project!alternatives.!!The!definitions!of!these!terms!

vary!across!disciplines!and!context.!!Before!describing!the!Friedman!Two-way!

Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks!technique,!these!terms!and!ideas!require!clarification.!

Research.!!There!are!many!interpretations!of!what!constitutes!research.!!

Chenoweth!(1981)!presents!an!excellent!essay!concerning!the!definition!of!

landscape!architectural!research.!!In!academia,!research!is!the!systematic!quest!to!

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discover!previously!unknown!by!anyone!relationships/information/conditions.!!

Thus!research!is!not!reading!encyclopedias!or!a!few!books!to!make!a!school!

report—this!is!already!material!known!and!published!by!someone.!!Nor!is!research!

learning!something!previously!unknown!to!the!student,!but!known!by!others.!!The!

knowledge!presented!in!books!and!journals!is!already!known,!so!reading!them!is!

not!research.!!But!in!many!respects!generating!new!knowledge!is!quite!simple.!!

Experiments!to!study!a!new!design!alternative!and!its!relationship!to!other!

alternatives!is!indeed!new!knowledge.!!Landscape!architects!have!the!opportunity!

to!generate!new!knowledge!and!conduct!research!frequently!through!the!metric!

analysis!of!their!design!projects.!!Landscape!architects!(both!practitioners!and!

academic)!seem!best!positioned!to!conduct!such!investigations!and!are!generating!a!

unique!knowledge-based!contribution!to!the!greater!scientific!community.!

Experimental(unit.!!The!experimental!unit!is!one!object/thing!under!study.!!In!

agricultural!and!animal!science!studies,!one!experimental!unit!could!be!a!cow,!or!a!

group!of!cows,!or!a!small!plot!of!land.!!For!the!case!of!the!Friedman’s!Two-way!

Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks!in!landscape!architecture!studies,!an!experimental!

unit!would!be!something!such!as!a!site!or!region!containing!a!specific!

planning/design!alternative.!!Usually!a!group!of!experimental!units!form!the!

experiment!to!assess!statistical!differences!across!the!experimental!units,!with!the!

potential!to!discover!something!new.!!But!in!landscape!architecture,!usually!the!

experimental!unit!is!the!same!area!of!land!and!water!with!a!specific!planning/design!

alternative.!!The!combination!of!site!and!alternative!form!an!experimental!unit.!

Dependent(variable.!!The!dependent!variable!implies!that!there!is!a!somewhat!

cause!and!effect!relationship!between!conditions!and!events.!!In!other!words,!some!

phenomenon!may!influence!the!outcome!of!some!other!phenomenon.!!For!example,!

the!rate!of!fertilizer!applied!to!a!plant!may!influence!the!size!or!biological!mass!of!

the!vegetation.!!In!the!case!of!the!Friedman’s!Two-way!Analysis!of!Variance!by!

Ranks!in!landscape!architecture,!the!dependent!variable!would!be!the!summed!

score!for!design!project.!

Independent(variable.!!The!term!independent!variable!suggests!that!there!are!

some!conditions!or!characteristics!that!may!be!different!from!setting!to!setting!and!

that!this!condition!or!characteristic!is!free!to!vary!from!setting!to!setting,!not!

influencing!each!other.!!In!the!case!of!landscape!architecture!projects,!the!designer!

might!thoughtfully!change!the!conditions!or!characteristics!for!each!project!

alternative,!but!the!concept!of!independence!means!that!the!results!from!one!design!

alternative!does!not!influence!the!results!of!another!design!alternative.!!Typically,!

each!alternative!is!independent.!!When!studying!a!series!of!design!metrics!to!assess!

project!alternatives,!the!metrics!are!the!independent!variables.!

Treatment.!!There!are!many!interpretations!of!the!term!treatment.!!But!a!good!way!

to!think!about!a!treatment!is!to!consider!that!a!treatment!is!one!design!alternative.!!

A!treatment!may!be!a!combination!of!factors!to!derive!a!unique!solution!or!

approach.!!In!the!Friedman!Two-way!Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks!test,!the!letter!

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“k”!represents!the!number!of!treatments!in!a!study.!!In!a!typical!landscape!

architecture!investigation,!each!treatment!will!have!an!implied!dependent!variable!

(design!quality)!and!a!series!of!independent!variables!(design!metrics).!

Factor.!!A!factor!is!a!single!dimension,!cause,!or!influence!upon!a!group!of!

treatments.!!In!agricultural!research,!where!analysis!of!variance!research!has!a!long!

history,!a!factor!would!be!something!such!as!the!level!of!nitrogen!applied!to!a!crop!

in!an!experiment.!!A!three-factor!agronomy!experiment!would!be!a!study!where!

three!factors!such!as!applying!various!levels!nitrogen,!phosphorus,!and!potassium!

are!applied!to!crops!to!evaluate!the!performance!of!the!crop!to!the!nutrients.!!!

In!planning!and!design!projects,!there!may!be!one!or!many!factors!examined!

to!form!the!treatments.!!For!example,!Lin!(et)al.!2017)!examined!just!one!factor!

(clarity!of!identity)!to!examine!her!treatments.!!In!another!example,!a!team!lead!by!

Burley!(et)al.!2017)!examined!visual!quality,!soil!productivity,!wildlife!habitat,!and!

water!use!as!factors!in!their!study.!!For!planning!and!design!studies!employing!an!

analysis!of!metrics,!usually!there!are!numerous!factors!(a!list)!employed!in!the!

assessment.!!Projects!typically!have!extensive!program!requirements.!!These!

program!requirements!can!often!be!operationalized!into!metrics,!becoming!factors!

(visual!quality,!energy!used,/saved,!water!retained,!soil!productivity,!…)!!to!assess!in!

an!experimental!design.!

Observation(Set.(!A!single!observation!set!is!the!recorded!list!of!independent!

variables!for!a!specific!treatment.!!While!the!complete!observation!set!is!the!total!

group!of!recorded!independent!variables!across!all!treatments.!

Block.!!A!block!is!represented!by!the!letter!“b.”!!One!block!is!the!set!for!one!specific!

variable!across!all!treatments.!For!example!the!set!of!scores!from!surface!run-off!for!

all!treatments!forms!one!block.!The!total!number!of!blocks!for!a!study!is!the!list!of!

different!types!of!variables!employed!in!the!study.!!For!example,!Lin!(et)al.!2017)!

examined!the!views!outside!twelve!windows!of!a!train!for!five!different!design!

treatments.!!The!twelve!views!become!twelve!blocks.!!In!another!Burley!(et)al.!2016)!

led!an!investigatory!team!which!examined!thirteen!different!types!of!metric!

variables!in!a!study!of!three!treatments!(existing!site,!traditional!design,!and!a!low!

impact!development!design.!

Degrees(of(Freedom.!!In!practical!terms,!the!degrees!of!freedom!can!be!expressed!

as!“k-1,”!the!number!of!treatments!in!total!minus!one.!!In!statistical!terms,!the!

degrees!of!freedom!for!the!Friedman’s!Two-way!Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks!are!

the!number!of!treatments!that!are!expected!to!vary.!!The!more!treatments!

examined,!the!greater!the!degrees!of!freedom!and!the!greater!the!expected!variance!

across!treatments.!!This!means!that!the!greater!expected!variance,!the!more!

difficult/higher!is!the!bar!for!the!test!to!achieve!significant!results.!

P-value.!!The!p-value!is!the!probability!that!the!alternative!hypothesis!is!incorrect.!!

For!example!a!p-value!of!0.05!is!a!one!in!twenty!chance!that!the!alternative!

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hypothesis!is!wrong.!!A!p-value!of!0.05!is!considered!significant.!!A!p-value!of!0.01!is!

considered!highly!significant.!!A!p-value!of!0.001!is!often!determined!as!definitive.!!

The!p-value!reflects!the!probability!that!something!might!me!be!true,!there!is!always!

a!chance!that!the!opposite!might!be!true!(the!null!hypothesis).!

Null(hypothesis.!!The!null!hypothesis!is!the!hypothesis!where!there!is!no!significant!

difference!or!significant!similarity!between!the!treatments.!!In!the!Friedman!Two-

way!Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks!test,!the!test!is!looking!for!differences.!!The!null!

hypothesis!cannot!be!rejected!unless!there!is!strong!probability!that!it!can!be!

rejected.!

Alternative(hypothesis.!!In!the!Friedman!Analysis!of!Variance!test,!the!alternative!

hypothesis!is!the!hypothesis!that!there!is!a!difference!between!at!least!two!

treatments.!!Accepting!the!alternative!hypothesis!is!only!accomplished!when!there!

is!a!strong!probability!that!the!null!hypothesis!can!be!rejected.!

Experimental(design.!!The!experimental!design!is!the!approach!taken!to!establish!

an!investigation.!!The!Friedman’s!Two-way!Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks!is!

affiliated!with!the!randomized!complete!block!design!and!is!associated!with!

concepts!from!general!linear!models.!!In!other!words,!the!experimental!design!is!a!

grid!of!scores/values!where!there!are!no!missing!values!and!every!independent!

variable!is!applied!to!each!treatment,!all!blocks!are!complete.!!The!columns!

represent!treatments!(k)!and!the!rows!represent!blocks!(b)!(see!Table!1).!

Figure(5.!!Michigan!State!University!W.J.!Beal!Botanical!Garden!is!the!oldest!continuously!operated!

university!botanical!garden!of!its!kind!in!the!United!States,!established!in!1873.!!Inspired!by!Charles!

Darwin,!Beal!improved!corn!yield!by!a!breeding!program!that!led!to!yields!of!53%.!!Like!many!

campuses!around!the!world,!the!whole!campus!is!an!arboretum!and!outdoor!laboratory.!!Besides!

learning!plants!many!campuses!are!beginning!to!teach!students!how!to!quantify!landscape!metrics!

(Copyright!©!2018,!Shuyue!He,!all!rights!reserved,!used!by!permission).!

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Origins(of(Analysis(of(Variance(

Analysis!of!Variance!(ANOVA)!was!an!experimental!design!originating!and!

attributed!to!the!late!R.!A.!Fisher!(1890-1962)!and!illustrated!in!his!article!“The!

Correlation!between!Relatives!on!the!Supposition!of!the!Mendelian!Inheritance”!

(1918).!!He!was!interested!in!attributing!and!eliminating!various!impediments!and!

statistical!artifacts!in!assessing!experiments,!eventually!leading!to!such!experiments!

with!plots!of!agronomic!plants!exposed!to!various!treatments!(Parolini!2014).!!

Although,!the!development!of!ideas!associated!to!ANOVA!can!be!found!in!earlier!

research!affiliated!with!the!study!and!measurements!of!the!tides,!atmospheric!

effects,!and!heavenly!bodies!(Stigler!1986).!!!More!recently,!Hicks!(1982)!wrote!an!

example!of!a!standard!book!concerning!the!explanation!of!the!analysis!of!variance!

experiments.!!An!updated!edition!was!written!by!Hicks!and!Turner!(1999).!!We!

(Xioying!Li!amd!Shuyue!He)!became!interested!in!ANOVAs,!because!it!is!not!part!of!a!

standard!landscape!architect’s!education.!!We!wondered!how!Dr.!Burley!became!

aware!of!such!a!technique?!!“I!took!a!course!in!analysis!of!variance!at!an!agricultural!

university!with!Hicks!as!the!textbook.”!stated!Dr.!Burley.!!“The!course!was!

considered!difficult!by!agronomy!and!horticulture!graduate!students!and!was!

considered!a!gatekeeper!course!at!the!university!where!I!took!the!course.!!I!

wondered!how!a!designer!was!“ending-up”!taking!such!a!plant!science!course?!!

