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Enacting metaphors to explore relations and interactions with automated driving systems
Abstract
Conventional interaction design methodologies cannot fully encompass the redefined relationships between humans and increasingly intelligent technology. New methods are necessary to address interaction at early stages in the design process. Both design metaphors and enactment techniques have been suggested, and this paper explores whether a combination of these can support the design of future interactions. Across three workshops, 27 participants utilised the combination to design the interaction with an automated driving system. Analysis shows that the method combination supported imagining and designing; metaphors aided the creation of a joint conceptual vision of the relationship, and the enactment created tangible experiences and contextualisation of the design concepts. Jointly the methods brought together multi-disciplinary teams in a shared vision, by acting as a shared language and enacted representations of insights that could be engaged with and experienced together.
... Design Thinking has been applied successfully in IS research from software development, information technology development in business process modeling, and effective dashboard design to the evaluation of IT investments (Cahyadi & Prananto, 2015;Frisk et al., 2014;Vetterli et al., 2016;Yau et al., 2023). A recent study from Strömberg et al. (2020) presents design metaphors and enactment techniques to support imagining future interactions. Their study focused on the automotive case by exploring how design metaphors and early enactment can help the designing team to imagine and conceptualize interaction with automated driving systems (Strömberg et al., 2020). ...
... A recent study from Strömberg et al. (2020) presents design metaphors and enactment techniques to support imagining future interactions. Their study focused on the automotive case by exploring how design metaphors and early enactment can help the designing team to imagine and conceptualize interaction with automated driving systems (Strömberg et al., 2020). Kenny et, al. (2021) use a design thinking approach to develop a geotagged photo app for smart devices by empathizing, defining problems, and ideating solutions with the farming community (Kenny et al., 2021). ...
The philosophy for information system (IS)-related projects, such as artificial intelligence (AI) projects, embodies systematic and scientific approaches, that encompass the development, use, and applications of IS by focusing on the interactions among individuals, organizations, and society. However, many organizations still need to learn more about such approaches to ensure the success of AI projects. Design Thinking offers an opportunity to transform the way organizations design and develop strategies by integrating a human point of view with the possibility of implementing emerging technologies. The practice of Design Thinking provides some tools and methods for the problem-solving aspects of the development and implementation of AI initiatives. Bringing Design Thinking to AI projects is worth exploring, especially in bridging the creativity gap in terms of user-centric, innovative mindsets and toolsets. How can Design Thinking be embedded in the learning processes and enabled in the context of AI projects in the classroom environment? This study presents a technological data-driven design approach to provide an overview of the most important points and directions for an organization’s AI strategy in the proof-of-concept stage. A case study of AI initiatives utilizing computer vision (CV)–AI to improve analytical solutions for trade exhibitions is presented to capture the ideas and solutions and depict the practicability and implications of our proposed framework. The results of this study show that Design Thinking practices can be enlisted to help students frame their creations and that these practices have a valuable contribution as alternatives when designing AI-related curricula for teaching and learning.
... To evaluate and validate the model, user research will be conducted to refine it. A participatory design method was adopted in this study, using design metaphors (Stromberg et al., 2020) combined with enactment techniques (Buchenau & Suri, 2000;Burns et al., 1994) to explore the needs and expectations of older adults and to co-create design solutions for the future kitchen. The advantage of this approach is that it enables older adults to participate in the design process, using metaphors to help them express their ideas and feelings about the ideal kitchen space and enactment that allows them to show tangible experiences and contextualization through physical behavior. ...
... Some studies have explored the design of future interactions that can be supported by a combination of design metaphors and enactment techniques. Metaphors can act as a common language to facilitate the creation of a joint conceptual vision of relationships, and enactment creates tangible experiences and contextualizes design concepts (Stromberg et al., 2020). Enactment is a flexible and rapid method for exploring the future design and can be influenced by interactions between context, scenario, personal motivation, and external factors (Buchenau & Suri, 2000). ...
... Additionally, it must help to clarify how to connect the concept to be represented with the persuaded target audience. Some studies have revealed the importance of using argumentation resources, as is the case of Strömberg, Peterson and Ju [28]; Joachim Knape [24]. They valued metaphors as part of the representation process because they enable the transition from conceptual elements to the materialization of said concepts. ...
... They valued metaphors as part of the representation process because they enable the transition from conceptual elements to the materialization of said concepts. At the same time, concepts highlight the importance of maintaining a functional relationship between resources to enhance their strengths [28]. ...
Artificial intelligence (AI) systems to generate images from natural language are a game changer in graphic design. However, in visual persuasive communication, the image is not just a drawing, but is the message itself. It arises from the need for understanding how AI systems could be adopted in the design of visual communication. Thus, this article presents a model that describes the theoretical–methodological factors present in the design of persuasive visual discourses, which arises from a qualitative study with an analysis of grounded theory from the opinion of experts in the essential areas for visual communication. Thus, we propose a model to guide the design process of persuasive messages throughout seven stages. Additionally, an analysis for contributing to the orderly and informed incorporation of technologies, techniques, and methods relevant to each stage is presented.
