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A systematic review of cognitive distortions in online child sexual exploitation material offenders
Abstract
The aim of this review was to analyse and synthesize the results of prior research into the cognitive distortions present in online child sexual exploitation material (CSEM) consumers. A systematic search of databases containing peer reviewed articles as well as grey literature was conducted for prior studies involving the cognitions of CSEM offenders using the SPIDER methodology. Twenty articles were identified for inclusion following a full text review and a Mixed-Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) quality analysis. The instruments used were reviewed and summarized, and the level of endorsement present in the measured characteristics was analysed. The study's findings show that overall endorsement of cognitive distortions traditionally associated with contact sex offenders by CSEM offenders was low, and that existing sex offender instruments are largely ineffective tools for use with CSEM offenders. Newer assessment instruments built specifically for online offenders show promise, with overall moderate endorsements present in tools such as the Cognitions on Internet Sexual Offending scale (CISO), but additional research is needed to validate this approach.
... Related work: Similar to our paper, there are 8 survey papers in the domain of CSAM; they are Ali et al. [3], Christensen and Pollard [4], Lee et al. [1], Russell et al. [5], Sanchez et al. [2], Slavin et al. [6], Steel et al. [7] and Steel et al. [8]. In [3], the authors reviewed 42 papers to study the Internet's role in developing CSA for commercial and noncommercial purposes. ...
... In [6], 21 papers were reviewed to measure potential risk factors and clinical correlates of compulsive child behaviour that may help to prevent abuse and treat victims more effectively. In [7], 20 papers were reviewed to learn about the cognitive distortions associated with sexual touching of CSAM offenders. In [8], 33 papers were reviewed to identify the technology used by CSAM offenders. ...
... We focused on reviewing research papers in the area of online CSAM. Our overall methodology which is used to identify the relevant papers is based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2 , as used in previous review papers such as [1], [6], [7] and [8]. ...
... Related work: Similar to our paper, there are 8 survey papers in the domain of CSAM; they are Ali et al. [3], Christensen and Pollard [4], Lee et al. [1], Russell et al. [5], Sanchez et al. [2], Slavin et al. [6], Steel et al. [7] and Steel et al. [8]. In [3], the authors reviewed 42 papers to study the Internet's role in developing CSA for commercial and noncommercial purposes. ...
... In [6], 21 papers were reviewed to measure potential risk factors and clinical correlates of compulsive child behaviour that may help to prevent abuse and treat victims more effectively. In [7], 20 papers were reviewed to learn about the cognitive distortions associated with sexual touching of CSAM offenders. In [8], 33 papers were reviewed to identify the technology used by CSAM offenders. ...
... We focused on reviewing research papers in the area of online CSAM. Our overall methodology which is used to identify the relevant papers is based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2 , as used in previous review papers such as [1], [6], [7] and [8]. ...
Child sexual abuse inflicts lifelong devastating consequences for victims and is an ongoing social concern. In most countries, child sexual abuse material (CSAM) distribution is illegal. As a result, there are many research papers in the literature which proposed technologies to detect and investigate CSAM. In this survey, a comprehensive search of the peer-reviewed journal and conference paper databases (including preprints) is conducted to identify high-quality literature. We use the PRISMA methodology to refine our search space to 2,761 papers published by Springer, Elsevier, IEEE and ACM. After iterative reviews of title, abstract and full text for relevance to our topics, 43 papers are included for full review. Our paper provides a comprehensive synthesis of the tasks of the current research and how the papers use techniques and datasets to solve their tasks and evaluate their models. To the best of our knowledge, we are the first to focus exclusively on online CSAM detection and prevention with no geographic boundaries, and the first survey to review papers published after 2018. It can be used by researchers to identify gaps in knowledge and relevant publicly available datasets that may be useful for their research.
... Two additional questions were asked related to the ease of finding child pornography (to evaluate the public perception of the likelihood of "accidental" viewing) and perceived victimization. In lieu of Likert-type questions where low endorsement was likely, the questions were formulated to capture nuance related to common cognitive distortions (e.g., Virtual is Not Real and Internet is Uncontrollable) (Paquette & Cortoni, 2020;Steel et al., 2020). For the perceived ease of finding child pornography, participants were given four statements related to the likelihood of coming across child pornography and asked which of them they most agreed with: ...
... • Viewing child pornography is indirectly responsible for creating child victims. • Viewing child pornography does not contribute to child victimization (Steel et al., 2020). ...
Understanding the public’s perceptions of child pornography helps identify gaps in awareness and knowledge, impacts legislative decision making, quantifies stigmatization, and provides a baseline for identifying differences between lay and offender populations for clinical purposes. This research provides a comprehensive public survey assessing these issues. An Internet-based sample of 524 adults (mean age = 47 years, 51% female) within the USA were asked about their understanding and beliefs related to child pornography and individuals who view child pornography. The questions covered three topic areas—general perceptions of child pornography, endorsement of child pornography beliefs, and opinions related to the legality of various forms of child pornography as well as the decision making related to sentencing and sex offender registration for child pornography consumers. The research found that the public viewed these offenses as more severe than most other crimes and that there was an overestimation by the public of risks related to recidivism and contact offending. Additionally, the research found that there was support for most of the current sentencing guidelines in the USA, including sex offender registration, and that there was limited support for treatment over incarceration.
... Internet-only CSEM consumers were found to have low overall endorsement of traditional cognitive distortions exhibited by those who committed contact offenses (Steel et al., 2020) and fewer deficits in areas such as victim empathy (Elliott et al., 2009). Additionally, qualitative studies have identified Internet-specific distortions such as Virtual is Not Real, in which the online content is perceived as being divorced from reality, and the Internet is Uncontrollable, which identifies the Internet itself as criminogenic and facilitative of sexual offenses (Paquette et al., 2020). ...
... Additionally, this research utilizes a novel sample and approach, using an anonymous survey of previously convicted offenders to reduce social desirability bias. Finally, this study incorporates recommendations based on a prior systematic review (Steel et al., 2020) into a set of improved questions designed to elicit minimization-based distortions. The results provide potential treatment targets, including behavioral areas that may be pathways to CSEM offending. ...
Identifying the self-perceptions of child sexual exploitation material (CSEM) consumers compared to a reference population of non-consumers is critical in establishing distorted cognitions that may not be elucidated when comparison is made with groups who have committed other offenses. This exploratory work utilizes a quantitative approach toward identifying how individuals previously convicted of child pornography offenses view CSEM and CSEM offending, using a group of non-offenders as a baseline. The target group was selected based on their inclusion in two sex offender registries for child pornography offenses (n = 78). A reference group of non-offenders (n = 254) was gender-matched from a subset of a prior study evaluating the public perceptions of CSEM. Both groups were adults located within the United States and were asked questions using an online survey about their general perceptions of CSEM, their endorsement of CSEM beliefs, and their opinions related to the legality of various forms of CSEM and associated laws and sentencing guidelines. The study found that CSEM consumers more accurately assessed risks associated with CSEM offending, but that they exhibited potential minimization-based cognitive distortions related to severity and victimization and more strongly endorsed child erotica and virtual child pornography being legal. Additionally, they endorsed treatment over prison, and were strongly opposed to sex offender registration for child pornography offenses. The results provide potential treatment targets, including behavioral areas that may be pathways to CSEM offending.
... In addition to identifying individuals who have the highest risk of re-offending for a treatment intervention, the treatments themselves can be better targeted. For traditional interventions, for example using Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, there is little evidence that faulty cognitions present in traditional sex offenders are strongly endorsed by CSEM offenders (Steel et al., 2020b). In a large group of CSEM individuals treated using traditional sex offender treatment, for example, the treatment group re-offended at a higher rate than a non-treatment group (Mews et al., 2017). ...
... An example of a common distortion amongst CSEM offenders, Virtual is not Real, allows an individual to view their actions as less impactful by divorcing digital activity from the underlying abuse(Paquette et al., 2019). Although traditional post-hoc cognitive distortions associated with general sex offenders show low endorsement(Steel et al., 2020b), the cognitive state of offenders when actively engaged in a lawless space and in a state of arousal may differ (Van Gelder, 2013). Ariely and Lowenstein ...
Deterrence, treatment and legal responses to online child sexual exploitation material (CSEM) offenders is enhanced by the joint consideration of technological behaviours and cognitions. CSEM offenders choose an environment based on both psychosocial needs and utility, and in turn that environment shapes future behaviour and reinforces cognitive distortions. This paper introduces lawless space theory, which posits that offenders will primarily choose and utilize a perceived lawless space that best meets their psychosexual needs in the most frictionless way; habituation and differential association in the lawless space will reduce the perceived risk; normalization will increase comfort in a particular lawless space, increasing friction costs that must be overcome to switch technologies; and additional countermeasures will only be implemented by offenders to reduce perceived risk and lower cognitive dissonance, but not at the expense of utility. The theory offers explanatory power for the lifecycle of a lawless space, the use of legacy spaces in the presence of objectively more capable options, the simultaneous use of multiple spaces to meet different psychosexual needs, and the adoption of new technologies by offenders. Additionally, the gateway choice and progression of lawless space usage informs investigations, risk assessments, and deterrence efforts and provides behavioural treatment targets.
... Several systematic reviews have looked at different elements of CDs in criminal behavior. Steel et al. [11], for instance, primarily focused on CDs in offenders who interact with child sexual exploitation material (CSEM). Their analysis revealed a considerable gap in the area, underlining the inadequacies of current instruments developed to measure CDs in CSEM offenders, which are frequently adapted from tools used for contact offenders. ...