However,!during!my!Mater’s!coursework!at!the!University!of!Manitoba,!I!was!

encouraged!to!take!a!variety!of!statistical!courses.!!The!course!was!fairly!straight-

forward,!much!easier!than!calculus.!!Much!of!the!class!time!was!consumed!with!the!

lengthy!explanations!of!the!mathematical!theory!behind!each!experimental!

variation!in!the!analysis!of!variance.!!In!any!one-class!period,!the!testable!material!

was!actually!quite!brief.!!But!the!class!was!50!minutes!long!and!they!filled!the!class!

with!these!lengthy!explanations.!!The!tests!for!the!course!were!actually!quite!

practical!and!I!survived!the!course.!!I!learned!long!ago!in!junior!high!and!high!school!

that!mathematical!related!classes!were!filled!with!lengthy!explanations!to!consume!

class!time,!but!rarely!were!these!explanations!part!of!any!test.!!I!thought!my!analysis!

of!variance!teacher!was!quite!good.!!I!could!see!her!frustration!with!some!less!

mathematically!inclined!agriculture!students!who!had!a!great!passion!for!plants!but!

less-so!for!math!and!experimental!designs.”!stated!Dr.!Burley.!!The!attraction!of!

ANOVA!to!researchers!at!the!beginning!of!the!20th!Century!was!that!this!form!of!

statistics!could!be!accomplished!with!paper,!pencil,!and!common!algebra.!

Fortunately!for!planners!and!designers,!the!Friedman’s!Two-way!Analysis!of!

Variance!by!Ranks,!is!even!less!complicated,!although!there!are!many!talented!

planners!and!designers!(and!agronomists!and!horticulturists)!good!in!math.!!!

In!explanations!concerning!analysis!of!variance!experiments,!there!is!a!

discussion!of!factorial!experiments,!meaning!two!or!more!factors!being!examined!at!

a!time.!!The!experiment!is!meant!to!explore!the!main!effects!(the!single!effect!of!a!

factor)!and!interactions!(the!combined!effects!of!factors).!!Normally!in!the!

Friedman’s!Two-way!Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks,!factorial!experiments!are!not!

explored,!although!statisticians!have!explored!the!possibility!of!conducting!such!

experiments!with!the!assumptions!employed!similar!to!the!Friedman’s!test.!

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Traditional!analysis!of!variance!experiments!have!many!versions!and!

variations.!!There!are!experimental!designs!called!Latin!Squares,!Graeco-Latin!

Squares,!factorial!experiments,!nested!experiments,!split-plot!designs,!and!many!

other!versions.!!They!are!often!employed!in!carefully!controlled!experiments.!We!

(Xiaoying!Li!and!Shuyue!He)!asked!Dr.!Burley!who!could!he!talk!to!about!statistical!

approaches!and!mentorship!concerning!these!techniques?!!“When!I!was!at!North!

Dakota!State!University,!my!office!was!two!doors!down!from!a!potato!cultivation!

researcher!(between!our!offices!was!the!state!forester).!!A!great!thing!about!being!in!

interdisciplinary!departments,!there!was!always!someone!of!interest!who!had!

different!types!of!experiences!and!abilities.”!noted!Dr.!Burley.!!“This!researcher!(Dr.!

Don!Nelson)!devoted!his!life!to!understanding!the!cultivation!of!potatoes.!!He!would!

show!me!his!statistical!results,!where!he!could!explain!99%!of!productivity!and!

resistance!to!disease!in!his!ANOVA!and!regression!experiments.!!He!was!very!kind!to!

me.!!I!felt!lucky!to!be!surrounded!by!a!diversity!of!scholars!such!as!horticulturists!

and!foresters,!plus!nearby!agronomists!and!entomologists.!!They!exposed!me!to!a!lot!

of!interesting!research!and!methodologies.!!Imagine!a!potato!researcher!influencing!

a!landscape!architect.”!concluded!Dr.!Burley.!!But!in!much!landscape!research,!such!

tightly!controlled!experiments!are!difficult!to!conduct.!!In!landscape!studies,!there!is!

less!emphasis!in!explaining!the!percentage!of!the!variance!and!instead!searching!for!

differences!amongst!broad!general!single!factors!such!as!along!dimensions!from!a!

less!“green”!design!to!more!“green”!designs!or!from!rural!communities!to!more!

urban!communities!or!from!less!walkable!communities!to!more!walkable!

communities.!!The!results!produce!broad!principles/generalizations!(normative!

theories)!useful!for!planners!and!designers!(Lang!1987).!!Often!the!results!are!

dependent!upon!the!creativity!and!imagination!of!the!designer!to!produce!

alternatives!for!projects,!plus!practical!financial,!physical,!and!technological!

constraints,!and!the!preferences!of!clients!and!users.!

Today,!ANOVA’s!usually!rely!upon!computing!technology!to!calculate!the!

results.!!Before,!computing,!ANOVA’s!were!often!a!bit!complex!for!hand!or!calculator!

computations,!but!certainly!possible.!!Friedman’s!Two-way!Analysis!of!Variance!by!

Ranks!is!much!simpler!to!compute,!especially!with!a!spreadsheet,!although!this!is!

true!for!ANOVAs!also.!

The!results!from!an!ANOVA!indicate!the!probability!that!a!difference!in!

treatments!might!be!true.!!Small!p-values!indicate!a!strong!probability.!!If!the!p-

value!indicates!a!strong!difference,!then!there!is!a!“follow-up”!test!where!the!actual!

differences!between!treatments!are!compared—!a!multiple!comparison!test.!!After!

the!test!is!complete,!the!treatment(s)!with!the!best!scores!that!are!significantly!

better!than!other!treatments!are!considered!to!be!the!best.!!For!example!an!ANOVA!

and!multiple!comparison!test!might!indicate!which!combination!of!nitrogen,!

phosphorus,!and!potassium!produces!the!most!vegetation.!!“I!wish!to!suggest!a!word!

of!caution!here.”!notes!Dr.!Burley.!!“The!top!score!or!best!scores!for!a!specific!

treatment!does!not!necessarily!mean!that!treatment!is!the!obvious!choice.!!It!just!

means!that!that!treatment!produces!better!scores!than!another!treatment.!!Science!

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can!determine!the!effect!of!factors!forming!a!treatment!into!a!somewhat!reliable!

prediction.!!However,!science!cannot!decide!what!to!do.!!Applying!the!treatment!

with!the!best!scores!may!be!prohibitively!expensive!or!environmentally!

irresponsible.!!It!still!takes!a!person(s)!to!decide!what!to!do.!!This!is!the!difference!

between!science!and!art.!!Sometimes!both!practitioners!and!scientists!are!unaware!

of!this!difference.!!It!can!generate!disagreements!and!misunderstandings!both!in!

academia!and!in!the!business!world.”!observed!Dr.!Burley!

Figure(6.!!After!a!lecture!and!workshop,!this!image!presents!Dr.!Burley!with!landscape!architecture!

students!and!professionals!at!the!University!of!the!Philippines!Diliman!for!a!group!photograph.!!

Landscape!Architecture!is!taught!around!much!of!the!world.!!These!students!have!great!enthusiasm!

and!talent.!!(Copyright!©!2017,!Jon!Bryan!Burley,!all!rights!reserved,!used!by!permission).!

Non-parametric(

The!traditional!ANOVAs!such!as!the!ones!developed!by!Fisher!were!based!upon!the!

assumptions!in!normality.!!Normality!is!a!specific!type!of!distribution!of!the!data!to!

form!a!bell!curve.!!Each!experiment!and!thus!treatment!may!have!numerous!

replications,!allowing!there!to!be!several!scores!for!a!specific!treatment.!!This!group!

of!scores!has!a!mean!and!variance.!!The!distribution!of!the!scores!form!the!variance!

allowing!the!investigator!to!predict!differences!in!the!scores!between!treatments.!!

Experiments!that!poorly!fit!ANOVAs!are!those!which!have!broad!variances!and!

narrow!expected!means!between!treatments.!!It!is!difficult!to!find!many!meaningful!

differences!under!such!conditions.!!Experiments!with!good!fit!(meaning!strong!

results)!are!those!which!have!narrow!variances!within!a!treatment!and!broad!

expected!means!between!treatments.!!!

Usually!ANOVAs!are!used!when!much!is!known!about!the!distribution!of!the!

data!and!it!can!be!shown!that!the!data!is!somewhat!normal!in!distribution.!!

However,!many!times,!especially!in!studies!where!there!is!little!previous!work,!the!

latent!nature!of!the!variance!is!not!known.!!In!statistics,!scholars!have!developed!

distribution!free!methods!that!parallel!traditional!ANOVAs!and!other!statistical!

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tests.!!These!distribution!free!and!related!methods!such!as!the!test!for!randomness!

are!known!as!non-parametric!statistics.!!In!some!respects,!the!origins!of!non-

parametric!statistics!have!a!history!older!than!parametric!statistics.!!The!median!is!a!

non-parametric!test!(the!value!separating!the!upper!half!of!a!data!set!from!the!lower!

half)!going!as!far!back!as!the!1200s.!!In!addition!the!sign!test,!reported!in!1710!by!

Arbuthnot!to!study!infant!birth!and!mortality!for!the!sexes!is!also!a!non-parametric!

test.!

Non-parametric!statistics!are!useful!because!they!often!have!few!or!

minimum!assumptions!affiliated!with!the!data!and!thus!are!relatively!free!from!

misuse.!!Usually!the!results!are!easy!to!calculate!and!the!methods!and!procedures!

easy!to!understand.!!Many!non-parametric!procedures!also!can!use!less!rigorous!

measures!such!as!rank/ordinal!data.!!However,!non-parametric!approaches!may!

lose!some!power!in!predicting!results!when!compared!to!parametric!approaches.!!

Sometimes,!when!parametric!approaches!are!employed!they!may!make!better!use!of!

the!data!from!making!predictions.!!Non-parametric!tests!may!often!lose!from!one!

percent!to!ten!percent!of!the!power!of!parametric!tests.!!The!Friedman’s!Two-way!

Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks!is!a!non-parametric!statistical!procedure.!

Figure(7.!!Indonesian,!Japanese,!Filipino/Filipina,!and!Malaysian!landscape!architecture!students!

attending!a!surface!mine!reclamation!workshop!at!the!University!of!Bogor,!Indonesia.!!International!

cooperation!and!teamwork!is!now!commonplace!in!landscape!architecture.!!Students!from!each!of!

these!nations/schools!were!very!dedicated!and!had!excellent!abilities!with!both!hand-drawing!and!

computer!communication!tools.!!Dr.!Burley!was!a!speaker!and!juror!at!this!workshop.!!The!students!

combined!technical!knowledge!with!their!creative!and!presentation!skills!(Copyright!©!2018,!ILAWS,!

all!rights!reserved,!used!by!permission).!

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Concept(of(squares(and(the(Chi-square(distribution(

Statistical!investigations!often!rely!upon!the!notion!of!squaring!numbers.!!The!

reason!why!squaring!numbers!is!useful!because!as!numbers!increase,!the!squares!

increase!exponentially!making!it!easier!to!identify!differences!between!numbers!

(data)!with!low!squares!and!numbers!(other!data)!with!large!squares.!!Novices!in!

the!use!of!statistical!procedures!such!as!the!Friedman’s!Two-way!Analysis!of!

Variance!by!Ranks!may!wonder!why!the!data!is!transformed!by!squaring!values?!!

Since!the!Friedman’s!test!is!looking!for!differences,!squaring!helps!to!expose!these!

differences.!

When!conducting!the!Friedman’s!Two-way!Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks!

test,!the!data!is!transformed!into!a!distribution!that!approximates!a!Chi-square!

distribution,!described!by!Helmert!(1876)!and!independently!discovered!by!others.!!