... Additionally, it must help to clarify how to connect the concept to be represented with the persuaded target audience. Some studies have revealed the importance of using argumentation resources, as is the case of Strömberg, Peterson and Ju [28]; Joachim Knape [24]. They valued metaphors as part of the representation process because they enable the transition from conceptual elements to the materialization of said concepts. ...
... They valued metaphors as part of the representation process because they enable the transition from conceptual elements to the materialization of said concepts. At the same time, concepts highlight the importance of maintaining a functional relationship between resources to enhance their strengths [28]. ...
Artificial intelligence (AI) systems to generate images from natural language are a game changer in graphic design. However, in visual persuasive communication, the image is not just a drawing, but is the message itself. It arises from the need for understanding how AI systems could be adopted in the design of visual communication. Thus, this article presents a model that describes the theoretical–methodological factors present in the design of persuasive visual discourses, which arises from a qualitative study with an analysis of grounded theory from the opinion of experts in the essential areas for visual communication. Thus, we propose a model to guide the design process of persuasive messages throughout seven stages. Additionally, an analysis for contributing to the orderly and informed incorporation of technologies, techniques, and methods relevant to each stage is presented.
... Before proposing any concrete design concept or creating tangible products, 'ideation' is where the researchers explore possibilities and generate ideas to address certain problems. The techniques include brainstorming sessions [44,84], rapid prototyping [79,84,111,130], enactment [40,109] and participatory design workshops [25,29,49,81,92,125]. ...
The advancement of automated driving technologies is fundamentally transforming the relationship between humans and vehicles, shifting from direct control to a more collaborative dynamic. Consequently, the design of in-vehicle Human-Machine Interfaces (iHMIs) is becoming increasingly intricate, focusing on aspects beyond mechanics and ergonomics towards enriched interaction and enhanced user experience. This shift has prompted research efforts to explore and advance iHMI concepts. Despite the iterative nature of design and its role in knowledge creation, our high-level understanding of the design processes utilised in iHMI development remains limited. To provide a comprehensive overview, this paper presents a scoping review of 324 papers (2013—2023) focused on the design underpinnings of iHMI development. Our review presents a categorisation of study goals and a detailed classification of five key stages within the design process. Based on these analyses, we discuss the influence of design and identify potential avenues for future research on iHMIs.
... The invehicle interactions have evolved with advanced technology that adapts to users' changing contexts, psychological states, preferences, and habits. The interactions can be enabled through different inputs and outputs, including visual and audio, voice and haptic with knobs, buttons, touch screens, and more [5]. To provide occupants with optimal modes, it draws increased attention needed on what they expect from multimodal interaction within AVs and what characteristics of the multimodal experience should be considered when designing overall interactions. ...
People are expected to have more opportunities to spend their free time inside the vehicle with advanced vehicle automation in the near future. This will enable people to turn their attention to desirable activities other than driving and to have varied in-vehicle interactions through multimodal ways of conveying and receiving information. Previous studies on in-vehicle multimodal interactions primarily have focused on making users evaluate the impacts of particular multimodal integrations on them, which do not fully provide an overall understanding of user expectations of the multimodal experience in autonomous vehicles. The research was thus designed to fill the research gap by posing the key question “What are the critical aspects that differentiate and characterise in-vehicle multimodal experiences?” To answer this question, five sessions of design fiction workshops were separately conducted with 17 people to understand the users’ expectations of the multimodal experience in autonomous vehicles. Twenty-two subthemes of users’ expected tasks of multimodal experience were extracted through thematic analysis. The research found that two dimensions, attention and duration, are critical aspects that impact in-vehicle multimodal interactions. With this knowledge, a conceptual model of the users’ in-vehicle multimodal experience was proposed with a two-dimensional spectrum, which populates four different layers: sustained, distinct, concurrent, and coherent. The proposed conceptual model could help designers understand and approach users’ expectations more clearly, allowing them to make more informed decisions from the initial stages of the design process.
... Previous research on metaphors has predominantly focused on visual metaphors in advertising (Burgers et al., 2015;Gkiouzepas & Hogg, 2011;Mohanty & Ratneshwar, 2015). Regarding metaphors in a product's appearance, research has examined the designers' perspectives, such as design possibilities (Huang et al., 2020;Strömberg et al., 2020), metaphor generation (Cila et al., 2014a), and the appropriate source selection of metaphorical products (Cila et al., 2012;Hekkert & Cila, 2015). Cheng et al. (2019) first attempted to investigate the potential and risks of using metaphors in products that incorporate new functions and technologies. ...
Recently, design innovation has become a promising competitive advantage for companies. Implementing metaphors in a product’s visual appearance make a novel design easier to process while still being different in its appearance and maintaining visual novelty. However, insufficient studies have been conducted to understand how consumers’ process product metaphors and how the integration of metaphors facilitates comprehension, thus leading to aesthetic liking. Additionally, the role of processing fluency has not been sufficiently considered. We analyze the effects of product metaphors using four studies. These studies explore whether differences between pleasure-based and interest-based aesthetic liking can be identified and whether individual levels of need for cognition influence the effects of product metaphors. The studies examine the role of processing fluency to investigate whether initial disfluency can be reduced by experiencing an aha moment. The results reveal that metaphorical design can serve as a design innovation and help to reduce initial disfluency, which finally leads to more positive aesthetic judgements compared with designs without a metaphor in their visual appearance. As the need for cognition (NFC) and the experience of an “aha moment” in particular reinforce these positive judgements, marketers should consider this when implementing product metaphors.