The complex link between cognitive distortions (CDs) and criminal behavior is explored in this systematic literature review, with particular attention paid to typologies, contributions to criminal behavior, and correlations with different forms of crime. The review includes 25 studies that met rigorous inclusion criteria and were sourced from Scopus, Web of Science (WoS), ScienceDirect, PubMed, and PubMed Central (PMC). The selected research, which was published between 2019 and 2024, focuses on the link between CD and criminal conduct. This review reveals the relationship between CDs and criminal activity, emphasizing how these distortions have significant consequences on the actions of offenders. The findings suggest that CDs not only induce unlawful conduct but also have distinct impacts on various kinds of offenses. This review emphasizes the importance of understanding CDs in criminal conduct, providing insights into prevention strategies, rehabilitation programs, and therapy interventions. It offers an extensive overview of the significant role that CDs play in influencing criminal behavior at a time when efficient crime prevention and rehabilitation programs are essential. Through illuminating the complex relationships between CDs and criminal conduct, this research provides useful information for mental health practitioners and rehabilitation facilities. Beyond the realm of academia, the implications enable the creation of focused therapies that target certain CDs common to individuals convicted of crimes. Ultimately, this synthesis of research findings is a valuable resource for informing evidence-based methods to reduce recidivism and improve societal well-being.
... The MMAT was created to assess both quantitative and qualitative studies, and therefore, it is suitable for appraising the different types of study methodologies included in the review. Another reason for selecting the MMAT is that its validity and reliability have been established (Pace et al., 2012), and it has already been used in several reviews (e.g., Steel et al., 2020;Xu et al., 2021). ...
Background
Arabs with intellectual disabilities and/or autism may exhibit challenging behaviour that affects them and their caregivers. Early, appropriate intervention may reduce these effects. This review synthesised and critically appraised challenging behaviour intervention research for this population.
Methods
All published empirical research on challenging behaviour interventions for Arabs with intellectual disabilities and/or autism was included. In September 2022, 15 English and Arabic databases yielded 5282 search records. Studies were appraised using the MMAT. Review findings were narratively synthesised.
Results
The 79 included studies (n = 1243 participants) varied in design, intervention, and evaluation method. Only 12.6% of interventions were well-designed and reported. Arab interventions primarily targeted children, were applied collectively on small samples, lacked individualised assessment, and were based on an inconsistent understanding of challenging behaviour.
Conclusion
The evidence base on interventions for Arabs with intellectual disabilities and/or autism and challenging behaviour needs strengthening. Attention should be given to culturally relevant adaptations.
... The MMAT has been widely used in systematic reviews due to its applicability in accessing both qualitative and quantitative evidence. [15][16][17] This evaluation allowed studies of low methodological quality to be identified, and since their exclusion is discouraged, the interpretation of research findings has considered the risk of bias or rigour of each individual study. 18 ...
Objectives
Ovarian cancer survivorship is complex and is associated with greater symptom burden, fear of reoccurrence, sexual dysfunction, lower quality of life and heightened existential distress in contrast to other cancers. This systematic review aimed to investigate the effectiveness for, and perspective of, psychosocial interventions encompassing psychological, social, and emotional support, tailored to, or involving ovarian cancer survivors at all stages of disease.
Methods
Adhering to the PRISMA‐SR statement guidelines, a systematic search was conducted across PsycINFO, MEDLINE, Embase, Emcare, CINAHL, Scopus, Cochrane Library databases, Google, and Google Scholar. Two reviewers independently undertook a two‐stage screening process. The Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool was utilised to assess the methodological quality of included studies. Data were extracted using customised data extraction tools and narratively synthesised.
Results
Thirteen studies were included in this review. Generally positive effects of psychosocial interventions were observed across a range of outcome domains (meaning enhancing, cognitive, social, emotional, and cancer‐specific). However, the characteristics of interventions and outcome measures varied across studies. Psychoeducational interventions were identified as the most common psychosocial approach, while Acceptance and Commitment Therapy showed promise in addressing the disease's high symptom burden. Women's perspectives of psychosocial interventions were described as “useful” and promoted positive self‐regard.
Conclusion
While the evidence base largely support positive effects of psychosocial interventions for ovarian cancer survivors, this finding is constrained by heterogeneity of interventions and modest gains. Future research may explore the standardisation of psychosocial interventions for this demographic, investigating its effects on less explored but prevalent concerns among ovarian cancer survivors such as fear of cancer recurrence and sexual dysfunction.
... Hence, the argument of children being sexual beings may derive from the offender having been sexually abused as a child, in which case online CSA would be the result of traumatic childhood experiences (Babchishin et al. 2011(Babchishin et al. , 2015. Steel et al. (2020) identify three mechanisms of cognitive distortions that appear at different stages of offending. First, long-term distortions, such as childhood experience of being sexually abused, originate from the history of the offender and facilitate offending by normalizing sexual violence against children (for childhood abuse and sexual offending, see Seto and Lalumiére 2010). ...
Online communities on darknet contribute to sexual violence against children. They provide offender access to Child Sexual Abuse Material and to a group of peers that supports criminal activities. This article sheds light on online child sexual abusers and their justifications for Child Sexual Abuse (CSA). It describes different offender profiles and motivations for CSA, followed by a section on policing these offences. The article then lays out psychological models, such as cognitive distortions, that are used to understand pedophiles’ behavior. The discussion is complemented by direct citations from a darknet community of CSA offenders, showing that these models are not just theoretical considerations. The last part of the article concentrates on online communities of CSA offenders. It describes different types of members of such communities and explains how the communities support individual offenders and how they provide learning models that facilitate criminal behavior. The article concludes with a short reflection of its findings, including novel insights for investigators of these crimes and proposed venues for further research.
... subtypes of child pornography offenders. Relying solely on criminal justice data to study recidivism likely misses key psychological variables relevant to risk, such as the cognitive underpinnings of offenders in these subgroups, whether they share similar or different cognitive distortions about their offense behaviors, and what impact (if any) treatment has on future behavior (Malamuth, 2018;Seto & Eke, 2017;Steel et al., 2020). Such information would lead to greater clarity concerning whether these thought processes contribute uniquely to certain kinds of these offenses as opposed to others (Henshaw et al., 2017;Kettleborough & Merdian, 2017)-these variables, although relevant to risk assessment, may be even more valuable to effective intervention and treatment. ...
Objectives: A sizeable percentage of federally-sentenced child pornography offenders have no history of other criminal offenses (hereinafter “child pornography-exclusive offenders”). There is a critical legal need to assess the recidivism risk of this population. The Child Pornography Risk Tool (CPORT) is a commonly-used actuarial risk assessment instrument developed specifically to assess the risk of child pornography offenders.
Hypotheses: It was hypothesized that there would be a sound scientific basis supporting the use of the CPORT in the United States as well as research demonstrating its applicability to child pornography-exclusive offenders, given that the instrument is currently being used in forensic settings.
Method: This article critically examines all of the existing empirical studies that constitute the research base of the CPORT.
Results: The empirical studies of the CPORT suffer from at least three significant limitations: extremely small samples of recidivists; inordinate amounts of missing data; and potentially outdated samples. Further, none of the studies have tested the CPORT in a sample of offenders in the United States. An illustrative example of how the instrument has been misapplied in forensic settings and courtroom testimony is provided.
Conclusions: These issues make it inappropriate to use the CPORT on child pornography exclusive offenders in the United States at this time. The article concludes by describing avenues for future research that can advance our understanding of this distinct and growing population of offenders.
... According to some studies, compared to non-juvenile offenders, the juvenile show higher degrees of cognitive distortions and problematic behaviors (Barriga et al., 2000;Schlutera et al., (2019) ). Moreover, it is found that compared to normal adolescents, those with conduct disorders pay considerably more attention to signs with hostile meanings when encoding and retrieving (Freik, 2003;Liabo and Richardson, 2007;Lochman and Dodge, 1994;Steel et al., 2020). ...
Over the past few decades, conduct disorder has increased rapidly. However, few studies have been conducted on the role of interpersonal cognitive distortions and dysfunctional attitudes in this kind of disorder. This is a causal-comparative study. The research statistical population is composed of all the adolescents with conduct disorder living at Esfahan’s Centre for Rehabilitation and Training in 2021. Also, research sample size encompasses a total of 60 adolescents: 30 adolescents with conduct disorder and 30 normal. Two groups were matched regarding the age, sex and educational level. The research tools were three questionnaires on demographic characteristics, interpersonal cognitive distortion and dysfunctional attitude scales. Data were analyzed by Multivariate Regression. According to the research data analysis, there was not a significant difference between two groups with regard to the misconception mean scores in interpersonal relations and interpersonal cognitive distortions. However, mean scores of adolescents suffering from conduct disorder in rejection with interpersonal relations, unrealistic expectations, and dysfunctional attitudes were significant (P<0.05). According to findings of the study, it seems that dysfunctional attitudes and interpersonal cognitive distortions are effective in causing disorders. Thus, by providing grounds for psychological interventions, conduct disorder can be treated with better results.
... Psycho logically meaningful measures would contribute greatly to our understanding of the etiology and course of CSEM offending. In particular, it would be interesting to see how cognitions specific to CSEM offending and situational factors (e.g., alcohol use during the offence) may predict reoffending among individuals with CSEM offending (for review, see Steel et al., 2020). Mixed offending may be a promising indicator of antisociality as the current study found that both mixed groups (de-escalation and escalation) were high er on our indicators of antisociality than the stable group. ...