The!curve!changes!with!the!degrees!of!freedom.!!The!larger!the!degrees!of!freedom!

the!more!area!under!the!curve!is!to!be!found!to!the!right!of!the!graph.!!The!

distribution!is!a!lop-sided!shaped!distribution!trailing!off!to!the!right!approaching!

zero!but!essentially!never!reaching!zero.!!For!any!specific!Chi-square!value,!the!area!

under!the!curve!to!the!right!presents!the!p-value!(reminiscent!of!studies!in!integral!

calculus).!!Large!Chi-square!values!indicate!small!p-values!because!there!will!be!less!

area!under!the!curve!to!the!right.!

Figure(8.!!Dr.!Burley!drawing!in!Seoul,!South!Korea!and!lecturing!in!at!Seoul!National!University!

concerning!measuring!visual!quality!and!landscape!perception!implications!for!planners!and!

designers!(Copyright!©!2017,!Jon!Bryan!Burley,!all!rights!reserved,!used!by!permission).!

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Friedman’s(Two-way(Analysis(of(Variance(by(Ranks(

The!procedure!is!fairly!simple!but!lengthy.!The!basic!premise!of!the!procedure!is!

that!there!are!treatments!(columns)!and!blocks!(rows),!forming!a!table.!!The!table!

must!be!complete.!!If!there!is!missing!data,!the!row!with!the!missing!data!cannot!be!

used.!!Normally!there!are!at!least!three!treatments:!the!existing!site,!a!traditional!

design,!and!an!advanced!design!(such!as!a!green!design).!!The!blocks!are!the!

different!program!items!that!can!be!expressed!as!metrics!across!the!designs,!such!as!

energy!use,!predicted!yearly!accidents,!wildlife!habitat!suitability,!water!use,!water!

run-off,!visual!quality,!and!many!other!types!of!metrics.!!Each!measureable!metric!

forms!a!row.!!“From!experience,!I!have!found!that!at!least!ten!to!twelve!metrics!

(blocks)!have!a!greater!opportunity!to!produce!significant!results!(if!any!can!be!

found).”!states!Dr.!Burley.!

The!procedure!has!several!assumptions!and!requirements.!!The!procedure!

loosely!assumes!that!each!block!is!independent,!that!the!variable!of!interest!is!

continuous,!and!there!is!no!interaction!between!blocks!and!treatments.!!The!null!

hypothesis!is!that!the!populations!within!a!block!are!identical!and!the!alternative!

hypothesis!states!that!at!least!one!treatment!is!larger!than!another!treatment!

(Daniel!1978!and!2000).!

This!test!was!developed!by!Milton!Friedman,!who!reported!his!technique!in!

1937!and!1940.!!“I!knew!who!Milton!Friedman!was!from!his!policies!and!being!

interviewed!on!television!in!the!1970s!before!I!learned!about!his!statistical!

methods.”!stated!Dr.!Burley.!!“I!have!his!book!written!with!his!spouse!Rose!

Friedman,!Free)to)Choose:)A)Personal)Statement)(1980))a!book!about!allowing!

people!to!make!their!own!economic!decisions.!!He!was!quite!libertarian!in!nature!

and!very!open!minded!person!who!promoted!gay!rights.!!What!I!really!like!about!

him!is!that!he!is!a!combination!of!conservative!and!liberal!positions.”!stated!Dr.!

Burley.!!“I!find!that!most!people!are!an!interesting!blend!of!beliefs!that!defy!the!

usual!classification;!Milton!Friedman!was!one!such!man.!!I!also!admire!his!writing!

style!where!he!inserted!his!opinions,!observations,!and!anecdotes.!!I!found!that!I!too!

desired!to!insert!opinions,!observations,!and!anecdotes!into!my!writing,!something!

that!is!often!prohibited!in!journal!articles,!but!something!that!is!allowed!in!

documents!such!as!this!report.”!remarked!Dr.!Burley.!

To!prepare!a!Friedman!Two-way!Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks!table!for!

evaluation,!each!block!(row)!must!be!ranked!from!high!to!low!across!each!

treatment.!!!The!best!scores!(meaning!those!that!are!preferred)!should!be!the!

highest!numbers,!and!those!that!are!not!preferred!have!the!lower!ranks.!!Care!must!

be!given!when!ranking!the!blocks.!!For!example,!lower!lawn!mower!energy!use!

might!be!more!preferred!as!a!metric!than!extensive!lawn!mower!energy!use.!!

Therefore!the!lower!number!gets!the!higher/better!rank!and!the!large!number!for!

lawn!mower!use!gets!the!lower!rank/less!preferred!rank.!!The!same!is!true!for!

assessing!run-off.!!Low!numbers!indicate!reduced!levels!of!water!leaving!the!site,!

usually!a!preferred!condition,!thus!low!run-off!values!earn!better!numerical!

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rankings!and!large!run-off!values!earn!less!preferred!numerical!rankings.!!Variables!

that!received!such!opposing!scores!are!sometimes!called!inverse!ranking!variables.!

Once!the!blocks!have!been!ranked,!then!the!columns!of!these!ranks!must!be!

each!summed!and!then!squared.!!If!indeed!there!are!differences!between!the!

treatments!there!will!be!columns!with!the!sums!and!squares!with!lower!numbers!

and!columns!with!the!sums!and!squares!with!much!larger!numbers.!!The!squares!

from!each!column!are!then!summed!and!put!into!the!following!equation!which!

approximates!a!Chi-square!distribution:!

!"#$

()

)+&

./#

/12

)+&

!!!!!!!!!!(Equation!1)!

Where:!

!"#

=!a!Chi-square!Score!

! b!!=!the!number!of!blocks!

! k!!=!the!number!of!treatments!

./#0

/12

=!the!sum!of!squares!derived!from!each!column!of!ranks!

The!Chi-square!score!from!the!equation!is!then!compared!to!a!value!in!a!Chi-square!

table!with!k-1!degrees!of!freedom!(Table!A1).!!In!the!table,!alpha!scores!0.05!and!

smaller!are!the!comparison!scores!of!interest.!!If!the!Chi-square!score!from!the!

equation!is!greater!than!the!value!found!in!the!table,!then!the!score!from!the!

equation!has!a!p-value!smaller!than!the!score!found!in!the!table.!!There!is!enough!

evidence!to!reject!the!null!hypothesis!and!accept!the!alternative!hypothesis!that!at!

least!one!treatment!is!larger!than!another!treatment.!!“It!sounds!a!bit!complicated!

but!actually,!once!students!have!tried!a!couple!of!examples,!the!process!is!quite!easy!

to!accomplish.”!states!Dr.!Burley.!!“Most!of!the!time,!the!part!that!seems!a!bit!magical!

and!not!intuitive!is!accepting!the!equations!with!“bs”!and!“ks”!plus!constants.”!

indicates!Dr.!Burley.!

Sometimes!there!are!ties!in!the!ranks.!!With!a!written!explanation,!this!

procedure!is!a!bit!difficult!to!explain,!but!in!an!example!it!is!often!more!clear!to!

understand.!!The!Chi-square!Scores!must!be!adjusted!for!ties.!!To!adjust!the!Chi-

square!Score!the!following!equation!is!used:!

!"#

&4*

:/;()*)#4&,,

=12

!!!!!!!!!!(Equation!2)!

Where:!

!"#

=!a!Chi-square!Score!

!b!!=!the!number!of!blocks!

! k!!=!the!number!of!treatments!

=12

=!the!sum!ties!

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>=?4

=!the!number!of!observations!tied!for!a!given!rank!in!the!ith!

block!

In!the!table!of!ranks,!the!ties!should!be!the!average!value!between!the!ties.!!For!

example!if!in!a!block!two!numbers!are!the!same!for!second!and!third!place!then!they!

rank!of!2!and!3!average!2.5!and!should!be!the!ranks!put!into!the!tables!for!the!two!

positions!in!the!block.!!Since!there!a!tie!between!two!numbers,!the!sum!of!ties!is!23!–!

2!=!6.!!This!is!accomplished!for!the!whole!series!of!ties!in!each!block.!!If!there!are!

many!ties,!the!sum!of!ties!can!be!extensive.!!“My!advice!is!to!have!metrics!and!

treatments!which!avoid!ties.”!states!Dr.!Burley.!!“A!few!ties!often!cannot!be!avoided.”!

reflected!Dr.!Burley.!

To!illustrate!how!the!test!is!accomplished,!Table!1!presents!three!design!

treatments!with!nine!measured!metrics!from!plans!or!site!projects.!!Notice!there!are!

two!inverse!metrics!in!the!example.!!There!is!also!a!three-way!tie!in!metric!one,!a!

two-way!tie!in!metric!6!between!the!first!and!third!treatment!and!a!two-way!tie!in!

metric!5!between!treatment!one!and!treatment!two.!!Notice!that!design!treatment!

with!the!best!score!is!for!treatment!3.!!Treatment!3!contains!only!a!moderate!

ranking!score!for!metric!one!and!metrics!six!and!seven.!!While!an!individual!might!

be!tempted!to!suggest!that!treatment!three!is!better!than!treatments!one!and!two,!

the!statistical!analysis!calculates!the!expected!probability!of!differences!between!

treatments.!

Table!1.!!A!study!with!three!design!treatments!and!nine!metrics.!

! ! Treatment!1! Rank! Treatment!2!! Rank! Treatment!3!! Rank!

Metric!

1! ! ! 271! 2! ! 271! 2! ! 271! 2!

2! ! ! !!16! 2! ! !!10! 1! ! !!25! 3!

3!(inverse!metric)! !!!!8! 2! ! !!!11! 1! ! !!!!4! 3!

4! ! ! 120! 2! ! !!57! 1! ! 203! 3!

5! ! ! !!84!1.5! ! !!84! 1.5! ! 130! 3!

6! ! ! !!44!2.5! ! !!31! 1! ! !!44!2.5!

7! ! ! !!36! 3! ! !!15! 1! ! !!25! 2!

8!(inverse!metric)! 100! 2! ! 104! 1! ! !!49! 3!

9! ! ! !!18! 2! ! !!!!7! 1! ! !!22! 3!

_________________________________________________________________________________________________!

Sum!!!!!!!!!!!!!!19! ! !!!!!!!!!!!10.5! ! !!!!!!!!!!!24.5!

Square!of!Sums! !!!!!!!!361! ! !!!!!!!!110.25! ! !!!!!!!!600.25!

Ranking!the!scores,!summing!the!ranks,!and!computing!the!squares!of!the!

sums!means!that!the!process!is!ready!for!equations!3.!And!4!!This!process!will!lead!

to!the!calculation!of!the!probabilities!concerning!differences!between!the!

treatments.!

!"#$* 2#

@A?

?B2

6C&+&&DE'F+CDDE'F

,4*6AG

6+&

!(Equation!3)!

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!!!

!"#

=!((12/108)!1071.5)-!108!

!!!

!"#

=!119.06-108!

!!!

!"#

=!11.06!

In!this!instance!there!are!three!ties!and!the!calculated!Chi-square!must!be!

adjusted!for!ties.!

! !

22EHI

2J**

#K8J#

#KJ#

?KJ?

,;**@A?,*@J2,,,

!!!!!!(Equation!4)!

&&EDC

&4**

,;*'&C,

&&EDC

&4*6C;'&C,

&&EDC

&4*6C;'&C,

&&EDC

&4*DE&CM,

&&EDC

DEN66

!!!!!!!!!!!!13.28!

The!score!of!13.28!must!be!compared!to!a!Chi-square!table!with!(3-1)!

degrees!of!freedom.!!In!a!Chi-square!table!with!two!degrees!of!freedom,!the!value!of!