... Hence, new design methods, such as metaphors and enactment techniques, might be needed to support MaaS co-creation processes (cf. Strömberg et al., 2020). Furthermore, what is best for (and thus requested by) users is not necessarily what is best for society (Sochor et al., 2015b). ...
https://research.chalmers.se/en/publication/?id=516812
This study discusses the intricate relations between generative artificial intelligence (AI) and music composers. Based on a previous rapid review of recent literature, it reinforces a gap and suggests the need to develop human-centered generative AI design strategies prioritizing cultural artistic (and non-artistic) aspects. We posit that AI-based music generation solutions should resonate with the cultural diversity of stakeholders who are impacted by these systems in practice. The paper highlights the significance of metaphorical design as an effective method in human-AI music co-creation by leveraging familiar interfaces and features that are rooted in everyday objects and cognitive models derived from real-world settings. Our insights illustrate possible ways of (re)framing human-AI metaphorical design to shape perceptions and facilitate seamless interactions between humans and intelligent systems in music co-creativity, particularly at the compositional level. At the heart of this research is the alignment of AI-driven music creation systems with user needs, values, and expectations that vary from culture to culture and thus require a continuous and transparent adaptation of the technology in use to accommodate individual preferences and the socio-algorithmic specificities underlying musicians’ activities.
Addressing sustainability challenges requires shifts in consumption patterns and lifestyles. Design for Sustainable Behavior (DfSB) aims to cultivate sustainable attitudes and behaviors through product-based interventions. However, there can be a disconnect between design strategy and its embodiment and sometimes conflicts between designers’ intent and users’ interpretation. This paper explores the role of metaphors in DfSB in terms of using metaphorical thinking during the design process and/or creating product metaphors in the final design. It begins by identifying barriers that prevent people from engaging in sustainable practices, such as human nature and ambiguity in design. It then examines the roles of metaphor in design and its key strengths in DfSB. Furthermore, the paper outlines three methods to generate metaphors in DfSB: (1) The source domain implies the target domain. (2) The source domain serves design goals and strategies. (3) Cross-domain mapping is based on embodied experience. In conclusion, the paper discusses potential issues surrounding its use in DfSB.
The increasingly transdisciplinary context of design, where designers collaborate with other disciplinary and domain experts, means there is a growing need to evidence the effectiveness of design methods. We address this need in two ways. First, we propose a ‘chain of evidence’, from motivation to claims, operationalising this in a systematic assessment framework. Second, we systematically review current design method research. Our results reveal that while all links in the chain of evidence are reported across the literature and best practices can be identified, no individual paper either reports all links or consistently achieves best practice. Our framework and results demonstrate the need for standards of evidence in this area, with implications for design method research, development, education, and practice.
Self-driving vehicles have been heralded as a dramatic new advancement in personal mobility. This emerging technology, beyond potentially improving driving safety, also represents a redefined relationship between the human driver and the vehicle. As this artificial intelligence-based vehicular technology becomes more intelligent, conventional interaction design methodologies may be challenged in their ability to fully encompass this redefined relationship. This problem may be even more pronounced for specific populations like older adults (60+) whose perspectives, we argue, have been underexplored in the self-driving vehicle context. Within this report we describe an emerging methodology, user enactment, and explore its use as a generative design process in two studies focused on older adults. This work adds additional support to the contention that user enactment may be an effective methodological tool for researchers in exploring the relationship between humans and intelligent technologies.
Vision building, pathway construction and experimentation are key processes in the management of long-term sociotechnical transitions. The need to accelerate transitions and to adapt transition management to new country contexts calls for new means to catalyse these processes. We improved the path creation toolsets and procedures of transition management to create more detailed pathways and analyses of pathway step interrelations. Our path creation system uses magnetic elements that could be easily moved around a large metallic board, a set of procedures and a digitalized counterpart of the board for out-of-the-workshop commentary and reporting. The system has facilitated and anchored well the discussions by participants with cross-sectoral backgrounds. Overall, the redesigned system underscores the potential that codesign for sustainability transitions holds.
Metaphors are important at multiple levels within design and society—from the specifics of interfaces, to wider societal imaginaries of technology and progress. Exploring alternative metaphors can be generative in creative processes, and for reframing problems strategically. In this pictorial we introduce an inspiration card workshop method using juxtaposition (or bisociation) to enable participants to explore novel metaphors for hard-to-visualise phenomena, drawing on a provisional set of inspiration material. We demonstrate the process through illustrating creative workshops in France, Portugal, Chile, and the USA, and reflect on benefits, limitations, and potential development of this format for use within interaction design.
I design user experiences for machine learning (ML) applications across several application domains, from clinical decision support systems to context-aware mobile services, to autonomous cars. In this paper, I share three cases in which I attempted to leverage ML as a design material, envisioning new forms and new purposes for this technology. I reflect on the challenges encountered and the lessons learned. On reflection , I realized that many of the challenges are not unique to particular ML problems or designers, but in the inherent tension between user-centered design and data-driven design. I hope to initiate a reflective discussion on these overarching challenges in designing ML and to highlight the opportunities in addressing them systematically.