The current study examined the extent to which the temporal order of sexual offending may be risk-relevant for men with Child Sexual Exploitation Material (CSEM; also referred to as child pornography) offences. We categorized 85 men who had committed two distinct sexual offences (CSEM or contact sexual offence) into three groups: (1) 47% (n = 40) followed a stable pattern, that is, men with CSEM offences who then committed a new CSEM offence; (2) 41% (n = 35) followed a de-escalation pattern, that is, men with contact sexual offences who then committed a CSEM offence; (3) and 12% (n = 10) followed an escalation pattern, that is, men with CSEM offences who then committed a contact sexual offence. Compared to the other groups, the stable group had more sexual interest in children, the de-escalation group had a younger age at first police involvement and more prior offending, and the escalation group had more substance use problems. We then examined recidivism (any new offence after the second sexual offence) and found that the escalation group had the highest 5-year and 7-year reoffending rates (start of follow-up: opportunity after the second sexual offence) for any crime, any non-sexual violence, any violence (including contact sexual offences), and any contact sexual recidivism. The de-escalation and stable groups had the highest CSEM recidivism rates. The current study suggests that ordering of offending within men adjudicated for CSEM offences is risk-relevant and that those who fit the escalation pattern may be at higher risk to reoffend.
... In using an understanding-based approach with the CSEM offender, traditional offense-supportive cognitions that may be used as themes with contact offenders that rely on a lack of victim empathy or the sexualization of children may not resonate well as they tend to exhibit lower overall endorsement of traditional sex offender cognitive distortions (Steel et al., 2020). Instead, strong support for other cognitions that may lead to more effective theme development have been shown to be present in CSEM offenders. ...
Child sexual exploitation material (CSEM) investigations have emerged as an area of specialization that combines multiple skillsets. Recent research has reshaped how we view CSEM offenders-they have different offense-supportive cognitions from contact sex offenders, their use of technology is no longer based on anecdotal evidence, and approaches to investigative planning, interviewing and forensics have evolved. This paper summarizes select, relevant areas of recent research related to CSEM investigations, and makes evidence-based recommendations for evolving how we approach these efforts. Current trends from other domains, including contact tracing and mental health considerations in a remote-working environment are additionally addressed.
... In addition to identifying individuals who have the highest risk of re-offending for a treatment intervention, the treatments themselves can be better targeted. For traditional interventions, for example using Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, there is little evidence that faulty cognitions present in traditional sex offenders are strongly endorsed by CSEM offenders (Steel et al., 2020b). In a large group of CSEM offenders treated using traditional sex offender treatment, for example, the treatment group re-offended at a higher rate than a non-treatment group (Mews et al., 2017). ...
Deterrence, treatment and legal response to online child sexual exploitation material (CSEM) offenders is enhanced by the joint consideration of technological behaviours and cognitions. CSEM offenders choose an environment based on both psychosexual needs and utility, and in turn that environment shapes future behaviour and reinforces cognitive distortions. This paper introduces lawless space theory, a theory of cyber criminality which posits that offenders will primarily choose and utilize a perceived lawless space that best meets their psychosocial and criminogenic needs in the most frictionless way; habituation and differential association in the lawless space will reduce the perceived risk; normalization will increase comfort in a particular lawless space, increasing friction costs that must be overcome to switch technologies; and additional countermeasures will only be implemented by offenders to reduce perceived risk and lower cognitive dissonance, but not at the expense of utility. The theory is explored through the exemplar of CSEM offences and offers explanatory power for the lifecycle of a lawless space, the use of legacy spaces in the presence of objectively more capable options, the simultaneous use of multiple spaces to meet different psychosexual needs, and the adoption of new technologies by offenders. Additionally, the gateway choice and progression of lawless space usage informs investigations, risk assessments, and deterrence efforts and provides behavioural treatment targets.
... As a result, the child's language and social, emotional and cognitive development are hampered (Lederer, Artzi & Borodkin 2022). If parents rely solely on smartphones for parenting, their children may be exposed to negative aspects, such as violent and sexual content (Steel et al. 2020), cyberbullying and inhibition of cognitive, language and socio-emotional development (Thongseiratch, Leijten & Melendez-Torres 2020). Parents can consider these two smartphone effects to demonstrate more positive digital parenting (Dardanou et al. 2020). ...
Background: Using digital tools with children during the pandemic has positive and negative impacts. However, we must investigate how parents with higher education qualifications best apply digital parenting.
Aim: The aim of this article was to explore the practice of digital parenting with parents with higher education backgrounds, the digital tools used and the parents’ motivation during the pandemic.
Setting: This research was conducted with parents who work as university lecturers in Banjarmasin, South Kalimantan, Indonesia.
Methods: This study involved 27 lecturers with children in early childhood education. Data were collected using structured interview techniques and analysed using presentation, reduction and verification techniques. The validity of the data was ensured through the triangulation of sources and the extension of the research time.
Results: The results show that applying restrictive mediation through various regulations in using smartphones coupled with authoritative parenting is the leading choice for parents. During the pandemic, parents give children more freedom and time to use smartphones; therefore, they have to adjust their parenting patterns to counteract the negative impacts caused by these digital devices. However, the lack of parenting support, many work schedules and limited interaction time with children can affect this parenting style.
Conclusion: Parents can implement a successful digital parenting transition during a pandemic. Support, motivation, communication, supervision, rules and restrictions imposed on children to continue to use smartphones according to their age are important factors to ensure parenting success in the digital era.
... Según VandenBos (2007), las dc son pensamientos, percepciones o creencias defectuosas o inexactas, firmemente sostenidas a pesar de la evidencia objetiva contradictoria, producto del aprendizaje, que ayudan a superar los controles internos que aparecen en el momento de elegir una conducta y mantener la estabilidad tras el evento, con el fin de evitar el autocastigo moral y autocuestionamientos que afecten la autoestima. Sobre ellas se han hecho múltiples estudios en diferentes problemáticas, como lo son el juego patológico, los trastornos de ansiedad, el consumo de pornografía infantil, y la relación entre dc, sintomatología depresiva y adaptación social, entre otras (Mallorquí-Bagué et al., 2019;Orlowski et al., 2020;Ota et al., 2020;Steel et al., 2020). En comportamientos delictivos, a partir de las dc, el sujeto logra excusar, explicar, justificar o minimizar la gravedad de su conducta, y, a través de afirmaciones hechas antes, durante y después del delito busca reducir el estrés que pueda ocasionar la ejecución de dicha conducta (Cepeda y Ruiz, 2016;Ruiz, 2014). ...
... Cognitive distortions of individuals serving sentences for sexual crimes against children and adolescents have been investigated in the field of psychology (Ferrão, 2016;Cepeda, & Ruiz, 2016;Reis, & Cavalcante, 2019;Steel, Newman, O'Rourke, & Quayle, 2020). According to Beck and Freeman (1993), cognitive distortions are ways of organizing the mind, in the sense of convincing the individual of something (e.g. ...
Introduction:
Cognitive distortions of child sexual offenders have been researched because they might be the foundation for tort conduct.
Objective:
the aim of this study was to analyze cognitive distortions in individuals convicted for statutory rape against children and/or teenagers and verify connections with their family of origin, early maladaptive schema, self-esteem, and self-efficacy, as well as to assess the predictive power of these variables in the occurrence of cognitive distortions.
Method:
this was a descriptive, correlational and explanatory research performed with 49 men currently serving time without parole. The following instruments were administered: Family Background Questionnaire, Young Schema Questionnaire, General Self-Efficacy Scale, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, as well as a documentary review of the legal proceedings of the participants.
Results:
the study revealed connections between cognitive distortions and substance abuse by the father (r=0,417; p=0,034), as well as vulnerability to harm (r=0,416; p=0,008), defectiveness (r=0,405; p=0,013), and grandiosity (r=0,339; p=0,040) schema. The vulnerability to harm scheme was the only predictive variable for cognitive distortions, accounting for 73,4 % of the variance.
Conclusion:
importance of analyzing cognitive distortions in child sexual victimizers and the possibility of schema therapy as an alternative treatment.
Possession and distribution of child sexual abuse material (CSAM) is a serious criminal offence facilitated by online technologies. To prevent, investigate, and treat online CSAM offending, comprehensive knowledge of potential risk factors for these crimes is required. Given the large body of relevant research, a systematic overview of the risk factors typically considered in research and their link to (testable) theories is lacking. We present a review of 43 quantitative studies (sample sizes ranging from N = 60 to N = 14,804) identified from 56 meta-analyses, reviews, and book chapters on online CSAM offending. Risk factors were extracted and grouped into 12 categories and 75 subcategories via qualitative clustering. The most frequent categories were Criminal History, Socio-Demographics, and Social Relations, whereas genuine psychological constructs were rare. Comparing risk factors for online CSAM offending to those for general (sexual) offending, the need for more specific theories of online CSAM offending is discussed along with implications for future research.
O estudo objetivou analisar distorções cognitivas presentes no conteúdo de entrevistas com cinco autores de agressão sexual de criança e adolescente, sexo masculino, idades entre 19 a 58 anos (M=30,8). A pesquisa, com abordagem qualitativa dos dados, envolveu amostra por conveniência dos participantes. Utilizou-se entrevista semiestruturada, realizada em uma Unidade Prisional de Parauapebas - Pará - Brasil. Procedeu-se à análise de conteúdo das transcrições das entrevistas, considerando categorias pré-existentes na literatura. Identificaram-se as seguintes categorias de distorções: (a) Negação Completa, (b) Negação Parcial, (c) Aceitação da Agressão Sexual, (d) Minimização da Agressão, (e) Minimização da Responsabilidade, (f) Negação/Minimização das Consequências, (g) Negação/Minimização do Planejamento e (h) Negação/Minimização de Tratamento. Os achados estão em consonância com a literatura que sugere a presença predominante de distorções cognitivas que podem ter sido utilizadas para justificar ou negar fatores associados à prática dessa agressão. Cabe destacar a importância da investigação sistemática dessas distorções para compreender fatores presentes na trajetória de vida de autores de agressão sexual, e, assim, potencializar a eficácia de ações capazes de minimizar a reincidência do comportamento agressivo ao prevenir padrões de risco e desenvolver estratégias psicoeducativas, entre outras.