5.991!is!found!with!

!HE@O

!!which!aligns!with!a!p-value!of!0.05,!the!value!9.210!is!

associated!with!a!

!HE@@

!!and!a!p-value!of!0.01,!and!the!number!10.597!with!a!

!HE@@O

and!a!p-value!of!0.005.!!All!of!these!numbers!(5.991,!9.210,!and!10.597)!are!lower!

than!13.28.!!“When!one!compares!the!calculated!score!with!the!scores!in!the!table,!I!

select!the!best!comparison!score!possible.”!advises!Dr.!Burley.!!“In!this!case!the!

calculated!score!adjusted!for!ties!of!13.28!is!larger!than!the!Chi-square!table!score!of!

10.597,!and!so!I!accept!that!the!p-value!is!less!than!0.005.”!concludes!Dr.!Burley.!!

The!null!hypothesis!stating!that!there!is!no!difference!between!the!treatments!is!

rejected!and!the!alternative!hypothesis!that!at!least!one!of!the!treatments!is!larger!

than!one!other!treatment!is!accepted!(p<0.005).!!The!probability!that!this!

acceptance!is!true!is!99.5%!or!a!p-value!of!0.005!or!199!times!out!of!200!chances.!!

There!is!still!a!slight!chance!that!the!null!hypothesis!is!true,!but!it!only!has!a!

probability!of!being!true!in!one!out!of!two!hundred!chances.!!“This!is!why!in!science,!

it!is!difficult!to!prove!that!anything!is!absolutely!true,!because!there!is!often!a!small!

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probability!that!the!opposite!might!be!true,!no!matter!how!small.”!observes!Dr.!

Burley.!

In!the!next!step,!there!is!a!multiple!comparison!test!to!determine!which!

treatment!is!statistically!different!than!another!treatment.!!The!sums!of!the!ranks!

for!each!treatment!are!presented!in!Table!2.!!The!absolute!difference!between!these!

sums!represent!the!distance!from!one!treatment!to!another!treatment.!!The!absolute!

difference!between!treatment!one!and!two!is!|19-10.5|=8.5.!!The!absolute!difference!

between!treatment!1!and!treatment!three!is!|24.5!-19|=5.5.!!The!absolute!difference!

between!treatment!two!and!treatment!three!is!|24.5-10.5|=14.!!!These!differences!

are!compared!to!a!test!multiple!comparison!value!computed!with!equation!x.!!For!an!

alpha!of!0.05/3(3-1)!the!value!is!0.00834.!!To!use!a!z-score!table!the!value!is!0.500-

0.0084!or!!0.4917.!!In!a!z-score!table!value!0.4917!!is!!about!2.4!(Table!2A).!

Table!2.!!The!sums!of!the!ranks!for!each!treatment.!

Treatment! ! Sum!

1! ! ! 19!

2! ! ! 10.5!

3! ! ! 24.5!

_________________________________________________________________________________________________!

test!multiple!comparison!value!=!

P88

<0*0B2,

!!!!!!!!!!(Equation!5)!

!Where:!z!=!!z!score!for!a!specific!alpha!divided!by!k(k-1)!

! ! b!=!the!number!of!blocks!

! ! k=!the!number!of!treatments!

!!!

!!!!!

'EL88

@A?*?B2,

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!(Equation!6)!

'EL88

&DN

'EL88

'EL8ALE'L'C

!!!!!!!!!!10.138!

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Only!the!absolute!difference!between!treatment!two!and!treatment!three!is!

greater!than!the!text!value!of!10.138.!!In!other!words,!only!the!difference!between!

treatment!two!and!treatment!three!is!significantly!different!(p<0.05).!!The!

differences!between!the!other!treatments!have!a!higher!probability!of!being!similar.!

A!test!related!to!the!Friedman’s!Two-way!Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks!is!

the!Kruskal-Wallis!One-Way!Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks!(Daniel!1978).!!The!

Kruskal-Wallis!test!assumes!that!the!populations!(meaning!the!blocks)!are!identical!

accept!for!possible!differences!in!location!(meaning!the!location!of!the!median).!!The!

test!assumes!that!the!shape!and!magnitude!of!the!variance!is!similar.!!However,!this!

assumption!is!usually!violated!when!assessing!treatments!with!blocks!that!are!

landscape!metrics,!because!each!metric!may!have!a!different!shape!and!magnitude!

for!each!block.!!The!Friedman’s!Two-way!Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks!does!not!

have!these!limitations!in!the!assumptions.!!By!not!containing!these!assumptions,!the!

Friedman’s!Two-way!Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks!may!lose!some!power!of!

efficiency!(maximizing!the!statistical!power!of!the!test),!being!only!95.5%!efficient!

at!best!when!compared!to!some!parametric!tests!(Noether!1967).!!The!power!of!the!

Friedman’s!Two-way!Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks!can!be!estimated!by!equation!7.!!

As!the!number!of!treatments!increases,!the!power!of!efficiency!increases.!!An!

experiment!which!examines!only!3!treatments!is!estimated!to!be!only!74.6%!

efficient;!while!an!experiment!that!examines!five!treatments!is!estimated!to!be!

82.9%!efficient.!!This!means!that!accepting!the!assumptions!of!the!Friedman’s!Two-

way!Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks!does!reduce!the!power!of!finding!significant!

differences!in!the!treatments.!!However,!by!expanding!the!number!of!treatments!

does!negatively!affect!the!z-score!in!the!multiple!comparison!test,!by!making!the!z-

score!larger!and!making!the!test!statistic!larger!to!determine!statistical!differences!

between!absolute!values!between!treatments.!!The!absolute!value!between!

differences!needs!to!be!larger!to!infer!statistical!differences.!

!Efficiency!=!0.955!*!k!/!(k!+1)!!!!!(Equation!7)!

! Where:!!k=!the!number!of!treatments!

Precedents(

There!are!several!examples!in!the!literature!during!the!past!thirty!years!that!

illustrate!as!precedents!the!application!of!the!Friedman’s!Two-way!Analysis!of!

Variance!by!Ranks.!!Primarily!gaining!a!critical!mass!in!the!1970s!and!culminating!in!

publication!Conference)Proceedings:)Research)in)Landscape)Architecture:)Selected)

Papers)Presented)at)the)Annual)Meeting)of)the)Council)of)Educators)in)Landscape)

Architecture)August)20-23,)1980)University)of)Wisconsin)-)Madison!(Alanen!1981),!a!

movement!began!to!produce!academics!who!could!conduct!research!at!a!level!

similar!to!the!quality!of!research!published!by!individuals!in!many!disciplines,!

leading!to!interest!in!analytic!methods!such!as!the!Friedman’s!Two-way!Analysis!of!

Variance!by!Ranks.!!We!(Xiaoying!Li!and!Shuyue!He)!asked!Dr.!Burley!if!he!noticed!a!

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change!or!progression!in!the!use!of!statistical!analysis!within!the!profession?!!

“There!is!a!big!difference!between!the!quality!and!quantity!of!the!papers!presented!

at!CELA!conferences!in!the!late!1970s!(my!first!CELA!Conference!1977)!and!what!is!

presented!now.!!The!transformation!across!the!planning!and!design!professions!is!

amazing,!astounding,!and!impressive.”!observed!Dr.!Burley.!!“The!profession!as!a!

community!of!scholars!has!come!a!long!way.!!Most!days!at!work,!I!now!celebrate!the!

interesting!and!exciting!journey!that!the!profession!has!experienced!and!I!am!

impressed!in!the!efforts!of!so!many!people,!encouraging!the!next!generation!to!

pursue!their!journey.”!remarked!Dr.!Burley.!!An!update!perspective!concerning!

research!perceptions!can!be!found!in!Chen!(et)al.!2017).!!“I!was!very!lucky!to!meet!

two!influential!people:!one!at!a!CELA!meeting!in!1982!and!another!at!a!wildlife!

planning!and!design!meeting!in!1985.!!At!the!1982!CELA!meeting!I!met!Kerry!J.!

Dawson,!who!had!a!very!interesting!poster!about!wildlife!habitat!in!California.!!We!

talked!for!an!hour!about!research!and!studying!the!environment.!!At!the!wildlife!

conference!in!Tucson,!Arizona,!I!met!Craig!Johnson,!a!landscape!architecture!

professor!from!Utah!State!University!and!an!MSU!graduate,!and!again!we!shared!a!

long!discussion!about!natural!history,!research,!and!the!environment.!!These!were!

very!informative!times!for!me.!!I!am!grateful!to!Kerry!J.!Dawson!and!Craig!Johnson!

for!their!generosity!and!enthusiasm.!!I!suspect!that!many!of!my!colleagues!have!

similar!stories!how!senior!landscape!scholars!inspired!a!new!generation!of!

landscape!investigators.”!reflected!Dr.!Burley.!

Figure(9.!!Landscape!architecture!students!preparing!for!a!lecture!by!Dr.!Burley!concerning!visual!

quality!assessment!at!NoDai!(Agriculture!Big!–!Tokyo!University!of!Agriculture)!in!Tokyo,!Japan,!

learning!about!how!to!use!landscape!metrics!in!planning!and!design!(Copyright!©!2015,!Jon!Bryan!

Burley,!all!rights!reserved,!used!by!permission).!

We!(Xiaoying!Li!and!Shuyue!He!)!also!asked!Dr.!Burley!about!when!he!started!

employing!landscape!metrics?!!“At!the!age!of!27,!back!in!1982-1983,!I!began!

considering!landscape!metrics!to!compare!planning/!design!alternatives!for!wildlife!

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in!reclaiming!surface!mines,!resulting!in!an!early!publication!(Burley!1983).!!I!listed!

various!measures!across!treatments,!attempting!to!glean!some!insight!into!the!

probability!that!one!treatment!might!be!better!than!another.!!I!had!little!guidance.!!

Very!few!colleagues,!maybe!even!no!one!but!myself!was!interested!in!such!an!

approach.!!But!I!had!great!interest!in!this!topic.!!I!was!very!curious!concerning!

quantitative!measures!in!evaluating!planning!and!design!alternatives,!facilitating!my!

desire!to!earn!a!graduate!degree,!possibly!even!a!PhD.”!recalled!Dr.!Burley.!!“It!has!

been!a!long!journey.!!For!a!long!time!with!the!exception!of!a!few!colleagues!

scattered!here!and!there!across!the!country,!I!felt!quite!alone,!but!I!did!not!mind.!!

Research!is!often!a!lonely!journey!with!few!accolades!or!external!rewards.!!One!

must!have!passion!for!the!subject!and!continue!with!determination!and!

commitment.!!But!in!the!area!of!quantitative!assessment!of!alternatives,!times!have!

changed.!!Interest!is!growing!and!expanding.”!stated!Dr.!Burley.!

An!early!landscape!architectural!example!of!the!employment!of!the!

Friedman’s!Two-way!Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks!is!illustrated!by!Burley!(et)al.!

1988),!thirty!years!ago.!!We!(Xiaoying!Li!and!Shuyue!He!)!also!asked!Dr.!Burley!how!

he!became!interested!in!Friedman’s!Two-way!Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks?!!“Since!

about!1979,!I!had!been!working!professionally!on!ecological!and!surfacing!mining!

projects.”!noted!Dr.!Burley.!!“Such!projects!afford!the!opportunity!for!metrics!related!

to!habitat!suitability.!!I!had!the!fortune!to!take!courses!in!wildlife!habitat!planning,!

ornithology,!and!ichthyology!at!the!University!of!Minnesota!and!learned!much!about!

natural!history!and!habitat!modeling.!!I!am!very!grateful!to!Dr.!G.!Williams!who!was!

at!the!university!of!Minnesota!at!the!time.!!He!taught!habitat!modeling.!!He!was!very!

spatial!and!related!very!well!to!planners!and!designers.!!This!type!of!knowledge!

concerning!wildlife!and!habitat!modeling!and!design!was!very!useful!in!assessing!

landscape!suitability!(publishing!some!of!my!first!articles!in!my!career:!Burley!1996,!