Although most social robots introduced in the consumer market devoid of personality, research in HRI shows that designing personality-like behavior for robots could greatly benefit future interactions [2]. This work suggests the relationship between sidekick characters and protagonists, frequently found in media narratives, as a metaphor for designing robot behavior and personality. Findings from a content analysis study that examined fifteen characters from popular books and movies suggest three guidelines for designing personal robots: Reciprocity, Affirmation and Independence.
We describe the design and use of a 'polyphonic picture book' for engaging stakeholders and research participants with findings from an interdisciplinary project investigating how UK citizens create and manage online identities at three significant life transitions. The project delivered socio-cultural and technical findings to inform policy-making and service innovation for enhancing digital literacy in online self-representation. The picture book presented findings through multi-perspectival, fictional scenarios about experiences of life transition. We describe our use of the book with our stakeholders in five workshop settings and our evaluation of the visual format for fostering stakeholder dialogue around the findings and their transferability. This paper contributes methodological insights about using visual storytelling to scaffold interpretative, dialogical contexts of research engagement.
Designers are continuously exploring and suggesting possible futures, often consulting user studies for insights to guide the process of inventing novel designs. However, user studies are typically employed retrospectively with little regard to future use, or face challenges for users to express relevant reflections on the future. In addition, users’ experiences of products are not stable over time and user studies typically do not sufficiently address the temporal aspects of future use. This paper uses autonomous cars as a case study with the aim of understanding characteristics of user expectations, highlighting the temporal aspects of expectations in particular. The study employed a qualitative, experimental, user research methodology encompassing 11 participants, encouraging participant reflection through enactment and drawing. From the results, expectations were structured around three temporal layers: acquaintancing, situated use and practice and meaning transformation. The model highlights and describes the temporal and transformative aspects of expectations. By breaking down the temporality of experience into layers, it suggests that designers and researchers can be helped to understand and approach experiences from the initial stages of development.
In partially automated cars, it is vital to understand the driver state, especially the driver's cognitive load. This might indicate whether the driver is alert or distracted, and if the car can safely transfer control of driving. In order to better understand the relationship between cognitive load and the driver performance in a partially autonomous vehicle, functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) measures were employed to study the activation of the prefrontal cortex of drivers in a simulated environment. We studied a total of 14 participants while they drove a partially autonomous car and performed common secondary tasks. We observed that when participants were asked to monitor the driving of an autonomous car they had low cognitive load compared to when the same participants were asked to perform a secondary reading or video watching task on a brought in device. This observation was in line with the increased drowsy behavior observed during intervals of autonomous system monitoring in previous studies. Results demonstrate that fNIRS signals from prefrontal cortex indicate additional cognitive load during manual driving compared to autonomous. Such brain function metrics could be used with minimally intrusive and low cost sensors to enable real-time assessment of driver state in future autonomous vehicles to improve safety and efficacy of transfer of control.
From the earliest concepts of autonomous cars, a prototypical model has emerged in which occupants freely orient themselves to engage in non-driving activities. This new environment prompts questions about how car occupants will actually sit, what activities they will engage in, and how they will relate with one another socially. To explore these questions, 17 undergraduate and graduate students, situated in the passenger seat of a simulated autonomous car, engaged in visualization and think-aloud exercises, as well as semi-structured interviews, to relate their current behaviors as car passengers with their imagined experience as the driver of an autonomous car. Themes emerged regarding individuals' preferred physical orientations as well as social dynamics with other occupants. This exploratory inquiry unearths situational and social issues of concern to interface designers of future autonomous cars, offering a preliminary overview of ergonomic and social issues to explore further.
We draw on the concept of agency in order to understand the process of how design materials 'talk back' to designers. In so doing, we illustrate the various levels at which agency can emerge in the context of intensive short-time prototyping sessions. In HCI, it is often assumed that the designer is the agent that acts intentionally in the design process. Contrary to this, recent notions of agency provide a way of analysing the performative role of design materials as intra-actions between components within a given phenomenon, rather than as meanings merely ascribed by actions of designers. The notion of agency puts focus on the emerging properties of materials and how they actively contribute to the way that design activity unfolds. The analyses showed how interaction design is to a large extent driven by emergent characteristics of available materials. The results have implications for understanding material interactions and materiality in interaction design.