Objective. The present theoretical review explored the dimensions, stages and factors involved in the grooming process from the perspective of the both victim and the aggressor. Understanding the dynamics of the grooming process is highly relevant for the investigative process and for the forensic psychological assessment of the victim. The analysis was conducted with the purpose of conceptual clarification of factors and processes, emphasizing their relevance for preventing victimization. Materials and methods. The research method used was a literature review on the concept of grooming. APA PsycNet, ScienceDirect, PubMed and EBSCOhost databases were accessed. Studies investigating the definition and evolution of the concept of grooming, victim vulnerability factors, characteristics of the sexual offender, comparative analysis of the phenomenon in physical versus online environments, and methods of preventing the phenomenon were included, both qualitative and quantitative. The time interval used was 2003–2023. Results. The analysis revealed a series of stages in the grooming process, depending on the characteristics of the situation and people involved, such as target selection, gaining access, building trust, fulfilling needs, isolating the target, and sexualizing the relationship. Moreover, a number of victim vulnerability factors covering three areas were identified in the literature. Regarding sex offenders, the motivational theories of sexual abuse revealed a number of characteristics of the abuser. Conclusions. Information about the victim and offender characteristics and the dynamics of the grooming process are discussed in relation to the prevention of the phenomenon, which cannot be done without adequate education about its characteristics. Keywords: sexual abuse, grooming, sexual offender, victimization, prevention.
p style="text-align: justify;">The prevalence of cognitive distortions in sexual offenders is a significant risk factor for reoffending. Investigation of cognitive distortions can improve the quality of differential diagnosis and expert assessment of the accused. The aim of this study was the testing of the criterion and convergent validity, as well as the internal consistency of two scales for assessing cognitive distortions: the Dichotomic Scale of Cognitive Distortions and the Russian version of the MOLEST scale. The psychometric properties of the questionnaires were tested on a sample of 84 male subjects. Many of them (63 subjects) were accused of committing sexual criminal acts against minors (37 with pedophilia, 26 without disorders of sexual preference). The results of the study demonstrate good internal consistency for both the scales (Cronbach’s alpha was 0,910 and 0,956, respectively). Evidences of criterion validity for the diagnosis of pedophilia (for both methods at the significance level of p<0,01) and convergent validity (r=0,713; p=0) are given. The proposed scales are resistant to social desirability and can be used as additional diagnostic tools in clinical practice.</p
Advancements in technology and internet accessibility bring potential for new forms of offending behavior. Social Networking Sites ( SNS ) provide platforms for nonhuman animal abuse to be displayed and interacted with. There is a dearth of research into the characteristics of animal abuse perpetrated with the intent to be displayed on SNS . The aim of this study was to explore the psychological correlates of engagement with SNS content depicting animal abuse and likelihood to create new animal abuse content. One hundred and eighty-five university students completed an online questionnaire, which included their self-reported likelihood to engage with images of animal abuse on SNS (i.e., “like,” “comment,” “share,” and/or recreate). We found high levels of animal-oriented callousness, as opposed to other predicted factors (e.g., narcissism), were significantly related to likelihood to recreate animal abuse for display on SNS . The implications of the findings such as factors associated with bystander intervention are discussed.
Objective: Risk assessment is essential to effective correctional practice. For individuals with contact sexual offenses, many risk tools are available. There are fewer options, however, for individuals whose sexual offending exclusively involves child sexual exploitation materials (CSEM; legally referred to in Canada and the United States as child pornography). Hypotheses: The present study examined the predictive validity of the ACUTE-2007 and STABLE-2007 sexual recidivism risk tools among men with CSEM offenses. We expected these tools to show moderate predictive validity across study groups. Method: We compared the scales’ discrimination and calibration across three groups: (a) 1,042 men with contact sexual offenses against children (baseline comparison), (b) 228 men with exclusive CSEM offending (no contact sexual offenses), and (c) 80 men with both contact sexual offenses and CSEM offenses. Results: We found that the ACUTE-2007 and STABLE-2007 total scores and items had comparable (and often better) discrimination for men with CSEM offending compared with contact sexual offending against children in the prediction of any sexual recidivism, violent recidivism, and any recidivism. Calibration analyses indicated that the overall sexual recidivism rates for the median ACUTE-2007 and STABLE-2007 scores were similar for men with exclusive CSEM offenses compared with men with any contact offending against children. Almost all of the sexual recidivism for the CSEM-exclusive group involved further CSEM offenses. Conclusions: This study supports the use of these tools to rank-order men with CSEM offending in terms of their risk of reoffending and to help direct treatment and management efforts.
Published in Informationsdienst Straffälligenhilfe
The English title is "online grooming from the perpetrators' perspective"
Sexual violence is a phenomenon that negatively impacts the victims' physical and psychological health and well-being. Sex offenders tend not to take responsibility for their actions, have difficulties in emotion regulation and impulse control, paraphilias or other disorders, so they are a difficult group to treat. In addition, the available psychological treatment programs tend to have inconsistent and, sometimes, undesirable results. This systematic review aimed to analyse the recidivism rates of sex offenders treated in community settings. According to the PRISMA guidelines, a systematic search in three databases, EBSCOhost, PubMed, and Web of Science, and a manual search was performed. A total of 319 empirical studies using quantitative methodologies were identified, 27 of which were selected for full-text analysis. In the end, 15 studies were included, published between 1996 and 2020. The objectives, intervention approach, instruments used, and the main results and conclusions were extracted from each study. The studies explored different types of sex offenders, such as: violent sex offenders (e.g., rapists), child abusers, and child abusers with pedophilia (and/or other paraphilias). Results showed that most of the programs had a cognitive-behavioral approach (n = 13). Overall, the interventions appear to be effective in reducing recidivism rates, and some of them led to improvements in other outcomes, such as cognitive distortions, accepting responsibility, victim awareness and empathy, emotional regulation, and offense supportive attitudes. Limitations and implications for future studies were discussed.
In the decade since the publication of the first edition of The Cambridge Handbook of Forensic Psychology, the field has expanded into areas such as social work and education, while maintaining the interest of criminal justice researchers and policy makers. This new edition provides cutting-edge and comprehensive coverage of the key theoretical perspectives, assessment methods, and interventions in forensic psychology. The chapters address substantive topics such as acquisitive crime, domestic violence, mass murder, and sexual violence, while also exploring emerging areas of research such as the expansion of cybercrime, particularly child sexual exploitation, as well as aspects of terrorism and radicalisation. Reflecting the global reach of forensic psychology and its wide range of perspectives, the international team of contributors emphasise diversity and cross-reference between adults, adolescents, and children to deliver a contemporary picture of the discipline.
For most people across the world the availability of the Internet and, in particular, hand-held devices, has had a positive impact on the way that people interact with the world and each other. However, this has also been associated with a number of cybercrimes and the focus of this chapter is online child sexual exploitation and abuse (OCSEA). These crimes include the production, preparation, consumption, sharing, dissemination or possession of CSEM and the solicitation of children for sexual purposes (sometimes called ‘grooming’), whether or not it results, or is intended to result, in a contact offence. It is difficult to make meaningful estimates of the scale of these crimes as conviction data is dependent on an individual being identified and the capacity of law enforcement to analyse the digital data associated with the crime. However, converging data would suggest that these crimes are increasing. OCSEA crimes may take place within a specific country but national and international cross-disciplinary collaboration is needed to both identify, locate and safeguard victims and prevent, investigate and prosecute these crimes. Europe is one region that has given greatest consideration to the issue of child exploitation and in particular child sexual abuse materials. In the last twenty years there has been considerable progress in understanding the demographic profiles of people who commit OCSEA crimes, what motivates them to offend and how they may be assessed in relation to future risks, particularly the commission of contact offences. However, it is unclear why our existing data would suggest that both identified OCSEA offenders and victims are more likely to be White rather than representing country-specific population demographics.
This paper analyzes a UK-based psychoeducational intervention for users of online child sexual exploitation material (CSEM). It is founded on 17 months of anthropological research in group programs with 81 participants and 15 staff. The article argues that group exercises help participants reframe knowledge about their offending, and ultimately reinforce the theoretical concept of discipline (Foucault) toward internal and external surveillance, normalization, and decreased risk. The paper first discusses factors participants believed contributed to offending. It then analyzes the program and participants' experiences, focusing on exercises about the mind (fantasy), Internet usage (disclosure and relationships), needs met by offending (Good Lives and true needs), and planning for the future (relapse prevention). Critical is that participants are encouraged to reengage offline lives and enact discipline on and to the online world. Thus, the article ends with an anthropologically-minded discussion about digital norms, online morality, and implications for Internet offender psychoeducational practice.
La recherche scientifique ayant porté sur les agresseurs sexuels d’enfants avec contact a mis en lumière l’importance des facteurs cognitifs en lien avec le passage à l’acte délictueux et la récidive sexuelle (p. ex., Helmus, Hanson, Babchishin et Mann, 2013). Les premières recherches portaient sur l’identification des produits cognitifs, aussi nommés distorsions cognitives, des agresseurs sexuels d’enfants, ainsi que sur le développement d’instruments psychométriques pour la mesure des distorsions cognitives (p. ex., l’Échelle de molestation ; Bumby, 1996). Plus récemment, un pan de la recherche a contribué au développement des connaissances sur les structures cognitives (c.-à-d., schémas cognitifs, également nommées théories implicites), lesquelles sont présumées représenter les croyances profondes des délinquants sexuels à propos du monde et de leurs victimes. Ces recherches portent toutefois une attention particulière sur les agresseurs sexuels avec contact, négligeant ainsi d’examiner les individus qui s’engagent dans des délits sexuels en ligne. Les résultats préliminaires des études s’y étant intéressées suggèrent que les cyberdélinquants présenteraient des structures cognitives distinctes de celles agresseurs sexuels avec contact (Bartels et Merdian, 2016), indiquant ainsi la nécessité d’étudier davantage ce construit psychologique auprès de cette population. La présente thèse vise donc à contribuer au développement des cognitions qui soutiennent la cyberdélinquance sexuelle commise envers les enfants.