Burley!and!Burley!1990,!Burley!1989a,!Burley!1989b,!Burley!and!Martin!1988,!

Burley!1987,!Burley!and!Hopkins!1984,!Burley!1983,!and!Sanders,!Burley,!and!

Churchward!1982).!!The!reclamation!of!surface!mines!results!in!the!re-making!of!

land.!!And!numerically!assessing!design!alternatives!in!surface!mine!reclamation!

blended!very!nicely!with!habitat!modeling.”!observed!Dr.!Burley.!!“When!I!was!at!the!

University!of!North!Dakota!(from!1982!to!1987),!three!of!my!students!and!myself!

were!introduced!to!the!Big!Stone!Natural!Wildlife!Refuge!on!the!Minnesota!River!

and!had!the!fortune!to!explore!reclaiming!a!small!mine!adjacent!to!the!refuge.!!We!

applied!habitat!models!to!three!treatments:!the!existing!site,!an!abandoned!

condition!20!years!in!the!future,!and!a!proposed!design.!!Habitat!models!were!

employed!for:!!

Great!Blue!Heron!(Ardea)herodias!L.!1758),!!

Great!Grebe!(Podiceps)major!Boddaert!1783),!!

Western!Grebe!(Aechmophorus)occidentials!Lawrence!1858),!!

Wood!Duck!(Aix)sponsa!L.!1758),!!

American!Coot!(Fulica)americana!Gmelin!1789),!!

White-tailed!Deer!(Odocoileus)virginianus!Zimmerman!1780),!!

Greater!Prairie!Chicken!(Tympanuchus)cupido!L.!1758),!!

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Canvasback!(Aythya)valisineria!Wilson!1814),!!

Gadwall!(Mareca)strepera!L.!1758),!!

Mallard!(Anas)platyrhynchos!L.!1758),!!

Blue-winged!Teal!(Spatula)discors!L.!1766),!!

Green-winged!Teal!(Anas)carolinensis!Gmelin!1789),!!

Northern!Shoveler!(Spatula)clypeata!L.!1758),!!

a!total!of!13!blocks.!!We!were!able!to!demonstrate!that!our!design!proposal!was!

predicted!to!be!better!across!the!13!wildlife!types!with!a!p-value!<!0.05.”!said!Dr.!

Burley.!!“When!this!paper!was!published,!I!thought!it!would!be!well!received!and!be!

noted!for!pushing!the!boundaries!of!applying!ecological!science!in!landscape!

planning!and!design.!!However,!I!was!wrong,!the!paper!was!basically!ignored!by!

both!practitioners!and!academics,!although!within!the!reclamation!community!of!

soil!scientists,!foresters,!engineers,!agronomists,!and!hydrologists,!I!seemed!to!be!

appreciated!for!being!one!of!the!few!landscape!architects!that!also!had!a!scientific!

ability!(it!led!to!me!earning!the!ASMR!Reclamationist!of!the!Year!by!2005).!!But!I!am!

not!that!special,!so!many!landscape!architectural!academics!are!earning!and!being!

recognized!around!the!world!for!their!amazing!contributions!in!the!planning!and!

design!of!the!environment.!!Maybe!with!the!increased!interest!in!landscape!metrics,!

that!early!paper!might!be!recognized!as!the!formative!paper!I!thought!it!would!

become.”!reflected!Dr.!Burley.!!“Times!have!slowly!(slowly!for!me,!over!my!lifetime)!

changed!and!both!practitioners!and!landscape!academics!seem!more!interested!in!

the!growing!body!of!literature!associated!with!landscape!architectural!

investigations!and!acknowledging!the!sequence!of!advances.”!observed.!Dr.!Burley.!

In!the!past,!few!landscape!architects!took!the!plan!“A”!option!when!studying!

for!their!masters.!!The!plan!“A”!option!is!a!research!option.!!Most!students!usually!

choose!doing!a!project,!typically!a!plan!“B”!option.!!Plan!“B”!projects!often!produce!

some!amazing!“cutting-edge”!and!thoughtful!plans!and!designs.!!Chenoweth!and!

Weidemann!(1983)!discuss!the!merits!and!approaches!concerning!various!

pedagogies!to!advance!new!knowledge.!!We!(Xiaoying!Li!and!Shuyue!He!)asked!Dr.!

Burley!about!his!master’s!and!PhD!experiences.!!“When!I!was!earning!my!plan!“A”!

option,!I!was!only!the!second!person!at!my!school!in!landscape!architecture!

(University!of!Manitoba)!to!work!on!a!master’s!plan!“A.”!!When!I!was!at!the!

University!of!Michigan,!working!on!my!PhD,!few!masters!students!in!landscape!

architecture!typically!conducted!a!research!project!in!the!traditional!sense,!most!

expected!to!become!practitioners!and!were!interested!in!developing!their!skills!in!

being!exceptional!planners!and!designers.!!However!with!the!encouragement!of!

Terry!J.!Brown,!in!1994,!Paul!Strauch!completed!a!science-based!landscape!

architectural!masters!exploring!five!treatments!(existing!site,!traditional!design,!

links!design,!target!design,!woodland!approach)!for!a!golf!course!in!Montana!

through!five!blocks!(all!metrics):!mowing!requirements!in!annual!hours,!fertilizer!

requirements!in!pounds!of!nitrogen!per!year,!run-off!rate!(maximum!peak!cubic!feet!

per!second!for!a!10!year!storm,!and!Blue!Grouse!habitat!suitability.”!noted!Dr.!

Burley.!!Paul!employed!the!Friedman!Two-way!Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks!to!

evaluate!the!designs!across!his!metrics.!!Each!design!had!various!merits!and!short-

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comings.!!No!project!was!completely!the!best,!nor!was!any!one!treatment!

completely!the!worst.!!Paul!discovered!that!the!statistical!test!revealed!that!there!

was!no!evidence!that!any!one!design!treatment!was!better!than!another!at!a!p-value!

<!0.05.!!This!was!useful!to!learn.!!During!this!time,!there!was!interest!and!debates!

about!various!types!of!golf!course!designs.!!Paul!discovered!that!there!was!no!clear!

choice.!!“What!I!like!about!Paul’s!study!is!that!he!let!the!data!and!results!speak!for!

itself.!!Many!times,!in!planning!and!design,!people!are!advocates!from!one!position!

or!another,!selectively!choosing!evidence!to!support!their!position.!!I!get!a!little!

annoyed!with!requests!for!proposals!from!organizations!that!desire!research!

projects!to!validate!certain!positions!or!philosophies.!!If!one!wishes!to!learn!how!

damaging!this!can!be,!I!recommend!one!read!in!a!book!edited!by!Real!and!Brown!

(1991)!the!controversy!associated!with!the!dominance!of!ideas!in!contrast!to!H.!A.!

Gleason’s!observations.!!Studies!by!Curtis!(1959)!and!Whittaker!(1975)!finally!

validated!Gleason,!but!the!damage!had!been!done.!!It!was!not!science’s!greatest!

moment.!!But!eventually!science!can!be!self-correcting.!!Ideally!studies!should!ask!

questions!and!develop!experimental!designs!to!refute!or!support!the!hypothesis!

without!bias.!!I!learn!much!when!the!results!do!not!reflect!the!initial!expectations!of!

the!study.!!For!example,!I!would!suggest!that!people!read!Daniels!(et)al.!2017).!!She!

did!a!different!type!of!study!(a!regression!study)!where!she!believed!that!the!

suspended!reality!lines!entertaining!guests!at!a!Disney!theme!park!as!they!wait!in!

line!for!a!specific!ride!would!have!greater!satisfaction!than!in!lines!without!

suspended!reality.!!But!she!found!little!evidence!that!this!was!true.!!She!was!

perplexed.!!However,!she!discovered!that!the!satisfaction!waiting!in!line!was!more!

related!to!the!time!of!day!and!the!amount!of!fatigue!the!user!experienced.!!This!

study!revealed!how!actual!discoveries!are!made!based!upon!the!evidence!supplied!

by!the!data.”!recommends!Dr.!Burley.!!Both!Daniels’!and!Strauch’s!studies!are!

informative!investigations!concerning!the!process!of!discovery.!!While!Paul!

Strauch’s!study!was!not!definitive,!it!started!a!conversation!concerning!the!merits!of!

various!golf!course!design!approaches!and!one!of!the!first!to!conduct!such!an!

experimental!design!in!site!design.”!observed!Dr.!Burley.!

Another!insightful!application!of!the!Friedman’s!Two-way!Analysis!of!

Variance!by!Ranks!was!conducted!by!Lin!(et)al.!2017).!!In!the!study!Wan-Chu!Lin!

had!professional!experience!in!Taiwan!developing!high!speed!train!stations.!!One!of!

the!problems!with!these!stations!was!that!underground,!they!all!looked!the!same!

and!people!lost!their!orientation!concerning!orientation!and!arrival.!!She!was!

interested!in!perception!concerning!identify!of!place!from!within!a!train!car.!!She!

developed!five!train!station!treatments!from!a!station!with!low!identify!to!a!station!

with!very!strong!identity.!!She!asked!respondents!to!place!images!from!the!windows!

of!a!train!car!in!piles!indicating!cognition!of!place,!obtaining!metrics!representing!

respondent!identification!of!place.!!Wan-Chu!Lin!was!able!to!demonstrate!that!

cognition!only!occurred!with!a!strong!presentation!of!sense!of!place.!!She!had!twelve!

blocks,!views!from!twelve!windows.!!We!(Xiaoying!Li!and!Shuyue!He)!asked!Dr.!

Burley!to!describe!his!efforts!with!Wan-Chu!Lin.!!“It!took!Wan-Chu!Lin!about!twelve!

months!of!studying!the!literature,!acquiring!knowledge!about!conducting!research,!

five!months!to!design!these!digital!train!station!projects!and!obtain!views!from!the!

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windows!of!the!train!stations.”!said!Dr.!Burley.!!“But!it!took!her!only!a!couple!of!days!

to!gather!respondent!data,!and!one!afternoon!to!conduct!the!analysis.”!reported!Dr.!

Burley.!!“I!learned!much!from!Dr.!Rachel!Kaplan!at!the!University!of!Michigan,!

observing!her!interactions!with!her!students.!!Dr.!Kaplan!was!very!smart,!urging!

students!to!carefully!and!thoughtfully!design!focused!experiments!to!address!

discrete!questions.!!The!experiments!were!intelligent,!but!often!simple,!and!easy!to!

conduct.!!Big!massive!surveys!with!unfocused!questions!often!result!in!ambiguous!

answers!of!little!value.!!Wan-Chu!Lin!developed!a!focused!experiment!with!useful!

results.!!She!did!not!ask!un-needed!demographic!questions,!nor!fatiguing!questions!

for!respondents!answer.!!But!her!work!was!helpful!in!understanding!user!

perception!and!very!publishable.!!The!same!is!true!of!an!experimental!design!with!

several!thoughtful!design!treatments!and!a!series!of!metrics!to!assess!the!design!

projects!as!promoted!by!the!Landscape!Architecture!Foundation.!!The!approach!is!

very!simple!and!practical.”!advised!Dr.!Burley.!!“Landscape!architects!are!essential!

in!such!efforts!because!they!are!the!ones!who!can!design!the!treatments!and!have!

skills!in!calculating!the!environmental!metrics.!!I!believe!they!have!a!key!position!in!

this!type!of!environmental!evaluation.!!Plus,!it!illustrates!the!value!of!their!

contributions!in!creating!quality!environments.”!observed!Dr.!Burley.!!“Wan-Chu!