This paper extends previous research on two approaches to human-centred automation: (1) intermediate levels of automation (LOAs) for maintaining operator involvement in complex systems control and facilitating situation awareness; and (2) adaptive automation (AA) for managing operator workload through dynamic control allocations between the human and machine over time. Some empirical research has been conducted to examine LOA and AA independently, with the objective of detailing a theory of human-centred automation. Unfortunately, no previous work has studied the interaction of these two approaches, nor has any research attempted to systematically determine which LOAs should be used in adaptive systems and how certain types of dynamic function allocations should be scheduled over time. The present research briefly reviews the theory of human-centred automation and LOA and AA approaches. Building on this background, an initial study was presented that attempts to address the conjuncture of these two approaches to human-centred automation. An experiment was conducted in which a dual-task scenario was used to assess the performance, SA and workload effects of low, intermediate and high LOAs, which were dynamically allocated (as part of an AA strategy) during manual system control for various cycle times comprising 20, 40 and 60% of task time. The LOA and automation allocation cycle time (AACT) combinations were compared to completely manual control and fully automated control of a dynamic control task performed in conjunction with an embedded secondary monitoring task. Results revealed LOA to be the driving factor in determining primary task performance and SA. Low-level automation produced superior performance and intermediate LOAs facilitated higher SA, but this was not associated with improved performance or reduced workload. The AACT was the driving factor in perceptions of primary task workload and secondary task performance. When a greater percentage of primary task time was automated, operator perceptual resources were freed-up and monitoring performance on the secondary task improved. Longer automation cycle times than have previously been studied may have benefits for overall human–machine system performance. The combined effect of LOA and AA on all measures did not appear to be ‘additive’ in nature. That is, the LOA producing the best performance (low level automation) did not do so at the AACT, which produced superior performance (maximum cycle time). In general, the results are supportive of intermediate LOAs and AA as approaches to human-centred automation, but each appears to provide different benefits to human–machine system performance. This work provides additional information for a developing theory of human-centred automation.
We examine whether trust in smart systems is generated analogously to trust in humans and whether the automation level of smart systems affects trustworthiness and acceptability of those systems.
Trust is an important factor when considering acceptability of automation technology. As shared goals lead to social trust, and intelligent machines tend to be treated like humans, the authors expected that shared driving goals would also lead to increased trustworthiness and acceptability of adaptive cruise control (ACC) systems.
In an experiment, participants (N = 57) were presented with descriptions of three ACCs with different automation levels that were described as systems that either shared their driving goals or did not. Trustworthiness and acceptability of all the ACCs were measured.
ACCs sharing the driving goals of the user were more trustworthy and acceptable than were ACCs not sharing the driving goals of the user. Furthermore, ACCs that took over driving tasks while providing information were more trustworthy and acceptable than were ACCs that took over driving tasks without providing information. Trustworthiness mediated the effects of both driving goals and automation level on acceptability of ACCs.
As when trusting other humans, trusting smart systems depends on those systems sharing the user's goals. Furthermore, based on their description, smart systems that take over tasks are judged more trustworthy and acceptable when they also provide information.
For optimal acceptability of smart systems, goals of the user should be shared by the smart systems, and smart systems should provide information to their user.
Designing radically new technology systems that people will want to use is complex. Design teams must draw on knowledge related to people's current values and desires to envision a preferred yet plausible future. However, the introduction of new technology can shape people's values and practices, and what-we-know-now about them does not always translate to an effective guess of what the future could, or should, be. New products and systems typically exist outside of current understandings of technology and use paradigms; they often have few interaction and social conventions to guide the design process, making efforts to pursue them complex and risky. User Enactments (UEs) have been developed as a design approach that aids design teams in more successfully investigate radical alterations to technologies' roles, forms, and behaviors in uncharted design spaces. In this paper, we reflect on our repeated use of UE over the past five years to unpack lessons learned and further specify how and when to use it. We conclude with a reflection on how UE can function as a boundary object and implications for future work.
We take as our starting point the distinction between two perspectives on products: designer and user. There is often a mismatch between these two perspectives, but both matches and mismatches constitute a major source of the affective reactions that people have to products and their interactions with them. These reactions extend over a wide range and include not only (relatively short-term) emotions, but also longer term reactions such as moods, preferences, and attitudes. 2 The first perspective is that of the designer. The designer works in a space that is constrained by a number of different considerations which, depending on the context, include such things as functionality, physical limitations, appearance, cost, time-to-market, characteristics of market segments, legacy and brand-identity issues, and so on. We focus on two of these in particular – functionality and appearance. We do this not because we think that other considerations are unimportant, but because these two are the most relevant for understanding the relation between emotion and design The second perspective is that of the user, and here too, functionality and appearance are important, but for different reasons and in different ways. Specifically, from the perspective of the user, these two aspects of the design space are the principal sources of affective reactions. We focus on three particular kinds of users' emotional reactions to products–reactions that might or might not have been anticipated or intended by the designer. These three kinds relate to what Norman (2004) refers to as Visceral (perceptually based), Behavioral (expectation based), and Reflective (intellectually based) aspects of design. Figure 1 shows the relationship between the two views.
Autonomous behaviors created by the research and development community are not being extensively utilized within energy, defense, security, or industrial contexts. This paper provides evidence that the interaction methods used alongside these behaviors may not provide a mental model that can be easily adopted or used by operators. Although autonomy has the potential to reduce overall workload, the use of robot behaviors often increased the complexity of the underlying interaction metaphor. This paper reports our development of new metaphors that support increased robot com-plexity without passing the complexity of the interaction onto the operator. Furthermore, we illustrate how recognition of problems in human-robot interactions can drive the creation of new metaphors for design and how human factors lessons in usability, human performance, and our social contract with technology have the potential for enormous payoff in terms of establishing effective, user-friendly robot systems when appropriate metaphors are used.
How do designers of interactive media work on the dynamic aspects of their designs? Previous research has emphasised the role of gestures to express what users and computers do. This paper contributes with a detailed analysis of interaction design master students' enactments. Two kinds of enactive means for expressing behaviour are identified: interaction walkthroughs and improvised role play.