Cette thèse présente les résultats de trois études distinctes, mais complémentaires, ayant tentées de faire la lumière sur la nature, la mesure et le rôle des cognitions qui soutiennent la cyberdélinquance sexuelle. À partir d’un échantillon de soixante interrogatoires policiers de cyberdélinquants sexuels, une analyse thématique de discours a permis d’identifier huit théories implicites partagées par les consommateurs de matériel d’abus sexuels d’enfants et par les auteurs de leurre d’enfants : 1) les délits sexuels ne causent pas de torts aux enfants ; 2) le monde est incontrôlable ; 3) les enfants sont des êtres sexuels ; 4) le droit d’agir à sa guise ; 5) le monde est dangereux ; 6) les enfants sont des partenaires de vie ; 7) l’univers virtuel n’est pas réel et ; 8) l’internet est incontrôlable. Les résultats issus de cette analyse ont servi de base pour le développement, suivant la Théorie classique des tests et la Théorie de la réponse à l’item, du questionnaire psychométrique intitulé Cognitions sur les crimes sexuels sur l’internet (C-CSI), lequel a été validé auprès d’un échantillon indépendant constitué de 241 délinquants sexuels en ligne et avec contact ainsi qu’auprès de délinquants non sexuels. L’examen de l’échelle a révélé d’excellentes propriétés psychométriques, incluant une vaste gamme d’items représentant un continuum de difficulté à être en faveur des cognitions soutenant la cyberdélinquance sexuelle, en plus d’une bonne capacité à discriminer parmi les sous-groupes de délinquants. La troisième étude visait à examiner l’association de ces cognitions, combinées à la sexualité atypique, l’autorégulation problématique et la perception de l’anonymat, à la cyberdélinquance sexuelle commise envers les enfants. Les résultats révèlent que les cognitions soutenant les comportements sexuels en ligne sont associées à la cyberdélinquance sexuelle, alors que les cognitions soutenant l’agression sexuelle sont associées à la commission de délits sexuels commis avec contact envers les enfants. De plus, les résultats indiquent que les cognitions modèrent la relation entre la préoccupation sexuelle et la cyberdélinquance sexuelle chez les hommes fortement préoccupés par la sexualité.
Les résultats issus de cette thèse ont de nombreuses retombées, tant pour le bénéfice de la recherche scientifique que pour la pratique clinique. D’abord, cette thèse a permis de contribuer à l’avancement des connaissances concernant la nature des cognitions en identifiant les structures cognitives des cyberdélinquants sexuels liées aux délits des consommateurs de matériel d’exploitation sexuelle d’enfants et des auteurs de leurre d’enfants. Ensuite, elle a fourni le premier outil psychométrique spécifiquement validé pour la mesure des cognitions soutenant la cyberdélinquance sexuelle, lequel permettra entre autres, une mesure du changement en contexte thérapeutique. Enfin, une meilleure connaissance cognitions qui supportent la cyberdélinquance sexuelle contribuera à l’élaboration de meilleures cibles de traitement pour les hommes qui s’engagent dans l’exploitation sexuelle des enfants sur l’internet.
We conducted an Internet survey of 1,102 men sexually attracted to children concerning their history of adjudicated offenses related to child pornography and sexual contact with children. Most of the men reported no offenses, but their rate of offenses was much higher than that expected for adult-attracted men. Correlates of offending are consistent with a strong role of the cumulative effects of temptation, especially age. Older men, men who had repeatedly worked in jobs with children, men who had repeatedly fallen in love with children, and men who had often struggled not to offend were especially likely to have offended. Attraction to male children, relative attraction to children versus adults, and childhood sexual abuse experiences were also strong predictors of offending. In contrast, permissive attitudes regarding child-adult sex and frequent indulgence in sexual fantasies about children were not significantly related to offending. Our findings represent the first large study of offending among men sexually attracted to children who were not recruited via contact with the legal system. Because of methodological limitations, our findings cannot be definitive. Reassuringly, however, results are generally consistent with those from the most pertinent existing studies, of recidivism among convicted sex offenders.
In this study, we developed a structured risk checklist, the Child Pornography Offender Risk Tool (CPORT), to predict any sexual recidivism among adult male offenders with a conviction for child pornography offenses. We identified predictors of sexual recidivism using a 5-year fixed follow-up analysis from a police case file sample of 266 adult male child pornography offenders in the community after their index offense. In our 5-year follow-up, 29% committed a new offense, and 11% committed a new sexual offense, with 3% committing a new contact sexual offense against a child and 9% committing a new child pornography offense. The CPORT items comprised younger offender age, any prior criminal history, any contact sexual offending, any failure on conditional release, indication of sexual interest in child pornography material or prepubescent or pubescent children, more boy than girl content in child pornography, and more boy than girl content in other child depictions. The CPORT was significantly associated with any sexual recidivism, with moderate predictive accuracy, and thus has promise in the risk assessment of adult male child pornography offenders with further cross-validation. (PsycINFO Database Record
(c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved).
Introduction:
Sexual interest toward prepubescents and pubescents (pedophilia and hebephilia) constitutes a major risk factor for child sexual abuse (CSA) and viewing of child abusive images, i.e., child pornography offenses (CPO). Most child sexual exploitation involving CSA and CPO are undetected and unprosecuted in the "Dunkelfeld" (German: "dark field").
Aim:
This study assesses a treatment program to enhance behavioral control and reduce associated dynamic risk factors (DRF) in self-motivated pedophiles/hebephiles in the Dunkelfeld.
Methods:
Between 2005 and 2011, 319 undetected help-seeking pedophiles and hebephiles expressed interest in taking part in an anonymous and confidential 1-year-treatment program using broad cognitive behavioral methodology in the Prevention Project Dunkelfeld. Therapy was assessed using nonrandomized waiting list control design (n=53 treated group [TG]; n=22 untreated control group [CG]).
Main outcome measures:
Self-reported pre-/posttreatment DRF changes were assessed and compared with CG. Offending behavior characteristics were also assessed via self-reporting.
Results:
No pre-/postassessment changes occurred in the control group. Emotional deficits and offense-supportive cognitions decreased in the TG; posttherapy sexual self-regulation increased. Treatment-related changes were distributed unequally across offender groups. None of the offending behavior reported for the TG was identified as such by the legal authorities. However, five of 25 CSA offenders and 29 of 32 CPO offenders reported ongoing behaviors under therapy.
Conclusions:
Therapy for pedophiles/hebephiles in the Dunkelfeld can alter child sexual offending DRF and reduce-related behaviors. Unidentified, unlawful child sexual exploitative behaviors are more prevalent in this population than in officially reported recidivism. Further research into factors predictive of problematic sexual behaviors in the Dunkelfeld is warranted.
This study examined the endorsement of cognitive distortions in child pornography offenders (CPOs), using an established assessment tool, the Abel and Becker Cognition Scale. The scale was expanded to include cognitions specific to child pornography offending, extracted from Howitt and Sheldon's Children and Sexual Activities Inventory (C&SA). Three samples of CPOs, child sex offenders and offenders with both offence types responded to the cognition items. An exploratory Principal Component Analysis suggested six main components of the scale. CPOs were significantly less likely to endorse these statements in general, and this was more pronounced on items that project blame onto the child or other people, describe a need for power and consider children as sexually active. The statements extracted from C&SA did not differentiate between the groups. These findings are discussed under consideration of the relationship between cognitive distortions and contact sex offending, and in reference to the general criticism concerning the definition and appropriate measurement of cognitive distortions.
The current meta-analysis compared the characteristics of online child pornography-only offenders, typical (offline) sex offenders against children, and offenders with both child pornography and contact sex offences against children (mixed). Based on 30 unique samples (comparison ns ranging from 98 to 2,702), the meta-analysis found key differences between groups. Offenders who committed contact sex offences were more likely to have access to children than those with only child pornography offences. In contrast, offenders who used the internet to commit sexual offences had greater access to the internet than those with contact sex offenders. Differences between the groups, however, were not limited to differential opportunities. Sex offenders against children and mixed offenders were found to score higher on indicators of antisociality than online child pornography offenders (CPOs). CPOs were also more likely to have psychological barriers to sexual offending than sex offenders against children and mixed offenders (e.g., greater victim empathy). Mixed offenders were found to be the most pedophilic, even more than CPOs. The findings suggest that offenders who restricted their offending behavior to online child pornography offences were different from mixed offenders and offline sex offenders against children, and that mixed offenders were a particularly high risk group.
The reliability and validity of the self-report questionnaire How I Think (HIT), designed to assess self-serving cognitive distortions related to antisocial behavior, was tested among Swedish offender and nonoffender adults and adolescents (N = 364). The results showed self-serving distortions to be more common among offenders and to predict self-reported antisocial behavior when tested among adults. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed, in contrast to earlier findings, that the underlying structure of the HIT was best explained by a three-factor solution with one major cognitive factor, referred to as “criminal mind.” It was concluded that the HIT, after further examination of its structural and divergent validity, could be used as a measure of criminal thinking in adults as well as in adolescents.