Lin’s!investigation!does!not!prove!that!all!respondents!from!all!cultures!and!

locations!will!have!the!same!perception.!!But!her!work!is!the!first!to!address!her!

planning!and!design!topic.!!If!one!was!to!borrow!an!example!from!the!medical!

sciences,!repeated!experiments!by!others,!builds!an!understanding!of!the!variance!

of!the!basic!ideas!across!changing!conditions.!!Others!should!replicate!Wan-Chu!

Lin’s!work,!refuting,!confirming,!or!refining!her!results.!!There!are!many!

opportunities!to!conduct!this!type!of!study!around!the!world.”!stated!Dr.!Burley.!!

The!study!also!illustrates!that!social!science!and!perception!data!can!be!used!as!

metrics!too.!!There!has!been!a!strong!emphasis!upon!natural/physical!landscape!

metrics!for!evaluation!and!comparison,!but!the!social!sciences!share!inclusion!too.!

Another!interesting!study!was!conducted!by!Mengwen!Feng!(et)al.!2017).!!

She!was!from!the!Chengdu,!Sichuan!Province,!in!China,!the!province!where!the!great!

Wenchuan!earthquake!of!2008!took!place.!!In!her!studies!she!discovered!that!40%!

of!deaths!that!occur!happen!after!the!earthquake!and!are!predominantly!based!upon!

the!built!environment!decisions!for!the!location.!!We!(Xiaoying!Li!and!Shuyue!He)!

were!interested!in!Dr.!Burley’s!experiences!when!working!on!this!topic.!!“I!was!in!

Xian,!China!when!that!earthquake!happened,!a!little!over!200!miles!away.!!Even!at!

that!distance,!train!tracks!were!buckled,!and!there!were!about!20!deaths!in!Xian.”!

noted!Dr.!Burley.!!It!took!Mengwen!about!12!months!to!develop!her!research!skills!

and!to!learn!about!what!kind!of!spatial!landscape/environmental!metrics!she!

wished!to!employ!for!her!study.!!She!recorded!the!characteristics!of!pre-earthquake!

communities,!and!post-earthquake!communities,!plus!she!did!a!community!design!

of!her!own—Linda!Town.!!Mengwen!employed!the!Friedman’s!Two-way!Analysis!of!

Variance!by!Ranks!to!assess!her!treatments!with!the!blocks!of!her!metrics.!!“She!

developed!about!eight!metrics,!but!her!study!would!have!been!better!if!she!had!

expanded!her!blocks!to!about!fifteen!to!twenty!metrics—meaning!more!informed!

results.!!I!suspect!a!team!of!landscape!architects,!engineers,!and!planners!could!

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develop!a!more!extensive!list.!!Still!her!study!is!the!first!study!to!utilize!this!

approach.!!Many!times!from!such!beginnings,!the!knowledge-base!evolves!as!others!

contribute!and!refine!the!metrics!and!assessment!techniques.”!observed!Dr.!Burley.!!

Marifaye!Regina!Villanueva!(a!colleague!in!the!Philippines)!applied!Mengwen’s!

metrics!to!a!study!area!southeast!of!Manila!in!the!Laguna!area.!!There!are!many!

earthquake!areas!around!the!world!and!landscape!architects!could!study!these!

areas,!making!regions!and!urban!areas!more!responsive!in!earthquake!disaster!

zones.!

New!metrics!are!constantly!being!developed!that!are!helpful!to!landscape!

architects,!such!as!the!water-use!metrics!supplied!by!the!USA!Environmental!

Protection!Agency!(EPA).!!These!metrics!were!combined!with!other!landscape!

metrics!by!Li!Na,!Hongwei!Tian,!and!Jun!Ying!study!and!develop!proposals!for!a!

medical!campus!in!Grand!Rapids,!(Burley!et)al.!2016).!!Friedman’s!Two-way!

Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks!to!assess!their!treatments!with!the!blocks!of!various!

metrics!such!as!addressing!soil!productivity!and!visual!quality.!!“I!would!strongly!

encourage!those!who!apply!this!methodology!and!similar!approaches!to!share!their!

results!by!publishing!in!journals!and!conferences.!!It’s!a!good!way!to!promote!the!

profession,!market!the!abilities!of!the!firm/business,!and!have!a!document!that!is!

suitable!for!entries!in!chapter!ASLA!award!competitions.!!The!paper!with!Li!Na!(a!

graduate!student),!Hongwei!Tian!(a!graduate!student),!Jun!Ying!(a!professor!from!

Zhejiang!Forestry!and!Technology!University),!and!Steve!Troost!(an!MSU!campus!

planner)!were!part!of!a!submission!to!earn!a!Michigan!Chapter!ASLA!award.!!I!am!

very!proud!of!the!energetic!and!smart!people!that!I!have!the!pleasure!to!work!with!

in!Michigan!and!from!around!the!world.”!stated!Dr.!Burley.!!Hongwei’s!study!

illustrates!another!important!point!concerning!this!technique.!!Numerous!types!of!

measures!can!be!included!in!the!analysis.!!It!is!a!technique!where!truly!apples,!

oranges,!and!bananas!can!be!combined!in!the!analysis;!each!row!must!be!internally!

consistent!across!the!columns,!but!each!row!can!be!a!different!type!of!

measure/metric.!

In!the!landscape!architecture!literature!(Landscape)Journal,!Landscape)and)

Urban!Planning,!and!Landscape)Research)!a!search!will!reveal!that!the!Friedman!

Two-Way!Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks!has!been!occasionally!used.!!In!Landscape)

Research,!Hahn,!Heinrup,!and!Lindbourg!(2017),!a!group!of!geographers!from!

Sweden!applied!the!Friedman!test!to!study!respondent!perception!to!landscapes!

and!reported!significant!difference!p<0.001.!!However,!a!group!of!landscape!

architects!(Park!et)al.!2008)!from!Sheffield!University!applied!the!Friedman’s!test!in!

a!study!of!telecommunications!development,!finding!more!elderly!respondents!were!

more!receptive!to!telecommunications!infrastructure!p<0.05.!!In!Landscape)and)

Urban)Planning,!Suhonen!and!Jolimäki!(2015)!(a!team!of!environmental/ecological!

scientists!from!Finland)!examined!Sorbus)aucuparia!L.!fruit!production!in!urban!

areas!and!applied!the!Friedman!test!to!compare!production!in!various!settings!and!

locations!on!the!trees.!In!a!study!of!landscape!artifacts!by!investigators!from!

Belgium!(Dupont!et)al.!2017)!utilized!the!Friedman!test!to!study!the!influence!of!

object!size!and!color,!finding!significant!results!and!reporting!the!results!in!

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Landscape)and)Urban)Planning.))Hallsaxton!and!Burley!(2011),!studied!interior!

metrics!for!various!housing!treatments!in!western!Michigan,!finding!significant!

results!across!housing!age!and!size,!publishing!in!the!International)Journal)of)Energy)

and)Environment.!!“There!are!probably!other!examples!in!the!planning!and!design!

literature.!!But!this!group!of!papers!gives!an!idea!of!the!scope!and!use!currently!by!

investigations!related!to!environmental!planning!and!design!research.!!With!the!rise!

of!metrics!in!planning!and!design,!the!application!of!the!Friedman’s!Two-way!

Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks!may!increase.”!explained!Dr.!Burley.!

Limitations(

Landscape!architects!are!measuring!and!quantifying!the!benefits!of!their!plans!and!

designs,!comparing!their!efforts!with!alternative!plans!and!designs.!!The!Friedman’s!

Two-way!Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks!provides!insight!into!the!probability!that!

one!design!treatment!might!be!different!that!another!treatment.!!However!this!

information!is!just!feedback!based!upon!the!expected!performance!concerning!

various!alternatives.!!The!statistical!analysis!does!not!tell!one!what!to!do.!!

Normative!values!of!various!stakeholder’s!groups,!owner(s),!planning!and!design!

teams,!and!governmental!authorities!guide!the!chosen!design!project!alternative.!!

The!chosen!alternative!can!be!different!from!the!treatment!with!the!best!score.!!!

Figure(10.!!Landscape!architecture!and!landscape!planning!students!from!the!United!States!and!

Germany!at!a!workshop!sponsored!by!the!Technical!University!of!Dortmund!to!reclaim!land!that!had!

experienced!differential!settling!due!to!underground!coal!mining.!!Dr.!Burley!was!a!juror!at!this!

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Selecting!too!many!treatments!to!assess!or!having!a!limited!number!of!

metrics!(blocks)!can!result!in!indefinite!results.!!While!there!is!nothing!truly!

complicated!in!conducting!the!Friedman’s!Two-way!Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks,!

the!procedure!is!a!bit!lengthy.!!“The!statistical!test!reminds!me!of!preparing!

students!for!study!abroad!for!eight!or!seven!weeks.!!Nothing!is!really!complicated,!

but,!remembering!for!over!50!days!an!itinerary!for!someone!not!accustomed!

travelling,!paying!attention!to!the!busses,!subways,!trains,!and!assignments!can!be!

overwhelming.!!In!statistics,!if!one!does!not!utilize!the!test!often,!it!takes!some!time!

to!recall!the!process!and!procedures.”!advised!Dr.!Burley.!

The!manner!in!which!an!experimental!design!is!established!often!gives!

insight!into!the!thinking!of!the!researcher(s)!performing!the!experiment.!!

Friedman’s!Two-way!Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks!has!been!traditionally!employed!

to!study!treatments!such!as!various!medical!doses!or!chemicals!upon!patients!or!

social!science!behavioral!situations!upon!subjects.!!However,!the!planner/designer!

may!have!a!slightly!different!nuance!to!the!Friedman’s!Two-way!Analysis!of!

Variance!by!Ranks,!desiring!to!examine!various!design!proposals!across!a!series!of!

metrics.!!In!other!words,!each!metric!is!a!block!and!each!block!is!a!different!type!of!

measure.!!For!parametric!types!of!statistical!analysis,!this!may!prove!difficult!

because!one!is!mixing!numerical!values!across!the!block!with!often!widely!different!

means!(locations)!and!with!potentially!vastly!different!distributions!(variance),!

establishing!the!concept!that!metaphorically,!apples,!bananas,!and!oranges!cannot!

be!mixed!together.!!However,!by!transforming!each!block!into!ranks,!the!means!and!

distributions!for!the!set!of!blocks!are!identical.!!The!transformation!allows!

metaphorically!apples,!bananas,!and!oranges!to!be!evaluated!together.!!This!is!very!

useful!for!the!planner/designer!wishing!to!study!the!effects!of!various!measures!

upon!a!design,!such!as!visual!quality,!water!run-off,!and!energy!use.!!Without!a!

nonparametric!approach,!the!compassion!would!be!difficult.!!This!transformation!

allowed!Burley!(et)al.!1988),!to!select!various!wildlife!types!as!blocks!to!assess!

different!landscape!design!treatments,!being!a!similar!equivalent!to!standardizing!

scores!in!parametric!procedures!such!as!Principal!Component!Analysis!(PCA),!a!

procedure!that!does!allow!a!wide!variety!of!measures!to!be!collectively!compared.!!

This!was!a!slightly!different!approach!then!had!been!applied!by!others!in!the!

medical!and!social!sciences.!!Statisticians!may!eventually!wish!to!study!this!

alternative!approach,!validating!or!refuting!the!merits!of!this!approach!where!the!

blocks!are!of!different!measures.!!There!may!eventually!be!necessary!adjustments!in!

the!equations!to!compare!treatments!based!upon!assumptions!of!the!statistical!test,!

but!the!current!state-of-the-art,!it!appears!the!approach!employed!by!Burley!(et)al.!