In our increasingly flat and connected world, skills in innovation and creative design have emerged as key attributes for graduating engineering designers. Metaphors and analogies are commonly voiced as key tools for enhancing creative design yet little research has been performed on their relation to each other and their use within the design process. In this paper we discuss the relationship between metaphor and analogy use in the design process, with a focus on engineering education. We support our discussion with results from interviews and experiments with student designers. Our results highlight that both metaphor and analogy are spontaneously used by student designers and that metaphor dominates as the design tool for early problem-framing design phases whereas analogy dominates as a tool for concept generation. We also present an analysis of the metaphors for our understanding of design in use within Germany, the UK and Mexico. We found an 85 per cent overlap between textbook usages of metaphors in conceptual design in these countries as compared to textbooks authored in the United States, suggesting that cross-cultural differences in design understanding are relatively small in higher education. We close by presenting a design by analogy method to promote and enhance the use of analogy as a skill for graduating engineering designers.
While the user-centered design methods we bring from human- computer interaction to ubicomp help sketch ideas and refine prototypes, few tools or techniques help explore divergent design concepts, reflect on their merits, and come to a new understanding of design opportunities and ways to address them. We present Speed Dating, a design method for rapidly exploring application concepts and their interactions and contextual dimensions without requiring any technology implementation. Situated between sketching and prototyping, Speed Dating structures comparison of concepts, helping identify and understand contextual risk factors and develop approaches to address them. We illustrate how to use Speed Dating by applying it to our research on the smart home and dual-income families, and highlight our findings from using this method.
Under certain conditions, we appear willing to see and interact with computing machines as though they exhibited intelligence, at least an intelligence of sorts. Using examples from AI and robotics research, as well as a selection of relevant art installations and anthropological fieldwork, this paper reflects on some of our interactions with the kinds of machines we seem ready to treat as intelligent. Broadly, it is suggested that ordinary, everyday ideas of intelligence are not fixed, but rather actively seen and enacted in the world. As such, intelligence does not just belong to the province of the human mind, but can emerge in quite different, unexpected forms in things. For HCI, it is proposed this opens up a new set of possibilities for design; examining the ways intelligence is seen and enacted gives rise to a very different way of thinking about the intersection between human and machine, and thus promotes some radically new types of interactions with computing machines.
In this paper, we describe "Experience Prototyping" as a form of prototyping that enables design team members, users and clients to gain first-hand appreciation of existing or future conditions through active engagement with prototypes. We use examples from commercial design projects to illustrate the value of such prototypes in three critical design activities: understanding existing experiences, exploring design ideas and in communicating design concepts.
The field of interaction design encompasses a variety of methods for fostering innovation and creativity. In this paper, we present a selection of such methods that scaffold ideation and concept development in the early phases of design. As a conceptual frame for discussing these methods, we introduce four aspects that are particularly salient in the field of interaction design: tradition and transcendence, convergence and divergence, degree of structure, and sources of inspiration. We then outline how the methods relate to each of these aspects. The paper contributes to design practitioners by providing an overview of the methods and insights into when and how they may be employed to foster creativity and innovation in the design process; with regards to design research, the main contribution of the paper lies in the establishment and discussion of the four aspects as a frame for analyzing and comparing design methods.
The design process requires coordination between professions that have different ways of seeing. Using ethnographic data from a building project, this paper explores how architects and engineers mobilize visual objects to coordinate their professional visions around a design issue. The findings articulate the visual practices whereby design professionals move from a fragmented towards a shared professional vision. In this move, they cease looking at the design issue from within their disciplinary perspective, and begin taking inspiration from each other's. They further adjust the emergent shared professional vision, by iteratively narrowing and broadening its focus. The paper contributes to the practice perspective in design studies, explaining how different ways of seeing are coordinated through practical engagement with visual objects.
Consumers’ interactions with smart objects have a relational nature, and extensive research has supported the “relationship metaphor” as a fruitful way to understand consumer responses to consumption objects. But, smart objects pose unique challenges for considering the emergence of consumer–object relationships, because their degrees of agency, autonomy, and authority lend them their own unique capacities for interaction. We present a new framework for consumer–object relationships based on the circumplex model of interpersonal complementarity and situated in assemblage theory and object-oriented ontology. Consumer–object relationship styles are defined in terms of two foundational dimensions of behavior, agency, and communion, based on the expressive roles played by consumer and object. The overlay of assemblage theory provides a conceptually rich understanding of the space of master–servant, partner, and unstable relationship styles, along with their concomitant positive (enabling) versus negative (constraining) consumer experiences. The model’s underlying geometry supports extensive empirical work and provides a powerful managerial framework for measuring and tracking consumer–object relationships and the journeys they take over time.
Generative metaphorical design while rich is possibility, is not easy to do. In response, we have developed Metaphor Cards, a toolkit for supporting metaphorical design thinking. In this pictorial, we introduce Metaphor Cards and provide a how-to-guide for design researchers to make and use their own sets. To demonstrate this process, we provide a case study documenting our development of a set of Metaphor Cards for designing information systems for international justice. We conclude with reflections on the benefits and limitations of the Metaphor Card toolkit and suggestions for how to adapt Metaphor Cards to other domains and technologies.