The cognitive distortions of sexual offenders are considered to be influential in the etiology and maintenance of deviant sexual behavior and are commonly accepted as valid predictors of treatment potential and success, despite the lack of systematic research to support these assumptions. Contributing to this gap in the research is the shortage of psychometrically sound assessment techniques to measure these cognitive distortions. The present paper describes the development and validation of two distinct measures, the MOLEST and RAPE Scales, designed to respectively assess the cognitive distortions of child molesters and rapists. Results indicate that the MOLEST and RAPE Scales are promising clinical and research measures, demonstrating strong internal consistency and reliability, convergent and discriminative validity, freedom from a socially desirable response bias, and utility in assessing the efficacy of a cognitive restructuring treatment component. Furthermore, sexual offenders' cognitive distortions as assessed by the MOLEST and RAPE Scales were found to be related to the number of victims and duration of sexually assaultive behavior.
There is an ongoing public debate about internet sex offenders: do they progress to contact offences, or are their deviant interests sufficiently satisfied through downloading indecent images of children? Also, do such individuals accept that they create victims in the absence of direct physical contact with children? This paper presents an analysis of the accounts offered by individuals convicted of internet-based sexual offences involving the downloading and viewing of images of children (n = 7). The data were collected through semi-structured interviews, and analysed using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA); a number of themes were generated from the rich data set produced. Here we focus upon the dominant theme of “self-distancing” wherein interviewees variously and often creatively rejected the view that they were creating child victims, actively disidentified from the sex offender label and generally downplayed their accountability relating to their offending activities. Findings are discussed in relation to policy implications and treatment.
A psychometric battery of measures, assessing a range of problem areas, was completed by 140 convicted untreated child abusers. Measures were adjusted for social desirability. Cluster analysis of the data identified men on the basis of deviancy (levels of pro-offending attitudes and social inadequacy) and denial (self-reported levels of offending behaviors). Examination of offense histories found that high-deviancy men, compared to low-deviancy men, were more likely to have been convicted of a previous sexual offense; to have committed offenses against boys, or both boys and girls; to have committed extra familial, or both extra- and intrafamilial, offenses; and to have had many victims. A method of identifying deviancy, which showed good cross-validation, also was derived. Although low-deviancy men were much more likely to be incest offenders than were high-deviancy men, nearly 40% of high-deviancy men were found to be intrafamilial offenders, suggesting that identifying deviancy level may be a useful adjunct to any risk assessment.
Qualitative analysis of interviews with 22 child abusers found strong evidence for Ward and Keenan's (199929.
Ward , T. and
Keenan , T. 1999. Child molesters’ implicit theories. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14: 821–838. [CrossRef], [Web of Science ®], [CSA]View all references) proposal that there are five implicit theories in child abusers that account for the majority of their cognitive distortions/thinking errors. These implicit theories are: Child as a sexual being where children are perceived as being able to and wanting to engage in sexual activity with adults and also are not be harmed by such sexual contact; Nature of harm where the offender perceives that sexual activity does not cause harm (and may in fact be beneficial) to the child; Entitlement where the child abuser perceives that he is superior and more important than others: and hence is able to have sex with whoever, and whenever, he wants; Dangerous world where the offender perceives that that others are abusive and rejecting and he must fight to regain control; and Uncontrollable where the offender perceives the world as uncontrollable and hence he believes that circumstances are outside of his control. There was no evidence for any other type of implicit theory. Results of the study also indicated that there was a significant difference in terms of the endorsement of the Dangerous world implicit theory between participants reporting a history of child sexual abuse and those who did not. Offenders against male victims were significantly more likely to endorse the Child as a sexual being and Dangerous world implicit theories compared to men who had offended against female children.
In this article, the authors argue that child molesters' cognitive distortions emerge from underlying causal theories about the nature of their victims, the world, and themselves. These implicit theories function like scientific theories and are used to explain empirical regularities (e.g., other people's actions) and to make predictions about the world. They are relatively coherent and constituted by a number of interlocking ideas and their component concepts and categories. Drawing on recent work in the cognitive distortions area, the authors identify five core implicit theories. Each theory is described in detail and its relationship to cognitive distortions discussed. Finally, the clinical and research implications of the implicit theory perspective are outlined.
Cognitive distortions in sex offenders are specific or general beliefs/attitudes that violate commonly accepted norms of rationality that have been shown to be associated with the onset and maintenance of sexual offending. In this article, we describe the major theories that have been formulated to explain the role of distorted cognition in initiating and maintaining sexual offending. We evaluate each theory in light of a set of theory appraisal criteria and the available empirical research. Finally, we conclude by drawing together the results of this theory evaluation process and highlight the major implications for treatment and future research.
This paper forms the second part of a debate led by Marshall, Marshall, and Kingston (2011) regarding the need to address so-called cognitive distortions in sexual offender treatment. In their paper, Marshall et al. argue that so-called cognitive distortions may not necessarily require intense and focused attention or challenge throughout treatment. In evaluating Marshall et al.'s arguments, we highlight some inherent differences in how both Marshall et al. and ourselves choose to define the term “cognitive distortion”. We surmise that these key definitional differences appear to account for many of the issues that we “debate”. In particular, for example, Marshall et al. focus their arguments regarding cognitive distortions more explicitly upon excuses, denial and minimisations, whereas we choose to focus upon schemas and higher-order belief structures. Thus, we argue that the broadness and vagueness of the term “cognitive distortion” can lend itself to quite different interpretations and research foci. We offer some alternative views to Marshall et al.'s position and advocate the consideration of cognitions with an aetiological role in offending. We conclude with some suggestions for future research and treatment.
Attitudes supportive of sexual offending figure prominently in theories of sexual offending, as well as in contemporary assessment and treatment practices with sex offenders. Based on 46 samples (n = 13,782), this meta-analysis found that attitudes supportive of sexual offending had a small, yet reasonably consistent, relationship with sexual recidivism (Cohen's d = .22). To the extent that differences were observed, attitudes predicted recidivism better for child molesters than for rapists. There was no difference in the predictive accuracy of attitudes assessed at pretreatment or at posttreatment. The current study indicates that attitudes supportive of sexual offending is a psychologically meaningful risk factor for sex offenders. However, given that many different constructs have been designated as sex offender attitudes, further research and theory is needed to understand how these various constructs contribute to recidivism.
Standardized systematic search strategies facilitate rigor in research. Current search tools focus on retrieval of quantitative research. In this article we address issues relating to using existing search strategy tools, most typically the PICO (Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome) formulation for defining key elements of a review question, when searching for qualitative and mixed methods research studies. An alternative search strategy tool for qualitative/mixed methods research is outlined: SPIDER (Sample, Phenomenon of Interest, Design, Evaluation, Research type). We used both the SPIDER and PICO search strategy tools with a qualitative research question. We have used the SPIDER tool to advance thinking beyond PICO in its suitable application to qualitative and mixed methods research. However, we have highlighted once more the need for improved indexing of qualitative articles in databases. To constitute a viable alternative to PICO, SPIDER needs to be refined and tested on a wider range of topics.
Thirteen men convicted of downloading child pornography were interviewed with a view to understanding how these men talked about the photographs and the function such talk played in their accounts. The interviews were informed by earlier work with defended subjects and were analyzed within a discursive framework. Quotations are used from the interviews to illustrate the analysis. Six principal discourses emerged within these accounts in relation to child pornography: sexual arousal; as collectibles; facilitating social relationships; as a way of avoiding real life; as therapy; and in relation to the Internet. These are discussed in the context of previous research. The analysis illustrates the important role that the Internet plays in increasing sexual arousal to child pornography and highlights individual differences in whether this serves as a substitute or as a blueprint for contact offenses. It also draws our attention to the important role that community plays in the Internet and how collecting facilitates the objectification of children and increases the likelihood that in the quest for new images children continue to be sexually abused. Discourses focussing on both therapy and addiction serve to distance the respondent from personal agency and allow for continued engagement with child pornography.
Child pornography, particularly that available via the Internet, has become a cause of huge social concern in recent years. This book examines the reality behind the often hysterical media coverage of the topic. Drawing on extensive new research findings, it examines how child pornography is used on the Internet and the social context in which such use occurs, and develops a model of offending behaviour to better help understand and deal with the processes of offending. Detailed case studies and offenders' own accounts are used to illustrate the processes involved in offending and treatment.
The authors argue that we need to refine our ideas of offending, and that while severe deterrents need to be associated with possession of child pornography, a better understanding is needed of the links between possession and committing a contact offence. Only by improving our understanding of this complex and very controversial topic can we hope to deal effectively with offenders and with their child victims. This is a book which will become an essential read for anyone involved with offenders or victims from a psychological, judicial or social background.
In 1999, Durkin and Bryant analysed an online ''boy love'' support forum and categorized justifications given by self-identified paedophiles for their sexual interest in children. The present study replicates this to identify how this forum is currently being used, given the changes in technology over the intervening years. It remains unclear whether or not interacting online influences the commission of offline sexual offences; however, receiving support from like-minded individuals is thought to promote pro-offending beliefs in socially isolated individuals. The results of this study offer an insight into the types of justifications used to account for a paedophilic sexual orientation and help to demonstrate how this forum functions to fulfil the needs of the ''boy lovers'' who make up the membership of this internet site. The study highlights changes over the last nine years, but provides support for increased use of such a forum, in spite of it being ''old technology''.
The explanations given by child pornography offenders for their crimes were explored in two samples, one interviewed by the police as part of a criminal investigation and the second assessed by clinicians following a child pornography conviction. There were many similarities across the two samples with regard to demographic characteristics, criminal history and explanations. Many offenders in both samples admitted possession of child pornography, a majority admitted they deliberately accessed child pornography, and substantial minorities acknowledged their sexual interest in child pornography and/or children. Similar proportions claimed curiosity or accidental access. Relatively few offenders reported internet addiction, child pornography as a substitute for contact offending or indiscriminate sexual interests. There was evidence to suggest that the recently arrested offenders were more sexually deviant, as they were more likely to have images of boys, larger collections, images depicting sexual violence or other paraphilic content and more involvement in online trading and communication.