1988),!presently!does!not!necessarily!violate!the!assumptions!of!the!test.!

The!Friedman’s!Two-Way!Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks!does!assume!that!

the!values!within!a!block!are!mutually!independent,!meaning!that!the!score!in!one!

treatment!does!not!affect!the!score!in!another!treatment.!!In!addition,!the!test!

assumes!that!each!block!does!not!interact!with!the!treatment,!meaning!that!the!

block!does!not!affect!the!treatment.!!In!other!words,!the!treatments!must!influence!

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the!outcome/value!across!the!blocks,!not!the!blocks!determining!the!composition!of!

the!treatment.!!Nevertheless,!there!is!a!relationship!between!blocks!and!treatments!

for!the!planner/designer.!!Awareness!by!the!planner/designer!of!the!importance!of!

various!metrics!such!as!visual!quality,!water!retention,!songbird!wildlife!habitat,!and!

energy!use,!incorporating!these!measures!into!the!project’s!program,!and!designing!

project!alternatives!to!generate!the!best!outcome!across!the!blocks!does!mean!there!

is!a!relationship.!!Design!alternatives!can!be!endless!and!infinite.!!An!optimal!design!

today!may!be!less!than!optimal!in!the!future!as!technology!and!design!alternatives!

are!invented!and!explored.!!Still!this!relationship!between!the!treatments!created!by!

the!planner/designer!and!the!blocks!as!measured!by!the!planner/designer!does!not!

necessarily!violate!the!assumptions!of!the!test.!!It!is!true!that!an!optimum!design!

from!one!measure!(block)!may!influence!the!outcome!for!another!measure.!!For!

example,!in!Burley!(et)al.!1988)!what!may!be!beneficial!from!one!wildlife!type!may!

be!a!disadvantage!to!another!wildlife!type.!!Thus,!the!outcome!of!one!block!may!

influence!the!outcome!for!another!block.!!In!some!respects,!this!is!like!one!patient!

influencing!the!outcome!in!a!medical!experiment!for!another!patient,!which!would!

be!a!violation!of!the!assumptions!of!the!test.!!But!in!a!project,!the!planner/designer!

is!in!control!of!the!treatments!and!can!derive!solutions!where!seemingly!conflicting!

measures!can!be!accommodated!to!the!benefit!of!both!measures.!!This!was!the!case!

in!the!study!by!Burley!(et)al.!1988)!where!solutions!could!be!derived!that!benefited!

all!or!most!wildlife!types,!making!the!blocks!assume!the!qualities!of!independence!

for!both!between!blocks!and!block!effects!upon!treatments.!!Nevertheless,!this!

relationship!between!blocks!(metrics),!treatments,!and!the!planner/design!may!

merit!more!theoretical!examination!by!curious!academic!statisticians!for!further!

insight!and!refinement!into!the!procedures.!

Figure(11.!!American!and!UK!landscape!architecture!students!from!then!Leeds!Metropolitan!

University!(now!Leeds!Beckett!University)!work!as!teams!to!study!and!develop!a!courtyard!

Metrics(Evaluating(Multivariate(Design(Alternatives:(

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29!

Closing(statement(

From!the!1850s!until!the!present!day,!landscape!architecture!has!evolved!to!include!

numerous!analytical!tools!and!metrics;!the!profession!is!changing.!!The!Friedman’s!

Two-way!Analysis!of!Variance!by!Ranks!is!a!statistical!tool!helpful!to!understand!

and!assess!these!metrics!across!planning!and!design!alternatives.!!The!test!is!simple!

to!calculate!using!only!algebra!and!a!spreadsheet,!along!with!a!Chi-square!statistical!

table!and!a!z-score!table.!

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Curtis,!J.T.!!1959.!!The!Vegetation!of!Wisconsin:!An!Ordination!of!Plant!Communities.!!

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Figure(12.!!German!landscape!architecture!students!from!the!University!of!Nürtingen-Geislingen!and!

Portuguese!landscape!architecture!students!from!the!Universidade!de!Tráns-os-Montes!e!Alto!Duro,!

Villa!Real,!Portugal!attending!a!workshop!concerning!green!infrastructure.!!Dr.!Burley!gave!two!

lectures!to!this!group!concerning!the!historical!development!of!greenways!in!North!America!and!a!

permission).!

Metrics(Evaluating(Multivariate(Design(Alternatives:(

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Appendix(

Table!A1.!!Chi-square!Values!

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         

         

         

         

         

         

         

         

          

          

          

          

          

          

          

          

          

          

          

          

          

          

          

          

          

          

          

          

          

          

          

          

          

          

          

          

Chi-Square Distribution Table

The shaded area is equal to a for x²=xa²

Metrics(Evaluating(Multivariate(Design(Alternatives:(

(

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.17885.15849/1

35!

Table!A2.!Z-score!Values!

z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09

0.0 0.0000 0.0040 0.0080 0.0120 0.0160 0.0190 0.2390 0.0279 0.0319 0.0359

0.1 0.3980 0.0438 0.4780 0.5170 0.5570 0.0596 0.0636 0.0675 0.0714 0.0753

0.2 0.0793 0.0832 0.0871 0.0910 0.0948 0.0987 0.1026 0.1064 0.1103 0.1141

0.3 0.1179 0.1217 0.1255 0.1293 0.1331 0.1368 0.1406 0.1443 0.1480 0.1517

0.4 0.1554 0.1591 0.1628 0.1664 0.1700 0.1736 0.1772 0.1808 0.1844 0.1879

0.5 0.1915 0.1950 0.1985 0.2019 0.2054 0.2088 0.2123 0.2157 0.2190 0.2224

0.6 0.2257 0.2291 0.2324 0.2357 0.2389 0.2422 0.2454 0.2486 0.2517 0.2549

0.7 0.2580 0.2611 0.2642 0.2673 0.2704 0.2734 0.2764 0.2794 0.2823 0.2852

0.8 0.2881 0.2910 0.2939 0.2969 0.2995 0.3023 0.3051 0.3078 0.3106 0.3133

0.9 0.3159 0.3186 0.3212 0.3238 0.3264 0.3289 0.3315 0.3340 0.3365 0.3389

1.0 0.3413 0.3438 0.3461 0.3485 0.3508 0.3513 0.3554 0.3577 0.3529 0.3621

1.1 0.3643 0.3665 0.3686 0.3708 0.3729 0.3749 0.3770 0.3790 0.3810 0.3830

1.2 0.3849 0.3869 0.3888 0.3907 0.3925 0.3944 0.3962 0.3980 0.3997 0.4015

1.3 0.4032 0.4049 0.4066 0.4082 0.4099 0.4115 0.4131 0.4147 0.4162 0.4177

1.4 0.4192 0.4207 0.4222 0.4236 0.4251 0.4265 0.4279 0.4292 0.4306 0.4319

1.5 0.4332 0.4345 0.4357 0.4370 0.4382 0.4394 0.4406 0.4418 0.4429 0.4441

1.6 0.4452 0.4463 0.4474 0.4484 0.4495 0.4505 0.4515 0.4525 0.4535 0.4545

1.7 0.4554 0.4564 0.4573 0.4582 0.4591 0.4599 0.4608 0.4616 0.4625 0.4633

1.8 0.4641 0.4649 0.4656 0.4664 0.4671 0.4678 0.4686 0.4693 0.4699 0.4706

1.9 0.4713 0.4719 0.4726 0.4732 0.4738 0.4744 0.4750 0.4756 0.4761 0.4767

2.0 0.4772 0.4778 0.4783 0.4788 0.4793 0.4798 0.4803 0.4808 0.4812 0.4817

2.1 0.4821 0.4826 0.4830 0.4834 0.4838 0.4842 0.4846 0.4850 0.4854 0.4857

2.2 0.4861 0.4864 0.4868 0.4871 0.4875 0.4878 0.4881 0.4884 0.4887 0.4890

2.3 0.4893 0.4896 0.4898 0.4901 0.4904 0.4906 0.4909 0.4911 0.4913 0.4916

2.4 0.4918 0.4920 0.4922 0.4925 0.4927 0.4929 0.4931 0.4932 0.4934 0.4936

2.5 0.4938 0.4940 0.4941 0.4943 0.4945 0.4946 0.4948 0.4949 0.4951 0.4952

2.6 0.4953 0.4955 0.4956 0.4957 0.4959 0.4960 0.4961 0.4962 0.4963 0.4964

2.7 0.4965 0.4966 0.4967 0.4968 0.4969 0.4970 0.4971 0.4972 0.4973 0.4974

2.8 0.4974 0.4975 0.4976 0.4977 0.4977 0.4978 0.4979 0.4979 0.4980 0.4981

2.9 0.4981 0.4982 0.4982 0.4983 0.4984 0.4984 0.4985 0.4985 0.4986 0.4986

3.0 0.4987 0.4987 0.4987 0.4988 0.4988 0.4989 0.4989 0.4989 0.4990 0.4990

3.1 0.4990 0.4991 0.4991 0.4991 0.4992 0.4992 0.4992 0.4992 0.4993 0.4993

3.2 0.4993 0.4993 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4995 0.4995 0.4995

3.3 0.4995 0.4995 0.4995 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4997

3.4 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4998

Entries in the table give the area under

the curve between the mean and z standard

deviations above the mean.For example,for

z=1.46 the area under the curve between the

mean(0)and z is 0.4279.

（z）=

∫



 e

𝑑

𝑥





A(z)

Metrics(Evaluating(Multivariate(Design(Alternatives:(

(

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.17885.15849/1

36!

Figure(13.!!Dr.!Burley!drawing!the!Acropolis!in!Athens,!Greece,!from!the!Philopappos!Monument,!

(Greek:!Μνημείο!Φιλοπάππου)!as!he!chews!a!Cuban!cigar.!!Very!few!people!climb!up!to!this!

monument,!but!it!is!great!place!to!sit!and!draw!the!Acropolis.!!Way!in!the!distance!one!can!even!see!

Burley,!all!rights!reserved,!used!by!permission).!

Post-Industrial Redevelopment Site Design Reclamation in Shanghai, People's Republic of China

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2021

Published in Engineering World http://www.engw.org/archive.html In the post-industrial era, many manufacturing sites were abandoned and languished. Site reconstruction and redevelopment has become an increasingly popular activity in engineering, urban planning, and design around the world. In Shanghai, many famous industrial heritage sites have been transformed into public facilities, but there are still many other abandoned industrial sites within the community. This study selects a post-industrial site in Shanghai, explores three different alternatives expressing different design concepts. The Friedman two-way analysis of variance by ranks evaluated the results between the three alternatives (traditional design, a green design, an industrial inheritance design) across 25 planning, design, engineering criteria. The analysis revealed that at least one treatment was significantly better than another treatment (p<0.05). A multiple comparison indicated that the industrial inheritance alternative was significantly better (p<0.05). This research can assist engineers, landscape architects, urban planners, architects, and others interested in assessing alternatives in industrial site reclamation.