Today's vehicles have myriad user interfaces, from those related to the moment-to-moment control of the vehicle, to those that allow the consumption of information and entertainment. The bulk of the research in this domain is related to manual driving. With recent advances in automated vehicles, there is an increased attention to user interactions as they relate to automated vehicles. In exploring humanmachine interaction for both manual and automated driving, a key issue has been how to create safe in-vehicle interactions that assist the driver in completing the driving task, as well as to allow drivers to accomplish various non-driving tasks. In automated vehicles, human-machine interactions will increasingly allow users to reclaim their time, so that they can spend time on non-driving tasks. Given that it is unlikely that most vehicles will be fully automated in the near future, there are also significant efforts to understand how to help the driver switch between different modes of automation. This paper provides a review of these areas of research, as well as recommendations for future work.
As materiality of interactive artifacts is diversified with integrated physical and digital materials, metaphoric design approaches in Human–Computer Interaction (HCI) go beyond resembling the appearance of physical objects, exploring novel materials and forms of interactive artifacts. The hybrid materialities and forms of artifacts influence how interactivity is perceived, reframing the concept of affordances according to its evolving relationship to metaphors and materialities. By conceptualizing interactive forms in their surface, behavioral and systemic aspects, we examine multifaceted roles of metaphors in HCI from concealing and revealing a formal system to expanding and reifying its meaning; and propose a morphologic perspective on affordances as an invitation for making variations of interactive forms by compositing multiple design resources.
Automotive interaction design is undergoing a major shift due to the disruptive forces of automation and information technology. This paper reviews current challenges in human vehicle interaction design and argues that these challenges demand that interaction become a primary consideration in designing automotive user experiences. We survey exploratory interaction design techniques for human vehicle interactions, showing examples from our research of each technique in action. The techniques are enactments, contextual inquiry, scale scenarios, Wizard of Oz, field experiments and video and animation prototyping. We reflect upon our experiences with these methods, and discuss as yet unmet needs in interaction design for the road ahead.
Machine learning (ML) is now a fairly established technology, and user experience (UX) designers appear regularly to integrate ML services in new apps, devices, and systems. Interestingly, this technology has not experienced a wealth of design innovation that other technologies have, and this might be because it is a new and difficult design material. To better understand why we have witnessed little design innovation, we conducted a survey of current UX practitioners with regards to how new ML services are envisioned and developed in UX practice. Our survey probed on how ML may or may not have been a part of their UX design education, on how they work to create new things with developers, and on the challenges they have faced working with this material. We use the findings from this survey and our review of related literature to present a series of challenges for UX and interaction design research and education. Finally, we discuss areas where new research and new curriculum might help our community unlock the power of design thinking to re-imagine what ML might be and might do.
Autonomous and semiautonomous vehicles are currently being developed by over14 companies. These vehicles may improve driving safety and convenience, or they may create new challenges for drivers, particularly with regard to situation awareness (SA) and autonomy interaction. I conducted a naturalistic driving study on the autonomy features in the Tesla Model S, recording my experiences over a 6-month period, including assessments of SA and problems with the autonomy. This preliminary analysis provides insights into the challenges that drivers may face in dealing with new autonomous automobiles in realistic driving conditions, and it extends previous research on human-autonomy interaction to the driving domain. Issues were found with driver training, mental model development, mode confusion, unexpected mode interactions, SA, and susceptibility to distraction. New insights into challenges with semiautonomous driving systems include increased variability in SA, the replacement of continuous control with serial discrete control, and the need for more complex decisions. Issues that deserve consideration in future research and a set of guidelines for driver interfaces of autonomous systems are presented and used to create recommendations for improving driver SA when interacting with autonomous vehicles.
The field of automotive user interfaces has developed rapidly over the last several years. To date, the field has primarily focused on creating user interfaces that promote safe driving, including when the driver is engaged in a secondary task in addition to operating the vehicle. However, researchers now need to prepare for a major change in the automotive domain: the automated driving revolution. The authors argue for a new research agenda that focuses on four challenges for automotive user interfaces: assuring safety in the age of automation, transforming vehicles into places for productivity and play, taking advantage of new mobility options made possible by automated vehicles, while throughout all this preserving user privacy and data security. This article is part of a special issue on smart vehicle spaces.
Metaphors are not only a powerful tool in the hands of a poet; they are also powerful in the hands of a designer. In this paper we examine (1) several intentions behind metaphor conception and selection, and (2) consider various ways a product metaphor can be designed. Whereas both classifications emphasise the enormous potential metaphors have, we will also attempt to describe the risks and pitfalls associated with their use. It takes a careful hand to design a good product metaphor.
Autonomous cars are undergoing rapid development. In order to gain acceptance and adoption, there is a need to understand how users will respond to the technology, and what possible benefits or difficulties they perceive. A prerequisite for eliciting this information is the involvement of users. Having said that, several studies have demonstrated the problems associated with investigating 'the future'. In a pilot study, two different qualitative approaches for exploring users' expectations for future automotive technology were applied in two studies. The first study encompassed drawing, collaging and interviewing while the second study used drawing and enactment of expected use to mediate a shift from today to tomorrow. A content analysis revealed that the first study provided information on social implications, trust and every-day activities in autonomous cars, whereas the second study provided further in-depth details about the interaction and interior design expectations, as well as trust and anticipated activities. The results contribute to the author's knowledge on how different studies of the same topic can elicit different types of data.