The identification of offence-related cognition is a major target of most cognitive–behavioural treatment programmes for sexual offenders, and a number of measures are available for this purpose. This study assessed the psychometric properties of a brief measure of beliefs that support and justify child sexual abuse: the Sex With Children (SWCH) scale. Factor analysis revealed two distinct types of belief: that sex with children is harmless, and that children actively provoke adults into having sex with them. The SWCH was also found to have good internal consistency, test–retest reliability and concurrent validity. Child molesters scored significantly more highly on the SWCH than did rapists or non-offenders, and high-risk child molesters reported more entrenched offence-supportive beliefs than lower risk child molesters. A relationship was also observed between general offence-supportive beliefs as measured by SWCH and offence-specific cognitions ascribing responsibility or enjoyment to the offender's victim. The SWCH subscales appeared to closely match two of the implicit theories hypothesized by Ward and Keenan (199937.
Ward , T. and
Keenan , T. 1999. Child molesters’ implicit theories. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14: 821–838. [CrossRef], [Web of Science ®], [CSA]View all references) to be related to child molestation. Sex offender treatment providers need to be aware of the relationship between underlying implicit theories and offence-specific distorted cognitions about the victim's experience.
Background:
Research about online child sexual exploitation material (CSEM) users focuses on psychological assessments, demographics, motivations, and offending rates. Little is known about their understandings of children in CSEM.
Objective:
From an anthropological perspective, examine CSEM users' constructions of children and childhood online and offline, and explore how these factor into their crimes.
Participants and setting:
CSEM users in UK group programs.
Methods:
In-depth ethnography, including 17 months of participant observation in group programs with 81 CSEM users, 31 semi-structured interviews with group participants, and inductive analysis of themes illuminated by childhood theory from anthropology.
Results:
When referring to children offline, many participants claimed to align with Euro-American norms and constructions surrounding children's learning, protection, irrationality, inexperience, asexuality, and innocence. However online, many constructed children differently: as less or not "real," and as sexualized. This rendered children in CSEM fundamentally different, which facilitated offending, assisted in overcoming barriers, and allowed participants to hold conventional beliefs about children and childhood while engaging in incongruent online activity. Vital in this process was Internet use and associated distancing, detachment, anonymity, and cultural othering. The program used victim empathy to restore dominant norms to online children, for which participants invoked feelings, recognized their role in abuse, extrapolated consequences for victims, and reinforced norms.
Conclusions:
Constructions of children and childhood were central in offending. The complexities of negotiating "real" versus "not real" in both offending and victim empathy are discussed, as are conceptual distinctions between "constructions" and "cognitive distortions," and implications for treatment and prevention.
The current study assessed a wide range of offense supportive cognitions in relation to the perpetration of physical intimate partner violence (IPV). This research used both implicit and explicit measures in a U.K. sample of 19 male IPV perpetrators recruited from a community-based IPV intervention program and 20 men from the community with no history of IPV. The study also explored the ability of the implicit measures to differentiate between the two groups. The cognitions assessed included gender-role stereotype, attitudes condoning violence against a partner, attitudes condoning violence in general, hostile attitudes toward women, sense of entitlement in the relationship and over the intimate partner (control and dominance), and general sense of entitlement. Participants completed a number of established self-report measures and a series of computer-based reaction time tasks including two implicit association tests, one go/no-go association task, and four sentence judgment tasks. Significant group differences emerged across all measures both at the explicit and at the implicit level. Most implicit measures had very good discriminatory power, and the combination of all implicit measures showed excellent discriminatory power, equal to that of the explicit measures combined. These findings suggest that some IPV perpetrators hold offense supportive cognitions that may have become fairly well established and have started to operate at an automatic level. Implicit measures could be useful tools for risk assessment purposes and identification of treatment needs alongside already established measures.
Cognitive distortions are considered an important factor in the etiology and maintenance of sexual offending behavior in males. A predominant view within the literature is that cognitive distortions are cognitive products that arise from deeper cognitive structures, although it has also been proposed that goals and situational factors can play a role. In this article, we provide an updated theoretical account of cognitive distortions in males – the Multi-Mechanism Theory of Cognitive Distortions (MMT-CD). Adopting a dual-process perspective, and incorporating the concept of motivated cognition and the effects of visceral factors, we propose that cognitive distortions arise from three mechanisms, which can be identified in terms of their temporal occurrence to an offense. Mechanism I accounts for cognitive distortions that arise long before an offense is committed but serve to influence an individual's life-course and goals in a way that brings them closer to eventually sexually offending. Mechanism II accounts for distortions that arise in the lead up to or immediately before a sexual offense, thus, providing a justification for committing an offense. Mechanism III accounts for distortions that are formed post-offense as a result of the adversarial context of the individual's social environment. We describe: (1) the nature of each mechanism; (2) the way they underpin particular distortions; (3) the role they play in the etiology of sex offending; (4) and how they may play out in research and practice.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to summarise the available risk and assessment tools for child abuse material (CAM) offenders. Noting the rise of internet-based offences surrounding CAM, it has been proposed that there may be substantial differences between internet only (IO) offenders, contact only and mixed profile sexual offenders.
Design/methodology/approach
Through online searches, risk assessment tools for sexual offenders were identified. Scoring manuals were consulted for applicability to IO offenders.
Findings
Nine risk assessment tools for sexual offenders were included. Risk assessment tools for sexual offenders use cautionary language regarding the application of sexual offence risk assessment tools to IO offenders. An additional five tools were identified specifically addressing IO offenders. Three of these tools address risk assessment and two assess cognitions and behaviours.
Research limitations/implications
Limitations include the identification of static and dynamic risk factors and the application of structured professional judgement.
Practical implications
By drawing together existing tools and recommendations for use with the IO offender population, a gap is identified for CAM specific risk assessment tools.
Originality/value
Appropriate risk assessment, case planning and treatment will contribute to the appropriate management and treatment of the IO offender population.
The current research examined the hypothesis that sexual activity functions as a coping strategy for sexual offenders. A 16-item scale, the Coping Using Sex Inventory (CUSI), was developed to assess the presence of and the degree to which sex was used to deal with problematic situations. Sexual offenders consistently reported using sexual activities, both consenting and nonconsenting, as a coping strategy to deal with stressful and problematic situations. In the first study, when compared to nonsexual violent offenders, sexual offenders showed evidence of sexual preoccupation during adolescence, and this preoccupation was related to the latter use of sex as a coping strategy. In the second study, intimacy deficits and loneliness were related to greater use of sexual activity as a coping mechanism. The third study examined the psychometric properties of the CUSI. A factor analysis revealed 3 factors in the CUSI corresponding to consenting sexual themes, rape themes, and child sexual abuse themes. Sexual offenders reported higher use of each type of sexual activity to cope with stressful and difficult situations as compared to nonsexual offenders. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed here.
The aim of this exploratory study was to compare internet sex offenders with a matched group of child molesters in the Greater London Area. Over an 8-month period 210 subjects were assessed, of whom 90 were internet sex offenders and 120 were child molesters. A wide range of background data was collected, including a number of psychometric measures to determine risk and personality traits. The research identified a number of similarities between internet sex offenders and child molesters on background variables. Specifically, in comparison to the child molesters, the internet offenders reported more psychological difficulties in adulthood and fewer prior sexual convictions. The socio-affective characteristics of internet offenders and child molesters look similar, but the antisocial variables, such as, 'acting out' and breaking social rules underlines their difference. The follow up research was carried out after a short period of time at risk—averaging 18 months—but suggested that internet sex offenders were significantly less likely to fail in the community than child molesters in terms of all types of recidivism.
The endorsement of permission-giving thoughts, or so-called cognitive distortions, has been discussed as a contributing factor in sexually abusive behaviour. The current study set out to explore the thinking patterns of offenders who have used/downloaded child sexual exploitation material (CSEM), based on a survey of professionals. A thematic analysis elicited four overarching themes, namely the Perceived Nature of Children (perception of children portrayed in CSEM, as well as children in general), Non-sexual Engagement with CSEM (motivating factors that are not inherently sexual in nature), Denial of Harm (perception of the level of harm caused by CSEM), and Expression of a General Sexual Preference (general interest in deviant sexual behaviour). These themes aid to explore the differences and similarities between contact and non-contact offenders and to improve the understanding of the role of permission-giving thoughts in this typology of offending. Results are discussed in terms of their theoretical significance and future implications.
This paper is based on anthropological research focused on users of online child sexual exploitation material. The empirical foundations are 17 months of participant-observation in UK group programmes for offenders, and semi-structured interviews with group participants and programme staff. While explanations for offending often emphasise individual-psychological characteristics of offenders, I suggest attention should also be given to offender perceptions and constructions of online spaces. For many in the sample, decision-making and the choice to view material were influenced by perceived boundaries and associated altered features of social interaction, said to demarcate online environments from other contexts. Participants perceived online offending spaces as lacking the interaction and potential gaze of others that normally reinforce social norms. This resulted in a feeling of freedom to break norms of childhood and sexuality online, contrasting offline society where such norms are actively reinforced. The article therefore localises factors for Internet offending in social processes.
Since the advent of the internet, convictions for the possession, display, trading and distribution of child sexual exploitation material (CSEM) have risen steadily, but little is known about the appropriate assessment and treatment of this offender group, especially in regards to their risk of reoffending. It has been suggested that a conceptual distinction of fantasy- vs. contact-driven CSEM users might be of merit. Sixty-eight offenders recruited from sex offender treatment providers were assessed via an anonymous computer survey including a variety of clinical and risk-related variables; the findings showed differences in the psychological profiles between CSEM users and contact child sex offenders. Numerical and spatial methods were employed to identify subgroups of CSEM users; these confirmed the two-fold distinction of fantasy vs. contact driven offending. The spatial representation of participants identified three dimensions as crucial in the classification of these subgroups: direct sexual contact with a minor, possession of fantasy-generating material, and social contact with other users with a sexual interest in minors, potentially differentiating distinct offender subgroups with different risks and needs. The current study informed the development of an empirical model of CSEM users that could aid in the assessment of risk of reoffending and cross-over to contact sex offending.