The American Landscape Architecture Research Universe and a Higher Education Ordination: Descriptive Insights into the Discipline and Profession of Landscape Architecture

Chapter

Full-text available

Oct 2021

Landscape scholars, educators, and academics are interested in the structure and nature of the knowledgebase that comprises both the discipline of landscape architecture and the profession of landscape architecture. In this study, the latent nature of the landscape architecture discipline was revealed by constructing a principal component citation analysis representation (the landscape architecture research universe) concerning several decades of literature (1982–2017) in Landscape Journal, a preeminent American journal addressing landscape architecture research. In addition, an ordination was developed describing the curriculum relationships between fifteen top American universities teaching landscape architecture as identified by ‘DesignIntelligence,’ preparing students for practicing in the profession of landscape architecture. The results revealed that in the discipline, the research activity is highly diverse along many dimensions, constantly evolving as new topics are explored. The pattern in landscape architecture research is broad, as the discipline integrates knowledge and ideas in many fields. In contrast, landscape architecture curriculums, teaching the fundamentals of the profession, are fairly closely clustered together and quite similar, with small differences reflecting emphasis in either landscape history or the visual arts, and mathematics or course electives. This dual identity is both a source of conflict and a unique opportunity.

Visual Metrics for the Maxton Plains Alvars in Michigan, USA

Article

Jul 2021

Planners, designers, environmentalists, concerned citizens, and government officials are interested in the management and preservation of small rare and unique ecological environments. Scholars have discovered that land-use and visual quality metrics often co-vary together and that various land-uses reside on a continuum scale from high respondent preference (biospheric land-uses) to low respondent preference (noospheric land-uses). This study assessed and documented the visual metrics for the Maxton Plains alvar/alvar grassland plant communities found on Drummond Island, Michigan, USA. These unique, small, and rare landscape types are not usually studied by large-scale visual quality mapping efforts which assess urban areas, woodlands, water, farmland, pastureland, and prairies. The visual metrics were assessed using two versions of predictive visual quality assessment models. Results from 60 field photographs reveal that the visual metrics assessment for the Maxton Plains alvars/alvar grasslands have a moderate visual preference, consistent visual quality scores: ranging from the low to middle 50s with the first equation and high 40s to low 50s with the second equation. Compared to many landscape and land-uses, these environments have scores that indicate a moderate visual preference and appreciation. Scores beyond ± 2.5 of the mean would indicate a significant (p ≤ 0.05) perceivable drift from the existing conditions. The visual metrics provide a numerical framework for managing the spatial contents within and adjacent to the alvars. Landscape features such as buildings, invasive woodlands, agriculture, and pavement would all decrease the visual quality beyond the ± 2.5 score range.

Comparison of Five Green Roof Treatments in Flint Michigan with Freidman's Two-Way Analysis of Variance by Ranks

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2020

Published in the Journal of Architecture and Construction: Planners and designers are interested in evaluating the metrics and statistical differences between design treatments. This study addresses categories of design treatments for a rooftop at The Sylvester Broome Empowerment Village, located in Flint, Michigan. Five design treatments: flat roof, self-design roof, extensive green roof, semi-intensive green roof, and intensive green roof, were evaluated by 36 variables chosen by the investigators. The Friedman’s Two-way Analysis of Variance by Ranks statistical test was applied to examine significant differences between the five treatments (p ≤ 0.05). The Friedman’s multiple comparison test revealed the treatment of the flat roof performed the poorest. There was no significant difference to demonstrate that the other four design treatments perform better than the other with the exception that the intensive green roof treatment was predicted to be significantly better than self-design rooftop (p ≤ 0.05).

Project 5. Preventing AIS via habitat modifications and restoration activities

Technical Report

Full-text available

May 2019

Scientists, planners, designers, governmental organizations, the construction industry, and concerned citizens are interested in the thoughtful preservation and management of the environment. Site construction activities and practices can influence the composition of organisms in an aquatic setting, leading to the invasion of life--forms that upset the balance and composition of organisms in a local/regional setting. This studied examined the "state--of--the--art," best management practices (BMP), and known knowledge concerning construction activities associated with aquatic invasive species affiliated with Michigan. In addition, local authorities on the subject were interviewed to provide their assessment of the issue. The study team determined that while there are numerous methods to explore and predict the quality of the built environment, measures to assess invasive aquatic habitat in the planning, design, and construction industry are limited and not precise. Research blending the built environment/construction with aquatic invasive knowledge has been modest in volume. However, the knowledge--base and expertise concerning the natural history/ecology concerning aquatic invasives statewide is abundant and evident. Studying activities of on--site construction as they relate to aquatic invasives may be a sensitive issue to study. Best Management Practices as they relate to aquatic invasives are in their formative stages.

Principles Of Landscape Architecture

Book

Full-text available

Sep 2021

This book ‘Principles of Landscape Architecture’ covers An Overview of Gardens, Types of Gardens, Styles of Gardens, Elements and Basic Themes of Gardens, Principles of Landscape Gardens, Garden Designing, Bio-aesthetic Planning, and Xeriscaping. Simple and lucid language has been used for a clear and easy understanding of the beginners. The book is illustrated with photographs. Questions are set at the end of each chapter to assess the understanding of the students. Though the book is primarily written for B.Sc. (Hons.) Horticulture students, the counterparts of B.Sc. (Hons.) Agriculture also may be benefitted. It may serve as a help book for post-graduate students.

Residential Interior Occupant Health Criteria Review and Assessment in Holland, Michigan

Article

Full-text available

May 2011

Investigators are interested in the environmental quality of interior spaces. At present, scholars have developed limited metrics in assessing interior environments. For our study, we examined the environmental quality of residential environments in Holland, Michigan. We examined houses in four separate age groups; 1900 to 1930, 1940 to 1965, 1965 to 1985, and 1989 to 2050. In addition, we examined the age groups based upon size of the house: under 111.48 m 2 (1200 sq. ft.) and over 185.8 m 2 (2000 sq. ft) for a total of eight treatments. Three houses were measured in each treatment. Fourteen variables were measured in each structure. Friedman's analysis of variance was employed to assess the statistical difference between the treatments. The results revealed that homes built from 1965 to 1985 with over 185.8 m 2 were healthier (p<0.05). The least healthy homes were those aged from 1903 to 1940, and 1940 to 1965 and smaller than 111.48 m 2. We encourage investigators to assess other types of residential environments. There is more than one journal by this title: INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL of ENERGY and ENVIRONMENT and can be found at: https://naun.org/cms.action?id=3043, ISSN: 2308-1007

A study for vegetation and wildlife habitat on Lower Grey Cloud Island

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Jun 1982

This paper was the first conference paper published in the career of Jon Burley with Bill Sanders, FASLA, the principal of Sanders and Associates and long time friend and colleague Craig A. Churchward. The study presents ideas concerning the development and suitability for wildlife of a sand and gravel mine on the Grey Cloud Island, Minnesota along the Mississippi River, illustrating how the activity of mining might improve the site for selected wildlife. The conference included some notable individuals including: Anthony Bauer, Howard Alden, Darrel Morrison, Paul Eagles, Richard Chenoweth, Wayne Tlusty, Bernard Niemann, and Daniel Leedy.

From Eye to Heart: Exterior Spaces Explored and Explained First Edition

Book

Full-text available

Jan 2016

From Eye to Heart: Exterior Spaces Explored and Explained (First Edition), is published and distributed by Cognella, Inc. The book is available for purchase in both print and digital formats through an e-commerce store (https://titles.cognella.com/from-eye-to-heart-9781634876858), or through other book outlets. This book is an award-winning book, receiving an honor award in 2016 by the Michigan Chapter of the American Society of Landscape Architects. The book is used in an integrative social science course (People and Environment) at Michigan State University (to a large auditorium of diverse students) and also acts as an environmental/landscape architectural history course for design majors. Many of the places described in the book, the authors have visited and written academic papers about, including: Peru, China, Japan, Indonesia, Cambodia, India, S. Korea, UK, France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Greece, and Turkey. The book contains many personal drawings, paintings, and photographs prepared and taken by the authors. In addition, the book offers expanded and illuminating interpretations of places such as Stonehenge, Villa Lante, Versailles, Stourhead, Japanese gardens, Chinese landscapes, First Nation spatial design, Egypt, and design concepts from India. The publisher has give permission to post the bibliography on Research Gate.

Planning the Total Landscape: a Guide to Intelligent Land Use

Book

Jul 2019

Julius Gy. Fabos

ASLA Landscape Architecture Technical Information Series: A Landscape Performance and Metrics Primer for Landscape Architects

Technical Report

Dec 2018

Emily Mccoy

Landscape architecture is at a pivotal moment in its history as a discipline, where design practice is becoming more reflective, adaptive, and scholarly. As the need for sustainable design grows, it has become imperative that professionals put their work under analytical review and set higher standards for their work to perform environmentally, socially, and economically. The field looks more to the integration of research and scholarly inquiry in design as a solution to this growing need for high-performance landscapes. While the concept of landscape performance assessment is gaining attention within the field, the availability of time, resources, and technical expertise remains an obstacle for many designers in evaluating built work. More in-depth research investigations are best left to academics and scientists, but methods exist that every landscape architect can use to assess the performance of their own work for use throughout the planning, design, construction, and post-occupancy phases. This paper aims to provide an introduction to these metrics and methods that can be applied in the field. Less emphasis is placed on models and web-based calculators, which are available through resources such as the Landscape Architecture Foundation.

Elements of Nonparametric Statistics.

Article

Jan 1967

Fundamental Concepts in the Design of Experiments

Article

Feb 2000

Testing the validity of a saliency-based method for visual assessment of constructions in the landscape

Article

Nov 2017
LANDSCAPE URBAN PLAN

This paper aims at evaluating a method for objective visual assessment of constructions in the landscape based on saliency, which is defined as the distinct perceptual quality by which an item in the world stands out from its surroundings and therefore attracts attention (conspicuity). Photographic simulations of public facility buildings, water towers and transmission towers inserted in a rural environment are created in different designs, colours and sizes. Their corresponding saliency maps, which are computationally generated predictions of the human viewing pattern, are calculated and compared with the saliency map of the original landscape photograph through a correlation analysis. Higher correlations indicate a smaller visual contrast from a landscape point of view of minimizing the visual disturbance. The method can also be used to generate eye-catching designs such as landmarks. The output of the saliency method is compared to human assessments of visual integration obtained using a photo-questionnaire. The results demonstrate that the saliency method is sensitive to differences in colour and size. In addition, the outcome is consistent with people’s subjective assessments. For design differences, this is less the case, probably because more factors than just the visual aspect are involved when choosing a design. The method could thus be useful when scenarios only differing in size and colour are to be compared. It is fast and easy which allows the assessment of many different scenarios and viewpoints. This could be valuable for designing more effective and all-round visual impact mitigation measures integrated in the design of a construction.

Landscape heterogeneity correlates with recreational values: a case study from Swedish agricultural landscapes and implications for policy

Article

Jul 2017

Agri-environmental schemes are often targeted at heterogenic landscapes to support several ecosystem services besides food production. The question is whether heterogenic landscapes also support recreation values. Previous studies suggest this but statistical analysis of the relation between heterogeneity and recreation is lacking. To assess this, we used a quantitative Landscape Heterogeneity Index (LHI), developed for biodiversity conservation. We asked five different user groups to score 12 photographs of landscapes depicting different LHI. All user groups, especially conservationists and hunters, preferred the heterogeneous landscapes and this difference was statistically significant for all groups except farmers. Accessibility, in terms of roads, had no obvious impact on the recreational value conveyed by the photos. The paper provides evidence that the recreational value amplifies biodiversity-based values of heterogeneous landscapes and argues that such landscapes also provide resilience and insurance value buffering against unexpected risks. Implications for policy are discussed. Highlights • Recreational value was positively correlated to landscape heterogeneity. • This correlation was statistically significant for all user groups except farmers. • Accessibility, in terms of roads, had no obvious impact on the recreational value. • The multi-functionality of heterogeneous agricultural landscapes including resilience and the insurance value should be better acknowledged in policy.

Metrics Evaluating Multivariate Design Alternatives: Application of the Friedman’s Two-way Analysis of Variance by Ranks: A Personal Reflection

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