The aim of this study was to evaluate whether communicating automation uncertainty improves the driver-automation interaction.
A false system understanding of infallibility may provoke automation misuse and can lead to severe consequences in case of automation failure. The presentation of automation uncertainty may prevent this false system understanding and, as was shown by previous studies, may have numerous benefits. Few studies, however, have clearly shown the potential of communicating uncertainty information in driving. The current study fills this gap.
We conducted a driving simulator experiment, varying the presented uncertainty information between participants (no uncertainty information vs. uncertainty information) and the automation reliability (high vs.low) within participants. Participants interacted with a highly automated driving system while engaging in secondary tasks and were required to cooperate with the automation to drive safely.
Quantile regressions and multilevel modeling showed that the presentation of uncertainty information increases the time to collision in the case of automation failure. Furthermore, the data indicated improved situation awareness and better knowledge of fallibility for the experimental group. Consequently, the automation with the uncertainty symbol received higher trust ratings and increased acceptance.
The presentation of automation uncertaintythrough a symbol improves overall driver-automation cooperation.
Most automated systems in driving could benefit from displaying reliability information. This display might improve the acceptance of fallible systems and further enhances driver-automation cooperation.
Metaphor and Thought, first published in 1979, reflects the surge of interest in and research into the nature and function of metaphor in language and thought. In this revised and expanded second edition, the editor has invited the contributors to update their original essays to reflect any changes in their thinking. Reorganised to accommodate the shifts in central theoretical issues, the volume also includes six new chapters that present important and influential fresh ideas about metaphor that have appeared in such fields as the philosophy of language and the philosophy of science, linguistics, cognitive and clinical psychology, education and artificial intelligence.
The numbers of cars on roads are increasing continuously. Consequently, streets and motorways are becoming more and more crowded and the risk of accidents is rising. In spite of the fact that in recent years cars have been made more efficient and capable, the driver behind the wheel is often overburdened with traffic situations. Therefore, scientists and engineers are challenged to develop a car which is safer and less stress-burdened than today. This paper outlines some future developments of such a more autonomous car within the next 15 years. The approach describes the roadmap for this “cognitive car” suggested by RWTH Aachen University.
Intelligent user interfaces have been proposed as a means to overcome some of the problems that direct manipulation interfaces
cannot handle, such as: information overflow problems; providing help on how to use complex systems; or real-time cognitive
overload problems. Intelligent user interfaces are also being proposed as a means to make systems individualised or personalised,
thereby increasing the system’s flexibility and appeal. Unfortunately, there are a number of problems not yet solved that
prevent us from creating good intelligent user interface applications. We do not have efficient methods for developing them.
There are demands on better usability principles for them. We need a better understanding of the possible ways the interface
can utilise intelligence to improve the interaction. Finally, we need to design better tools that will enable an intelligent system to survive the full life
cycle of a system (including updates of the database, system support, etc.). We define these problems further and point out
some possible solutions.
Automation can cause problems with ‘the human factor’. One approach is to make automation become a team player. A team player
agrees on a common ground, they show intention, they show reasoning, express their limits of performance and so on. This approach
has been applied to adaptive driver information in the present study. Ten experts on different in-vehicle systems were interviewed.
The experts found the team play approach both challenging and interesting. However, the experts also found a difficulty in
combining the increased visual workload required to ”be a team player” with car driving, that is already visually, manually
and cognitively challenging. The experts believed that the approach described by the researchers rather described agents before they become team players than being team players. What is needed is ”teambuilding”; the solution suggested is a compromise and could be described as a separate
view for the above mentioned information.
To improve the safety and comfort of a human–machine system, the machine needs to ‘know,’ in a real time manner, the human operator in the system. The machine's assistance to the human can be fine tuned if the machine is able to sense the human's state and intent. Related to this point, this paper discusses issues of human trust in automation, automation surprises, responsibility and authority. Examples are given of a driver assistance system for advanced automobile.
This paper addresses theoretical, empirical, and analytical studies pertaining to human use, misuse, disuse, and abuse of automation technology. Use refers to the voluntary activation or disengagement of automation by human operators. Trust, mental workload, and risk can influence automation use, but interactions between factors and large individual differences make prediction of automation use difficult. Misuse refers to over reliance on automation, which can result in failures of monitoring or decision biases. Factors affecting the monitoring of automation include workload, automation reliability and consistency, and the saliency of automation state indicators. Disuse, or the neglect or underutilization of automation, is commonly caused by alarms that activate falsely. This often occurs because the base rate of the condition to be detected is not considered in setting the trade-off between false alarms and omissions. Automation abuse, or the automation of functions by designers and implementation by managers without due regard for the consequences for human performance, tends to define the operator's roles as by-products of the automation. Automation abuse can also promote misuse and disuse of automation by human operators. Understanding the factors associated with each of these aspects of human use of automation can lead to improved system design, effective training methods, and judicious policies and procedures involving automation use.
Seating positions and activities in highly automated cars–A qualitative study of future automated driving scenarios
- Jorlöv