Contact sexual offenders have been proposed to hold a set of distorted core beliefs about themselves, others, and the world. These beliefs (or 'implicit theories') bias information in an offense-supportive manner, and are proposed to contribute to the etiology and maintenance of sexual offending. In recent years, there has been an increased research interest in online 'child sexual exploitation material' (CSEM) users, particularly since research has shown they are distinct from contact child abusers. In light of their distinction, it is hypothesized that CSEM users will possess their own set of implicit theories that guide their interpretation of intra/interpersonal information in a manner that influences the viewing and downloading of CSEM. Following a qualitative analysis of the existing empirical CSEM literature, an initial conceptualization of the implicit theories held by CSEM users is offered in the present paper. These include: 'Unhappy World', 'Children as Sexual Objects', 'Nature of Harm (CSEM variant)', 'Self as Uncontrollable', and 'Self as Collector', each of which is contextualized by a general assumption about the reinforcing nature of the Internet. The paper provides a detailed account of each implicit theory, including its content and function. Practical and research implications are also highlighted.
Our study is the first to look at mobile device use for child sexual exploitation material (CSEM) consumption, and at the global impact of deterrence efforts by search providers. We used data from Google, Bing, and Yandex to assess how web searches for CSEM are being conducted, both at present and historically. Our findings show that the blocking efforts by Google and Microsoft have resulted in a 67% drop in the past year in web-based searches for CSEM. Additionally, our findings show that mobile devices are a substantial platform for web-based consumption of CSEM, with tablets and smartphones representing 32% of all queries associated with CSEM conducted on Bing. Further, our findings show that a major search engine not located in the United States, Yandex, did not undertake blocking efforts similar to those implemented by Google and Microsoft and has seen no commensurate drop in CSEM searches and continues to profit from ad revenue on these queries. While the efforts by Google and Microsoft have had a deterrence effect in the United States, searchers from Russia and other locations where child pornography possession is not criminalized have continued to use these services. Additionally, the same lax enforcement environment has allowed searchers from the United States to utilize Yandex with little fear of detection or referral to United States law enforcement from the Russian authorities.
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Public reactions to internet child offending remain ambivalent in that, while there is vocal condemnation of contact child sex offending, there is less indignation about internet child abuse. This is potentially due to a lack of recognition of this type of offence as sexual offending per se. This ambiguity is reflected by internet sex offenders themselves in their verbalizations of their offending. This article presents a qualitative analysis of the accounts offered by seven individuals convicted of internet-based sexual offences involving the downloading and viewing of images of children. In particular, this article presents an analysis of the explanations of offenders for the commencement of internet activity and the progression to more illicit online materials. The data were collected through semi-structured interviews and analyzed using discursive methods, paying close attention to language use and function. The analysis documented the practices that internet child abusers employed in order to manage their identities, distance themselves from the label of sex offender, and/or reduce their personal agency and accountability. Implications of this analysis are discussed with reference to the current minimization of the downloading of sexually explicit images of children as a sexual crime per se by the public and offenders alike and the risk assessment and treatment of individuals convicted of these offences.
Research and theoretical models have consistently identified sexual interest in children as a key factor involved in child sexual offending. However, there is only moderate agreement in the diagnosis of pedophilia and different assessment methods identify different offenders as pedophiles. The current study examined the discriminative and convergent validity of three different measures of sexual interest in children. Participants included sex offenders and nonsex offenders recruited from federal prisons (i.e., offenders serving sentences of more than 2 years) in Ontario, Canada. Child molesters' responses (n = 35) were not significantly different from nonsex offenders (n = 21) on an implicit measure of sexual interest in children (Sexual Attraction to Children Implicit Association Test [SAC-IAT] d = 0.44, 95% CI [-0.11, 0.99]), but differed on the self-report (Sexual Interest Profiling System; d = 0.83, 95% CI [0.27, 1.39]) and viewing time (d = 1.15, 95% CI [0.54, 1.75]) measures. Findings did not provide clear support for the superiority of a multimodal approach, possibly due to the relatively small sample. More often than not, convergence between the three measures was observed (n = 74). Findings from the present study are an important step toward understanding the relationship between different measures of sexual interest in children and establishing their validity.
The COPINE Project at the Department of Applied Psychology, seeks to address children's vulnerability in relation to the Internet and child pornography. As part of the project, offenders convicted of downloading such images have been interviewed. This paper considers existing models of offender behaviour alongside literature relating to Internet use. A single case study is used to illustrate a process-focused model of offending, using interview material to demonstrate how the offender represented and accounted for his behaviour. The offender in question had no history of engaging in sexual behaviour with actual children, but his case illustrated many of the stages described by offenders in their involvement with pornography, including: setting events, engagement, collecting behaviour, and the emergence of relationships.
Cognitive distortions are held to contribute to sexual offending against children in a number of theoretical explanations of such crimes. However, not only is there little or no direct evidence in support of the centrality of cognitive distortions in offending but recent research has questioned whether the concept has explanatory power. Cognitive distortions are variously seen as necessary for the offender to offend against children, as post-offending justifications for the offence, or as reflecting distorted patterns in the offender's upbringing. This paper explores the role of cognitive distortions in sex offending by comparing the distortions of contact sex offenders against children with Internet child pornography offenders without contact offences against children. A new cognitive distortions questionnaire was developed which was suitable for administration to Internet offenders who had no contact offences against children as well as being suitable for contact offenders. It was found that some cognitive distortions are frequently agreed with by sex offenders against children whereas others were seldom or never agreed with. Little support was found for earlier typological approaches to the cognitive schema of sex offenders against children. Contrary to the expectation that contact offenders would have more cognitive distortions, it was found that Internet offenders had more cognitive distortions that children are sexual beings. Furthermore, there were no differences in cognitive distortions justifying the offence. However, offenders with a previous history of offending were more likely to admit to cognitive distortions which justify their offending. It is accepted that cognitive distortions are readily recognized in interviews with sex offenders against children. Nevertheless, it is argued that there is a need for new research to stimulate a new understanding of the nature and role of cognitive distortions in sex offending.
A covert observation of posts on a pro-pedophile Internet message board investigated evidence of distorted cognitions that were supportive of sexually abusive behavior. Implications for the treatment and supervision of members of online communities that support pedophilic interests and behaviors are discussed. The purpose of the present study was to observe interactions between members of an online community that was sympathetic to individuals with pedophilic interests. This endeavor was guided by the following research questions: (a) How is the Internet used to establish or strengthen cognitive distortions regarding adult-child sexual contact? (b) What types of cognitive distortions are exhibited in posts on online pedophile message boards? (c) What specific functions do these message boards serve for individuals who access them? The data were collected from an Internet message board that caters to individuals who have pedophilic interests.
This study examined a sample of 120 adult males convicted of offences involving indecent images of children (IIOC); 60 had a previous contact child sexual offence (dual offenders) and 60 had no evidence of an offence against a child. Analyses explored socio-demographic characteristics, previous convictions, and access to children. Of the 120 offenders, a subsample of 60 offenders (30 dual offenders and 30 non-contact) were further examined in terms of the quantity of IIOC, types of IIOC, and offending behavior. The study found the two offender groups could be discriminated by previous convictions, access to children, the number, proportion, and type of IIOC viewed. The IIOC preferences displayed within their possession differentiated dual offenders from non-contact IIOC offenders. Within group comparisons of the dual offenders differentiated sadistic rapists from sexual penetrative and sexual touching offenders. The paper suggests there may be a homology between IIOC possession, victim selection, and offending behavior. Implications for law enforcement are discussed in terms of likelihood of contact offending and assisting in investigative prioritization.
The increase in convictions for internet-related sexual offending has led to new challenges for treatment providers. By 2005 nearly one-third of all sexual convictions in England and Wales were for internet-related sexual offending. In late 2006 a treatment programme for internet-related sexual offending (the i-SOTP) was given accreditation for use in the community by the National Probation Service (England and Wales). This paper reports on the clinical impact as assessed following completion of psychometric assessments pre- and post-treatment by a sample of 264 convicted offenders. Findings suggest an improvement in deficits concerning socio-affective functioning and a decrease in pro-offending attitudes. These changes are encouraging and support the view that widescale delivery of the programme should be continued.
Cognitive distortions in sex offenders are specific or general beliefs/attitudes that violate commonly accepted norms of rationality that have been shown to be associated with the onset and maintenance of sexual offending. In this article, we describe the major theories that have been formulated to explain the role of distorted cognition in initiating and maintaining sexual offending. We evaluate each theory in light of a set of theory appraisal criteria and the available empirical research. Finally, we conclude by drawing together the results of this theory evaluation process and highlight the major implications for treatment and future research.
Although there has been much speculation about the relationship between cognitive distortions and denial/minimization, little research on the subject is available. The authors conducted secondary analyses on existing data sets to further examine the degree of association between various measures of cognitive distortions and denial/minimization among child molesters (Sample 1, n = 73; Sample 2, n = 42; Sample 3,n = 38) and rapists (Sample 1, n = 41; Sample 3, n = 14). Meta-analysis of the findings from Samples 1, 2, and 3 indicated that greater endorsement of cognitive distortions about sex offending in general was significantly associated with greater denial/minimization of one's own guilt and deviance (r = .24), harm to one's own victims (r = .32), one's need for treatment (r = .21), and responsibility for one's sex offenses (r = .16). Although correlated, cognitive distortions and denial/minimization, at least as typically measured, are distinct constructs.